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Terry Eagleton: Capitalism, Modernism and Postmodernism

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Main points of the Essay

1. In the article ‘Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism’, Fredric Jameson
argues that pastiche, rather than parody, is an appropriate mode of the postmodernist
culture.
2. ‘Pastiche’, he writes that it is, like a parody, an imitation of a peculiar mask, and as
speech in a dead language; but it is a neutral practice of such mimicry, without any of the
parody’s ulterior motives, removed of satire, and laughter
3. postmodernism represents a cynical revenge wreaked by bourgeois culture upon the
revolutionary antagonists whose utopian desired for a fusion of art distorted turned back
upon them as a dystopian reality.
4. Postmodernism, from this perspective, mimes the formal resolution of art and social life.
5. Postmodernism is thus a mockery of socialist utopia, having abolished all alienation at a
stroke by raising alienation to a second power,
6. Alienating us even from our own alienation, it persuades us to recognize that utopia is not
remote but, it is nothing less than the present itself.
7. The traditional metaphysical mystery was a question of depths, absences, foundations,
extremely bad explorations;
8. the mystery of some modernist art is that it is just a mind bending truth that things are
what they are!
9. Utopia cannot belong to the future because the future, is in the shape of technology,
which is already here, and it is exactly synchronous with the present.
10. late capitalism skillfully inverts its own logic and proclaims that artefact is a commodity,
the commodity can always be an artefact.
11. ‘Art’ and ‘life’ indeed interbreed — which is to say that art models itself upon a
commodity form which is already invested with an aesthetic attraction, in a sealed circle.
12. The productivist aesthetics of the early twentieth-century spurned a notion of an artistic
representation for an art which would be of a less reflection than the material and the
organizing force.
 13. The aesthetics of postmodernism is a dark parody of such anti-representationalism: if art
no longer reflects it then is not art because it seeks to change the world rather than mimic
it.

Essay in detail

Introduction

Today’s capitalism, modernism and postmodernism have became common terms in academic
discussions, which means that these terms are accepted among politicians, social scientists and
intellectuals, many of whom believe that the world is improving and new adventures are
happening now. Today almost everyone seems to be talking about world markets, global
communication and economy, international relationship, cultural homogeneity, economic
integration, welfare-state, international division of labor, world networking, international
institutions, theoretical and ethical aesthetics, enlightenment, rationalism etc. So much so that
these are indicators of the phenomenon which has attracted everybody’s attention, especially
among academic circles and each group discusses these various aspects from its own perspective.
Modernism concept Discussion of modernism and postmodernism goes beyond national, cultural
and regional frontiers and takes on a global aspect itself. Defining these two terms independently
and individually is very difficult indeed. Anderius Hassan (Nozari, 2005). believes that due to its
being shapeless in nature, chaotic, opaque, and from a political point of view, transitory, volatile
and fluid, attempts at defining postmodernism can be misleading and difficult and determination
of its frontiers and boundaries, is extremely difficult. Furthermore, anything that is postmodernist
from one point of view might be recognized as modernism from another person’s point of view.
Furthermore new kinds of contemporary cultural aspects, such as the appearance of independent
cultures of minority groups and the large number of various feminist groups in literature and art
under the title of postmodern types haves also come under discussion. The modernism from the
word point of view, mean to be up-to-date, modern, to live in existing times, to be contemporary,
have newness thought, personality or action, and advocacy of ideas, performances, and new
standards. Some scientists think that there is a difference between modernism and modernity,
however other scientists think of both definitions as the same. However in general, modernity
can be taken be to mean a historical period with concepts like; urbanism, individualism, social
segregation, fast changes, liberal democracy and irreligion, secularism, Weber’s rationalism,
instrumental reasoning and humanism (Nozari, 2005, 120-131). Whereas modernism means
worldview, enlightenment and aesthetics that appear based on experiments in different areas of
arts, music, painting, sculpture, poetry, literature, theater and so on. In fact, modernism is
investigation into conscience, thoughts until artistic representation that has disjunctive
connection with criticism cultural. On the other hand, modernism’s axial role can be to expose
the modernity internal contradictions (Dunn, 1998; 125-128). However these two terms are used
with one meaning and general definitions that in hare should refer to Edgar’s (1995.360)
definition: modernity has a large transformation from traditional style to a new style. Modernity
recognized with own defenders by Hegel and Count and after them followed other philosophers
like Bruno Baer, Marx, Arnold Rouge and others, who presented a new critique of modernity.
Bruno Bear believed that history don’t creation any fact that not become blazing with firing of
criticism (Ahmadi, 2004, 24). Bremen (1983) believed that modernism should be interpreted as a
set of artistic, musical, literary movements generally aesthetics movements, that can be found in
Picasso and Kandinsky through paintings, Stravinsky , Debase and Schoenberg through music,
Henry James, Kafka and James Davis through literature, Aleut, Rikleh and Mallarme through
poetry and Strindberg and Pirandello through storytelling. Projects of modernism were
accompanied by non-monotony and non-homogeneity. Logan Leon (Nozari, 2005) presents this
non-monotony and non-homogeneity in four views four of modernism: Firstly, that modernism
observes aesthetics and is reflected in the scientists’ and writers’ attitudes when they were
creating new methods in their artistic trends. Actually, they have a serious tendency to explore
realities, reproducibility and artistic structure. Secondly, Leon points out the integration,
simulation and assemblage of the artistic works. Thirdly, that modernism pay attention to
paradox, anagram, uncertainly and distrust in its works. Fourthly, Leon discussed realistic,
coherent and continuous personalities that are under the effect of spirit which provide motivation
and psychic conflicts. Thus modernism can be defined as a kind of avidity and tendency to
clarify the world substantive facts (Nozari, 2005, 380-386). Modernity main characteristics was
accompanied to evolution the human existence and centering human. Mean, dominance of the
human mind over the traditional opinions (mythical, religious, ethical, philosophical, etc) and
growth of scientific thoughts, rationalism and criticism of philosophy and formation of the new
organizations in economy and trade and civil laws (Ahmadi, 2004, 8-12). However many
scientists confirm the Renaissance and explosions in scientific thought as the main factors in the
beginning of modernism in the context of rationalism and industrial revolution. Scientists like
Count’s, Beecan, Heum and others contributed in the areas such as epistemology and
enlightenment. Likewise moral principles of Calvinism and Protestantism had an impact on
Christianity and the religious realm. Especially that scientific methods used by scientists like:
Dekart, Beecan, Heum, Darwin and others transformed the process of gaining, knowledge of
nature and to changed the instrument of rationality to an objective and purposive action which
served as a stimulation for human domination on the nature, that modernity process started with
the development of science, emergence of new knowledge, and to devote of the traditional
beliefs and superstitious ideas, and led to the freedom of the human mind, spirit and body. And
with creating new movement in art theology and in presenting a modern worldview, modernism
led to a greater exploration of the “self” (Jahanbaglo, 2007, 20-26). Of others factors modernity
expansion, were making space of economic liberalism be based on profit seeking, private
ownership on instruments of production, competition in capitalism system and technology
growth, that modernity expression periods imported in more modern phase. In other words,
modernity means to overcome human on nature of way mind understand and modern scholars.
Mean freedom and rational sovereignty on the contexts rationality and to accounted action in
social life, to exterminate traditionally believes, that these are a rationality attitude. Marx
(Ahmadi, 2004) was a criticizer and famous scientist of capital system and modernity defender
and new achievements. But from other aspect, he expose to shortages and shortcomings of the
capitalism. To believe Marx, capital system is main factor modernity history and proletarian are
capitalism historical achievement. Mean community human define based on self station in the
productive aspect, technology world and in social and ownership relationship. Although Marx
was modernity intellectual, but he does to critique of modernity ideology and system, the critique
his of modernity has more about capital government and alienation and fetishism. Max Weber
(1947) was defenders of capital system that modernity principle knows as human rationalism.
The rule of human actions, scientific achievement and technological is founded on the basis of
axis human. And so protestant ethic knows important in appearance and growth of the capital
system. In other words, Max Veber in protestant ethic accepted in self evolution and in
appearance modern capital system. And emphasize on the rationalism necessity. Mean an
economic and social formulation and special ideological of protestant ethic be establish, that in
limit a modernity rest. Thus rationalism Weber’s include of modernity indexes, why which
rationality has key and important rule in passing of traditional societies to modern societies.
Namely in expand and expansion different areas of society doing on the basis of rationality
standards. In other words, in specialization process and industrialization to become informed as a
standard or instrumental action, and this is a high typical of purposive rationality action that
influence on the society different units.

Postmodernism Concept

Postmodernism views include reconceptualization of traditionally termed ‘modern’ elements,

methods and styles and to change these aspects for even more and further development. The
speed of progress in modernism and materialism in recent decades has caused many scientists to
reflect deeply upon this state. With the appearance of detrimental bioenvironmental effects and
also the questionable ethics of the west, modernism has needed to increase its amplitude due to
this criticism of modernism, and many western intellectuals themselves emphasized on the
positive aspects of modernism and or reverting to the true and traditional aspects of it. These
kinds of attitudes found momentum under the name of ‘postmodernism’ after 1960. The
foundation of postmodernism must be sought in poststructuralism; this is because post-
structuralism with well grounded and defined principles that reflect objectivity and totality
presented a viable and more credible way of approach. Instead of concepts like: homogeneity,
universalism, comprehensiveness, globalism and universalization, structuralism emphasizes on
subjects like: pluralism, multiplicity, particularities, diffuseness, disintegration and individuality
concepts. These concepts of: pluralism, multiplicity, particularity, diffuseness, disintegration and
individuality concepts, in fact appear as a strong, challenging process that found expression
through many scientists’ thoughts as: Dearrida-deconstruction, Lakani-psychoanalysis, Foucault
historical critique, Lyotard-distrust to metanarrative, Delves – Guitar-linguistic challenges,
fragile-structure styles and invented Genkas and many others of the theoretical innovations and
conceptually. The main characteristics of postmodernism include, intentional synthesis of
opposing elements, synthesis of different styles of art, assimilation of images, and consumerism,
mass production processes, information explosion of post industrial or advanced capitalist
societies towards the end of the twentieth century, heterogeneity in architectural styles, modern
art effects and multi-complex theoretical and philosophy theories (Nozari, 2005, 180 - 185).
Lyotard (1984) is a famous postmodernism rhetorician, His main thoughts in his
conceptualization include: discussion, images (figure and analogy), desire, the visual, narrative,
myth, scientific and validity discussion, linguistic games, justification and legitimatization of
myths. He believed philosophy and postmodernism are two aspects of a same entity. Firstly he
believed that postmodernism is reactive thrust against modernism. Secondly he was of the
opinion that the reactive thrust against history means it seeks new interpretation for historical
means and concepts. Lyotard in his definition of postmodernism believed that postmodernism
casts doubt on meta-narratives whereby he argues that doubt and destruction are an integral part
of the human life aspects and that they play a vital role in questioning those elements which
claim that they haves direct access to truth and are therefore unquestionable. Thus we can find
skepticism and doubt flowing among the different theories. It may be that one of them has
viewed from a certain perspective and does not recognize the perspectives of others; but they
may have failed to understand that the variegated viewpoints may contribute to make up the
whole composite picture. Scott Lash (1991, 20-25) believed that postmodernism is a cultural
order or a paradigm, which he calls a signification system. And this signification system is stable
on production of cultural objectives which have two elements: First is a kind of special cultural
economic entity that will produce cultural objectives and then create special conditions of
receipt, and finally focuses on the subject framework between produce and receipt. The second
element focused on signification methods, which means it delves on the special relationship
involving such aspects as voice, image and term, and sense (meaning and concept). Thus
postmodernism focused on the signification system of which the fundamental and constructive
elements are characterized by Entidifferezierung other words postmodernism is based on
Entidifferezierung. It means that the spirit world is separable from the social word. The spirit
world will provide the possibility of separable, independent and expansionism of realism in art
and epistemology. Aesthetics realism makes possible differentiation of culture of this world from
religious culture, and this realism separates scientific outlook from religious outlook. It has
parallels with epistemology realism which involves differentiation of secular culture and
religious culture and also between ethics and ethical science. Dutch (Baylis, 2007) believed that
defining postmodernism is very difficult, yet, he refers to two postmodernism subjects namely:
relation between power and knowledge, and textual strategies of postmodernists. Viewpoints of
postmodernism pertaining to power and knowledge rather concerned the genealogy theory of
Michel Foucault, whereby he believes that power produces knowledge. Complete power demand
knowledge, and knowledge focused on power brings into existence relationships and reinforces
them. Thus outside the realm of power there is nothing that can be termed as fact. In other words,
if facts themselves haves history, then how can history have been the fact? Derrida (1978)
believes textual strategy is a method by which we create a social world based on a text. The
world is similar to a text, and a method that we interpret the world is expressed in concepts and
linguistic structures. This action is called textual interaction. Thus Draidi believed that the world
is like a context which is not comprehensible easily, but it can be done through hermeneutics and
interpretation (Baylis, 2007, 538-546). Walter Benyamin, like Scott Lash (1999,28-29), believed
in postmodernism that is called a culture paradigm and has four parts. First he referred to the
kinds of culture subjects like; ethical and theoretical aesthetics. Secondly he referred to relation
between cultural order and social order. Thirdly he referred to cultural economic elements;
condition of produce and consumption, cultural institutions and cultural goods. And fourthly he
referred to methods to Entidifferezierung. Scholte (2000, 20) say’s contexts of postmodernism
appearance should be searched on the infertility in final and certain means of events, cultures and
contexts. Just as critique outlooks, conflict power and to reduce the power of local government.
On the other words to make small of states role should know in different stages (adequacy to
minimally state), cultural phenomenon critique, culture formation, secularism, relativism in the
existence world, appearance of new classes and entidifferezierung. On the other hands today
scientists of postmodernism interpret with globalized world and with characteristics like:
informationized, figurative, simulation and meta-real, that in it people lose feeling of identity
stability and self consciousness.
Differences between Modernism and Postmodernism

- Modernism is a momentous transmission from traditional to modern methods, whereas

postmodernism is more a cultural paradigm that goes ahead from new methods to more advanced
ones.

- Modernism is a historical, political event and intellectual, whereas postmodernism is

philosophical and discursive period that to kind is involved in crisis of the modernity.

-Changes in modernism essence, means modernism emphasis on cultural separation, whereas

postmodernism is a process based on cultural differences

- Modernism is kind of cultural formulation, but postmodernism is a kind of format of the

formulation of culture.

- Modernism is a kinds of the oral and cultural essence, whereas postmodernism is a kind of the
shape cultural formulation.

-Social stratification essence, mean modernism producers and audience of the modernism and
postmodernism should seeks in social class and stratifications that on the spot appearance and
fall.

- Modernism focuses on figurative nature (relative form and evolving form), but postmodernism
is anti-figure (closed form and actual form).

- Modernism is looking on the basis of design, project and purpose, whereas postmodernism is a
kind of play in social life, which is not reliant on base specific purpose. It is based more on
chance and accident.

-Modernism acts on the basis of hierarchy principles, but postmodernism includes process,
performance and events.

- Modernism focuses on structuralism principles like objectivity, certainty, totality, fixedness

and centralization in concepts, but postmodernism has focused on structuralism principles such
as diffuseness, pluralism, partiality, disintegration, relativism and individualism.

- Modernism gives attention to the root and depth of concepts and subjects, whereas
postmodernism has its attention on surface appearances and on superficial aspects of concepts
and phenomenon.

Fate of Modernism in Postmodernism Process

Did postmodernism have dominance over modernism? Hedgier (Dunn, 1998,) believed that the
reason for the fall of modernity is that humans haves lost their own sight in the course of their
domination on nature, and had faltered in correctly identifying what is true and what is untrue.
Scientists believe that postmodernism is reactive against modernity that appeared during the
Renaissance era and Enlightenment period. Postmodernism is a mental method that questioned
utopian ideas, thoughts and modernity values. Thus modernism is faced with conflicts and
schisms within itself. Discord appears between modernity facts and enlightenment philosophy
promises. And the context of postmodernism itself was created from within modernity. Eagleton
(1997) believe postmodernism is the negative truth of modernity. And according to interpretation
of Giddens (2000), postmodernism is the same as modernity only that it had started to understand
itself (Dunn, 1998, 192-193) Today postmodernism seems to have replaced modernism.
According to Jahanbaglo (2007, 29-35), modernity is a historical, political and mental event
which had been continuing since about 500 years and postmodernism is a discursive and a
philosophical period that involves itself with the modernity crisis. Modernity itself has always
been faced with crisis and had questioned itself. Thus postmodernism with its self critique
outlook, challenged modernity and appeared to be the fundamental crisis of modernity. Many
scientists, postmodernism appearance based on three factors. First is egoism, which includes test,
analysis and self involvement, which started with Descartes’ philosophy and it has been followed
by others scientists. Important characteristics of this process include subjectivism, relativism and
anti-absolutism. The second factor sees a shift in philosophy movements and development from
egoism to existentialism that interpreted into inevitable imperatives, because in the existentialism
framework, the concept of active value and ethical world changed to mythical and empty
concepts. And characteristics of this existentialism are doubt of ultimate reality, internal
experiences promotion and individual selection rights, that all found in the postmodernism
thoughts. Nihilism is third factor and the effectiveness of postmodernism, and the result of
rationality and egoism philosophy and existentialism is nihilism. Therefore, postmodernism, with
modernism’s internal critique and existential crisis in it, has replaced modernism, and
fundamental and infrastructural changes have been established in thoughts, attitudes, interests,
culture, economy, politics and social a aspects. Postmodernism has been criticized by
intelligentsia and scientists, because they know postmodernism more as a theoretical aspect. But
postmodernism defenders believe that in the world there is no such thing the real global
perspective, because the actual reality cannot interpret from our view point (Baylis, 2007, 545-
547).
Late Capitalism as per Jameson which also echoes idea of Eagleton

Late capitalism is a distinct reordering of production based around the

development of electronic and nuclear technologies. Late capitalism (sometimes
called post-industrialism) according to Mendel comes after market capitalism
(ordered by steam technology) and imperialist capitalism (ordered by the
combustion technology). Jameson argues each of these capitalist eras engendered
distinct cultural forms, however he is careful to argue there was a degree of
separation between capitalist production and cultural production in past eras, which
does not exist in the postmodern-late capitalist order.

Postmodernism and Postmodernity

The two concepts broadly refer to “what comes after the project of modernity.”
Modernity, through the postmodern lens was an effort to create an ordered,
rationale political and economic and represent it through culture. The mass
production of goods (through Fordism) and the mass production of information and
culture (through mass media) are constituent parts of modernity.

Crisis in capitalism including depression, world wars, conflict with soviet

authoritative socialism, domestic social movement for full labor force participation
(civil rights, feminist, etc.) ended the fordist regime in capital production and led to
the flexible accumulation of late capitalism. The quick moving of labor and capitol
in the flexible accumulation regime (popularly called globalization) has
“compressed space and time.” See Harvey, D. (1989) The Condition of
Postmodernity.

The transformed cultural order resulting from late capitalism and flexible
accumulation has distinct aesthetic features which, when analyzed as a category,
can be called postmodernism.

Finally, there is the question of the “end of history.” Jameson in the beginning of
his article addresses the “inverted millenarianism” which instead of predicting the
end of humanity, the inversion predicted the end of ideology (the resolution of
dialectic debates) history (the resolution of first-second world conflict) and many
other fields. The end of history really stands for the end of modernity, and the
postmodern order follows.

Aesthetics of Postmodernism
The overtaking of capitalist production ethos into the cultural sphere
(commodification, massification) results in distinct features of art and other
cultural products. A brief summary of Jameson’s features of postmodernism
follows.

Depthlessness

Jameson argues postmodern culture exudes a literal superficiality where the

cultural product is disconnected from any political or social meaning. Modern
culture had “depth” in that what was artistically rendered was imbued with
meaning beyond what could be seen.

Jameson uses the example of Van Gogh’s Peasant Shoes to demonstrate modern
art “depth,” as it can be contextualized with countryside impoverishment,
agricultural work, and the European working class. He contrasts Van Gogh’s work
with Andy Warhol’s Diamond Dust Shoes, which he argues, has no deeper
meaning beyond what you see.

Waning of Affect

Another important dimension of postmodern culture is the erasure of personal

affect (emotions, feelings, inner thought) in culture. While modern art reflected
dialects between the outside and inside world, subjects and objects, postmodern art
removes the inner dimension because the individual has been made into an
abstraction – reduced to a consumer, node, audience, data packet, etc.

Pastiche

Postmodern culture draws inspiration from past movements, genres and styles,
combines them into “collage” type formations and presents them in new packaged
ways. In opposition to modern parody (which through parody of a type of cultural
form, creates its own meaning) pastiche has no meaning it self.

Copies of copies become the norm in postmodern cultural products – think of

modern superhero blockbusters, which combine genre film styles (WWII film,
heist film, film noir, fantasy) with comic book source material, which was based
on mythology, serials, literary characters, etc. Jameson calls this “random
cannibalism” of past styles. Historicism, the sense of history like reference without
any real connection to history, creates empty nostalgia.

Postmodern society and its consequences

Jameson concludes by stressing the study of postmodern aesthetics is not merely a
theoretical issue; there are serious political consequences. He argues that by
outlining postmodernism he is not celebrating it, but attempting to make sense of
the current world order. Jameson asks both and us to do the impossible see
postmodernism as the “best” and “worst” outcome, as the progress and a point
criticize.

For students of communication, the important lesson from Jameson is that no

cultural text is created outside of the material conditions of a political-economic
system. Power flows through and into the cultural products we consume, and even
how we conceptualize consumption, creation, identity and taste are all effects of
late capitalism.