Termofluidos III

Universidad de Pamplona

Ph.D. James Vera

james.vera@unipamplona.edu.co
 Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach, 7 th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2017

PhD. © James Vera

james.vera@unipamplona.edu.co

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission

required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid remains
a gas throughout the entire cycle.
• Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.
• Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
• Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with regeneration;
and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration.
• Analyze jet-propulsion cycles.
• Identify simplifying assumptions for second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
• Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
3
 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF
POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up totally of internally
reversible processes.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the
highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines Thermal efficiency of
operating between the same temperature levels. heat engines:
Unlike ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and
unsuitable as a realistic model.
Modeling is a
powerful
engineering tool
that provides great
insight and
The analysis of many complex
simplicity at the
processes can be reduced to a
expense of some
loss in accuracy. manageable level by utilizing
some idealizations. 4
The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they are not necessarily
externally reversible. Therefore, the thermal efficiency of an ideal cycle, in general, is less
than that of a totally reversible cycle operating between the same temperature limits.
However, it is still considerably higher than the thermal efficiency of an actual cycle because
of the idealizations utilized.

5
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area The idealizations and simplifications in the
enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area analysis of power cycles:
under the heat-addition process curve 1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
represents the thermal efficiency of the Therefore, the working fluid does not
cycle. Any modification that increases experience any pressure drop as it flows in
the ratio of these two areas will also pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
increase the thermal efficiency of the 2. All expansion and compression processes
cycle. take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well
insulated, and heat transfer through them
is negligible.

Care should be exercised in On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the
the interpretation of the process curve represents the net work of the cycle.
results from ideal cycles.
6
THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE
IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic expansion,
isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression.

For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency

increases with an increase in the average temperature at
which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease in
the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the
system.

P-v and T-s diagrams of a

Carnot cycle.
A steady-flow Carnot engine. 7
 EJEMPLO 1
Un ciclo de aire estándar con calores específicos variables se ejecuta en un sistema
cerrado y está compuesto de los siguientes cuatro procesos:
1-2 Compresión isentrópica de 100 kPa y 22 °C a 600 kPa
2-3 Adición de calor a v constante hasta 1 500 K
3-4 Expansión isentrópica hasta 100 kPa
4-1 Rechazo de calor a P constante hasta el estado inicial
a) Muestre el ciclo en diagramas P-v y T-s.
b) Calcule la salida neta de trabajo por unidad de masa.
c) Determine la eficiencia térmica.
Reconsidere el problema y use el software EES (u otro) para estudiar el efecto que produce
variar la temperatura después de la adición de calor a volumen constante de 1 500 K hasta 2
500 K. Grafique la salida neta de trabajo y la eficiencia térmica como función de la
temperatura máxima del ciclo. Grafique los diagramas T-s y P-v para el ciclo cuando la
máxima temperatura de éste es 1 500 K.
 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
The combustion process is replaced by a
heat-addition process in ideal cycles.

Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to be

air with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are
applicable.
9
 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression ratio

Mean effective
• Spark-ignition (SI) engines pressure
• Compression-ignition (CI) engines

Nomenclature for reciprocating engines. 10

OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-
IGNITION ENGINES

11
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
 The two-stroke engines are
Four-stroke cycle
generally less efficient than
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution their four-stroke counterparts
Two-stroke cycle but they are relatively simple
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution and inexpensive, and they have
high power-to-weight and
power-to-volume ratios.

T-s diagram Schematic of a two-stroke

of the ideal reciprocating engine.
Otto cycle.
12
13
 In SI engines,
the compression
ratio is limited
by autoignition
or engine knock.

The thermal efficiency of the

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto Otto cycle increases with the
cycle as a function of compression specific heat ratio k of the
ratio (k = 1.4). working fluid. 14
 EJEMPLO 2
Un motor de ignición por chispa tiene una relación de
compresión de 8, una eficiencia isentrópica de compresión de
85 por ciento y una eficiencia isentrópica de expansión de 95
por ciento. Al principio de la compresión, el aire en el cilindro
está a 13 psia y 60 °F. La temperatura máxima que se
encuentra por medición es 2.300 °F. Determine el calor
suministrado por unidad de masa, la eficiencia térmica y la
presión efectiva media de este motor cuando se modela con el
ciclo de Otto. Use calores específicos constantes a temperatura
ambiente.
 TAREA
Un motor de gasolina de cuatro cilindros y cuatro tiempos, de 1.6 L, opera en ciclo de
Otto con una relación de compresión de 11. El aire está a 100 kPa y 37 °C al inicio del
proceso de compresión, y la presión máxima en el ciclo es de 8 MPa. Los procesos de
compresión y expansión pueden modelarse como politrópicos, con una constante
politrópica de 1.3. Usando calores específicos constantes a 850 K, determine:
a) la temperatura al final del proceso de expansión,
b) la producción neta de trabajo y la eficiencia térmica,
c) la presión media efectiva,
d) el número de revoluciones por minuto del motor para una producción de potencia neta
de 50 kW.
e) el consumo específico de combustible, en g/kWh, definido como la relación de la masa
de combustible consumido al trabajo neto producido.
La relación aire-combustible, definida como la cantidad de aire dividida entre la cantidad
de combustible admitido, es 16.
 DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the
compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of autoignition
(engine knock). Therefore, diesel engines can be designed to
operate at much higher compression ratios than SI engines,
typically between 12 and 24.

1-2 isentropic
compression
2-3 constant-
volume heat
addition
3-4 isentropic
expansion
4-1 constant-
volume heat
rejection.
In diesel engines, the spark plug is replaced by a
fuel injector, and only air is compressed during
the compression process.
17
Cutoff
ratio

for the same compression ratio

Thermal efficiency
of the ideal Diesel
cycle as a function
of compression
and cutoff ratios
(k=1.4).

18
Dual cycle: A more realistic ideal QUESTIONS ???
cycle model for modern, high-speed Diesel engines operate at
compression ignition engine. higher air-fuel ratios than
gasoline engines. Why?
Despite higher power to
weight ratios, two-stroke
engines are not used in
automobiles. Why?
The stationary diesel engines
are among the most efficient
power producing devices
(about 50%). Why?
What is a turbocharger?
Why are they mostly used in
diesel engines compared to
P-v diagram of an ideal dual cycle. gasoline engines.

19
 EJEMPLO 3
Un motor de ignición por compresión de seis cilindros, cuatro tiempos, 3.2 L, opera
en un ciclo Diesel ideal con una relación de compresión de 19. El aire está a 95 kPa
y 67 °C al inicio del proceso de compresión y la velocidad de rotación del motor es
de 1 750 rpm. El motor usa diesel ligero con un poder calorífico de 42,500 kJ/kg,
una relación aire-combustible de 28 y una eficiencia de combustión de 98 por
ciento. Usando calores específicos constantes a 850 K, determine:

a) la temperatura máxima en el ciclo y la relación de cierre de admisión,

b) la producción neta de trabajo por ciclo y la eficiencia térmica,
c) la presión media efectiva,
d) la producción neta de potencia
e) el consumo específico de combustible, en g/kWh, definido como la relación de
la masa de combustible consumido al trabajo neto producido.
 TAREA
Un ciclo de aire estándar, llamado ciclo dual, con calores específicos constantes, se lleva a
cabo en un sistema cerrado de cilindro-émbolo, y está compuesto de los siguientes cinco
procesos:
1-2 Compresión isentrópica con una relación de compresión, r = V1/V2
2-3 Adición de calor a volumen constante con una relación de presión, rp = P3P2
3-4 Una adición de calor a presión constante con una relación de volumen, rc = V4/V3
4-5 Expansión isentrópica mientras se realiza trabajo hasta V5 = V1
5-1 Rechazo de calor a volumen constante, hasta el estado inicial.
a) Trace los diagramas P-v y T-s para este ciclo.
b) Obtenga una expresión para la eficiencia térmica del ciclo como función de k, r, rc y rp.
c) Evalúe el límite de la eficiencia cuando rp tiende a la unidad, y compare su respuesta con
la expresión para la eficiencia
del ciclo Diesel.
d) Evalúe el límite de la eficiencia cuando rc tiende a la unidad, y compare su respuesta con
la expresión para eficiencia del ciclo de Otto.
 BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS-
TURBINE ENGINES
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process
from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure
heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

An open-cycle gas-turbine engine. A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.

26
 Pressure
ratio

Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
T-s and P-v diagrams for cycle as a
the ideal Brayton cycle. function of the
pressure ratio.
27
The two major application areas of gas- The highest temperature in the cycle is
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and limited by the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand. This also
electric power generation.
limits the pressure ratios that can be used in
the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the necessary
oxidant for the combustion of the fuel, and it
serves as a coolant to keep the temperature
of various components within safe limits. An
air–fuel ratio of 50 or above is not
uncommon.

The fraction of the turbine work

used to drive the compressor is
called the back work ratio.
28
Development of Gas Turbines
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components (turbines,
compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating).

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine

Cycles from Idealized Ones

Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine and

compressors, pressure drops, heat losses

Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor

and turbine

The deviation of an actual gas-

turbine cycle from the ideal Brayton
cycle as a result of irreversibilities.
29
 EJEMPLO 5
Considere un ciclo Brayton simple que usa
aire como fluido de trabajo, tiene una
relación de presiones de 12, una
temperatura máxima de ciclo de 600 °C, y
la entrada al compresor opera a 90 kPa y 15
°C. ¿Qué tendrá mayor impacto en la
relación de trabajo de retroceso: una
eficiencia isentrópica de compresor de 90
por ciento o una eficiencia isentrópica de
turbina de 90 por ciento? Use calores
específicos constantes a temperatura
ambiente y compárelos a temperatura
variable.
EJEMPLO 6
La figura ilustra una central eléctrica de
turbina de gas que utiliza energía solar como
fuente de adición de calor (consulte la patente
de EE. UU. 4.262.484). Los datos de
funcionamiento se dan en la figura.
Modelando el ciclo como un ciclo Brayton y
suponiendo que no hay caídas de presión en
el intercambiador de calor o en las tuberías de
interconexión, determine:
(a) la eficiencia térmica.
(b) el caudal másico de aire, en kg/s, para una
potencia neta de salida de 500 kilovatios.
TAREA
Una turbina de gas para un automóvil se diseña
con un regenerador. El aire entra al compresor de
este motor a 100 kPa y 20 °C. La relación de
presiones del compresor es 8; la temperatura
máxima del ciclo es 800 °C y el flujo de aire frío
sale del regenerador 10 °C más frío que el flujo
de aire caliente a la entrada del regenerador.
Suponiendo que tanto el compresor como la
turbina son isentrópicos, determine las tasas de
adición y rechazo de calor para este ciclo cuando
produce 150 kW. Use calores específicos
constantes a temperatura ambiente y compare
con entalpias.
 THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATION

In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust gas

leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than the
temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be
heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat
exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a
result of regeneration since less fuel is used for the same work
output.

T-s diagram of a
Brayton cycle with
regeneration.

A gas-turbine
engine with
regenerator.

33
 Effectiveness of
regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-air
standard assumptions
Under cold-air standard
assumptions

T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle

with regeneration. Can regeneration
be used at high
The thermal efficiency depends pressure ratios?
on the ratio of the minimum to
maximum temperatures as well
as the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective Thermal efficiency
at lower pressure ratios and low of the ideal
minimum-to-maximum Brayton cycle with
temperature ratios. and without
regeneration.
34
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING,
REHEATING, AND REGENERATION
For minimizing work input to compressor and
maximizing work output from turbine:

A gas-turbine engine
with two-stage
compression with
intercooling, two-
stage expansion with
reheating, and
regeneration and its
T-s diagram.
35
Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas between two
specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the compression process in stages and cooling
the gas in between. This keeps the specific volume as low as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as high as
possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are accompanied
by regeneration. Why?

Comparison of
work inputs to
a single-stage
compressor
(1AC) and a
two-stage
compressor
with
intercooling
(1ABD).

As the number of compression and expansion

stages increases, the gas-turbine cycle with
intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
approaches the Ericsson cycle.
36
IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and compact and
have a high power-to-weight ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in that the gases are
not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they are expanded to a pressure
such that the power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor and the
auxiliary equipment.
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the turbine at a
relatively high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to propel
the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. This is
accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid (propeller-driven engine) or
greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid (jet or turbojet engine) or both (turboprop engine).

In jet engines, the high-

temperature and high-pressure
gases leaving the turbine are
accelerated in a nozzle to
provide thrust. 37
Thrust (propulsive force)
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive power

Propulsive power is the

thrust acting on the
aircraft through a
distance per unit time.

Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
38
39
Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-driven, with propellers powered by engines
essentially identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-propulsion-driven engines have their own
strengths and limitations, and several attempts have been made to combine the
desirable characteristics of both in one engine.
Two such modifications are the propjet engine and the turbofan engine.
The most widely used engine in aircraft propulsion is the turbofan (or fanjet) engine
wherein a large fan driven by the turbine forces a considerable amount of air
through a duct (cowl) surrounding the engine.

A
turbofan
engine.

40
41
 Various engine types:
Turbofan, Propjet, Ramjet, Sacramjet, Rocket
A turboprop
engine.

A ramjet
engine.

42
EJEMPLO 8
Entra aire a una turbina de gas con dos etapas
de compresión y dos etapas de expansión, a
100 kPa y 17 °C. El sistema usa un
regenerador, así como recalentamiento e
interenfriamiento. La relación de presiones a
través de cada compresor es 4; se agregan 300
kJ/kg de calor al aire en cada cámara de
combustión, y el regenerador opera
perfectamente al aumentar la temperatura del
aire frío en 20 °C. Determine la eficiencia
térmica de este sistema. Suponga operaciones
isentrópicas para todas las etapas de
compresor y de turbina, y use calores
específicos constantes a temperatura ambiente.
 SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction
for a closed system

For a steady-flow
system

Steady-flow, one-inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a sink

Closed system exergy

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of these cycles reveals where the largest

irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
45
 EJEMPLO 9
Un ciclo Brayton con regeneración que usa aire como fluido de trabajo tiene una relación de
presiones de 7. Las temperaturas mínima y máxima en el ciclo son 310 y 1.150 K. Suponiendo
una eficiencia isentrópica de 75 por ciento para el compresor y de 82 por ciento para la
turbina, y una efectividad de 65 por ciento para el regenerador, determine:
a) la temperatura del aire a la salida de la turbina,
b) la producción neta de trabajo
c) la eficiencia térmica.
Determine la destrucción total de exergía asociada con el ciclo Brayton que se describe en el
problema anterior, suponiendo una temperatura de fuente de 1.500 K y una temperatura de
sumidero de 240 K. También determine la exergía de los gases de escape a la salida del
regenerador.
Reconsidere el problema y usando el software EES (u otro), investigue el efecto de variar la
relación de presiones del ciclo de 6 a 14 sobre la destrucción total de exergía para el ciclo y la
exergía de los gases de escape a la salida del regenerador. Grafique estos resultados como
funciones de la relación de presiones. Explique los resultados.
 TAREA

•CAP 9 Termodinámica de Cengel

•CAP 9 Termodinámica FUNDAMENTALS

OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
Moran
 Summary
• Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard assumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines
• Stirling and Ericsson cycles
• Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
• The Brayton cycle with regeneration
• The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
• Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
• Second-law analysis of gas power cycles
48