THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS USES

What is Microscope?

Microscope is an optical instrument that uses a lens or an arrangement of lenses to

magnify an object. It is a scientific equipment that magnifies very small objects
that are not visible to the naked eyes, it plays major role in laboratory to observe
the shape of bacteria, Fungi ,parasites and host cells in various stained and
unstained preparation.

TYPES OF MICROSCOPE

There are different types of microscope and each of these has different purposes of
use. Some are suitable for biological application while others are used in
educational institution, some help in studying three-dimensional samples, we have
the following

1) Simple microscope
2) Compound microscope
3) Electron microscope
4) Stereo microscope
5) Scanning probe microscope
6) Fluorescence microscope
7) Darkfield microscope
 1) SIMPLE MICROSCOPE

Simple microscope is a type of microscope that uses a single lens for magnification
of a sample, it is used in reading and magnifying non complex object, they use
natural light to see an object, it is simply a large magnifying glass with a shorter
focal length that has a convex mirror with a small focal area. It has magnification
level depending on the lens used.

2) COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

This is the most common type of microscope use today. They are use in clinical
practice and are also use by microbiologist, they are called light microscope, they
are use in laboratories, schools, histology and pathology. The compound medium
allows magnification in a very fine scale . they uses light or illuminator to view
specimen while simple uses natural light. Its magnification is 40x,100x, 400x and
Upto 1000x thereby making the specimen look larger through the microscope
through zooming in the lenses. Compound microscope can be used to view
samples like bacteria, parasites, hostcells, tissues, organs, bloodcells.

1) ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

This uses the flow of electrons to produce an image. This microscope enhance the
images of viruses, proteins, lipids, Ribosomes and small molecules.

2) STEREO MICROSCOPE

This stereo microscope is dissecting or stereoscopic microscope is an optical

microscopy version designed specifically for low magnification imaging of a
biological specimens, its magnification is mostly 10x - 40x. It is used in
manufacturing, quality control, dissecting samples and is used in botany, it can be
used to view samples that will not allow light to pass through them, it can be used
to view flowers, insects, animal anatomy. It is also use in chemistry laboratories
where more detailed three-dimensional images are required that would be possible
with electron microscope or other high –powered microscope. Many people choose
stereoscope over other microscope models because it can produce a better quality
images depending on ones need, in addition this microscope require less maintance
and are inexpensive.

3) SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPE

This is used to create images of nanoscale surface and structure or
manipulate atoms to move them in specific patterns. It is a physical probe
that scan over the surface of a specimen gathering data that is used to
generate image or manipulate atoms. There are different types of scanning
probe microscope
a) Atomic force microscope : This measures the electrostatic force between
the Tip and the specimen.
b) Magnetic force microscope: This measures the magnetic force between
the Tip and the specimen.
c) Scanning tunneling microscope: This measures the electrical current
between the Tip and the specimen.

4) FLUORESCENCE MICROSCPE
This uses ultraviolent light to illuminate specimens that fluoresce. mostly a
florescent antibody or dye is added on the viewed specimen.
5) DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE
These microscopes have a device that scatters light from the illuminator and
it does this to make the specimen appear white against black background.

THE COMPONENTS OF A MICROSCOPE

 There are three structural parts of the microscope ie head, base and
arm
 Head- this is also known as the body . it carries the optical parts in
the upper part of the microscope.
 Base: it acts as microscopes support. It also carries microscopic
illuminators.
 Arms; it is the part connecting the base and to the head and eyepiece
tube to the base of the microscope. It gives support to the head of the
microscope and it also used when carrying the microscope.
 Stage: This is the section in which the specimen is placed for viewing.
They have stage clips that holds the specimen slides in place. The
most common stage is the mechanical stage which allows the control
of the slides by moving the slides using the mechanical knobs on the
stage instead of moving them manually.
 Aperture: This is a hole on the microscope stage through which the
transmitted light from the source reaches the stage.
 Microscopic illuminator: This is the microscopes light source
located at the base. It is used instead of a mirror. It captures light from
an external source of a low voltage of about 100v.
 Diaphragm: it is also known as the iris, Its found under the stage of
the microscope and primary role is to control the amount of light that
reaches the specimen. It is an adjustment apparatus controls the light
intensity and the size of the beam of light that gets the specimen. For
high quality microscopes the diaphragm comes attached with an Abbe
condenser and combined they are able to control the light focus and
light intensity that reaches the specimen.
 Eyepiece (ocular lens) with or without pointer: This Part is looked
through at the top of the compound microscope and have
magnification between 10x & 40x. it is cylinder in shape containing
two or more lens.
 Eyepiece tube: it’s the eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just
above the objective lens, in some microscopes such as the binoculars,
the eyepiece tube is flexible and can be rotated for maximium
visualization for varience in distance for monocular microscopes they
are none flexible.
 Objective lenses; These are the major lenses used for specimen
visualization. They have a magnification power of 40X-100X. There
are about 1- 4 objective lenses placed on one microscope in that some
are rare facing and others face forward each lens has its on
magnification power.
 Nose piece: it is known as the revolving turret. It holds the objective
lenses. It is movable and can revolve the objective lenses depending
on the magnification power of the lens
 Adjustment knobs :These are knobs that are used to focus the
microscope. There are two types of Adjustment Knobs ( a) Fine
Adjustment Knobs( b) Coarse Adjustment Knobs
 Fine Adjustment Knob: This is use to bring specimen in perfect focus
once the specimen is visible through the coarrse focusing knob, also
focus slowly to avoid contact between the objective and the specimen.
  Coarse adjustment knob: This is use to adjust the position of
objective lenses, also this should be done keeping in mind that the
objective should not hit the slide, it should be stopped when the object
is completely visible through the ocular.
 Condenser : These are lenses that are used to collect and focus light
from the illuminator into the specimen. They are found under the
stage next to the diaphragm of the microscope. They play major role
in ensuring clear sharp images are produced with an Abbe Condenser
that has a high magnification of about 1000X.
 Condenser focus knob: Thiis is a Knob that moves the condenser up
and down thus control the focus of light on the specimen.
 Abbe Condenser: This is a Condenser specially designed for high
quality microscopes which makes condenser to be movable and
allows high magnification of above 400X.
 The Rack Stop: it controls how far the stage should go preventing the
Objective lens from getting too close to the specimen slide which may
damage the specimen. It is responsible for preventing the specimen
slide from coming too far up and hitting the objective lens.
.

HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE

 Turn on the microscope and then rotate the nosepiece to click the red-bended
objective into place
 Place a Slide on the stage and secure it using the stage clip, use the coarse
adjustment knob to get the image into view and then use the fine adjustment
knob (small knob) to make it clearer. Once you have the image in view
rotate the nosepiece to view it under different powers, draw what you see on
 your worksheet. Be careful with the largest objective sometimes there is not
enough room and you will not be able to use it. when done turn off the
microscope and put up the slides you used.

HOW TO FOCUS THE SPECIMEN

Always start with the scanning objective. Use coarse knob to focus image maybe
small at this magnification but you wouldn’t be able to find it on higher power
without this first step. Do not use stage clips try moving the slide around until you
find something. Once you have focused on scanning switch to low power use
coarse knob to refocus. again if you have not focused on this level you will not be
able to move to the next level. Now switch to high power at this point, only use the
fine adjustment knob to focus the specimen. If specimen is too light or dark try
adjusting the diaphragm.

MAGNIFICATION

To Calculate the power of the magnification, multiply the power of ocular lens by
the power of the Objective lens.

Total magnification

Ocular lens magnification × Objective lens Magnification

Magnification

Magnification Ocular lens Total magnification

Scaning 4X 10X 40X

Low power 10X 10X 100X

High power 40X 10X 400X

 PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION OF MICROSCOPE

 It is used in Pharmaconosy to study the anatomical features of plants

and characterize plant cells. (optical /Light microscope.
 It is used in quality control.
 It is used for forensic study.
 It is used to analyse chemical composition of pharmaceutical
products like the SEM ( Scanning electronic microscope).
 SEM can be used to control coating level of tablet upon process scale
up.

CARE GIVEN TO MICROSCOPE

 Always cover the microscope when not in use.

 Always carry the microscope with two hands, one hand should be at the arm
the other at the base.
 Use lens paper to clean the lens.
 Do not force the knobs.
BIOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES AND USES OF
PLANT DRUGS
Pharmacognosy deals with the natural drugs obtained from plants such as
plant parts eg rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, buds and entire plants, we also
have the microbes and animals up till date many important drugs including
morphine, atropine, galanthamine have originated from natural sources
which continue to be a good model in drug discovery.
Since time immemorial natural products have been the backbone of
traditional system of healing throughout the globe and has been an integral
part of history and culture. Although the use of bioactive natural products as
herbal preparation dates back hundred even thousands of years ago, their
application is isolated and characterized compounds to modern drug
discovery and development started only in the 9 th century, it has been
documented that natural products played critical role in modern drug
development especially antibacterial and antitumor agents even though the
popularity of synthetic increased due to its production cost, time, easy
quality control, stringent regulation and quick effects but their safety and
efficacy was always remained questionable resulting in the dependence on
the natural products by more than 80% of the total population in the
developing world because of its time tested safety and efficacy. A huge
number of natural product derived compounds in various stages of clinical
development highlighted the existing viability and significance of the natural
products as source of new drug. Plants are important source of novel
pharmacologically active compounds with blockbuster drugs being derived
directly or indirectly from plants despite the current preoccupation with
synthetic chemistry as a vehicle to discover and manufacture drugs the
contribution of plant to disease treatment and prevention is still enormous.
Even at 21st century 11% of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential
by the WHO were exclusively of flowering plant origin. natural products
will continue to be extremely important as sources of medicinal agents,
natural products have found direct medicinal application as drug entities
many others can serve as chemical model or templates for drug design,
synthesis and semi synthesis of novel substances for treating humankinds
diseases. there are some new approaches to drug discovery such as
combinatorial chemistry and computer based molecular modeling design and
many drugs are made by synthetic chemistry none of them can replace the
important role of natural products in drug discovery and development as
most of the core structures or synthetic chemicals are based upon natural
products. The use of plants as medicine has a long history in the treatment of
various diseases. The plant derived compounds have a long history of
clinical use better patients tolerance and acceptance till date 35,000-70,000
plant species have been screened for their medicinal use. The first
commercial pure natural products introduced for therapeutic use is morphine
marked by Merck in 1826 and the first semi-synthetic pure drug aspirin
based on a natural product salicin isolated from Salix alba.
Was introduced by Bayer in 1899. This led to isolation of early drug such as
cocaine, codeine, digitoxin, quinine and pilocarpine of which some are still
in use . we also have Paclitaxel from Taxus brevifolia for lung, ovarian and
breast cancer, we have Artemisinin from traditional Chinese plant Artemisia
annua to combat multidrug resistant malaria, Silymarin extracted from the
seed of Silybum marianum for the treatment of liver diseases. During the last
decade few plant derived drugs have been launched include Arteether,
endoperoxide sesquiterpene lactone and semisynthetic natural product
derived from Artemisinin used in malarial treatment, Nitisinone derived
from natural product Leptospermone. galantamine is a natural alkaloid
obtained from Galanthus nivalis for Alzhemers, apomorphine is a
semisynthetic compound derived from morphine (Papaver somniferum)
used in Parkinson’s disease. Tiotropium a derivative of atropine from Atropa
belladonna in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, we have the
Dronabinol and Cannabidiol obtained from cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa)
and capsaicin active compound from Capsicum annuum used as pain relieve.
we have some essential oils derived from crude drugs from rosemary,
peppermint, bay, basil, tea tree, celery seed and fennels which have efficacy
against numerous species of fungi and bacteria and this antibacterial
properties is attributed to phenols including terpenes and flavonoids. Plants
such as guava (Psidium guajava), ginger (Zingber officinale) neem
(Azadiracta indica) and moringa oleifera have been found to exhibit broad
range of antimicrobial activities and studies have shown they contain
alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenes, glycoside and others with possible
theraupeutic potentials. The antimicrobial activities of some new compounds
such as alloeudesmenol, hanocokinoside, orosunol and 8-demethylorosunol,
identified from medicinal plants in Nigeria are not yet Explored, further
investigation and optimization of these compounds will facilitate the
development of new sets of pharmacologically acceptable antimicrobial
agent. Majority of the natural drugs from plant sources are derived from
spermatophytes (seed bearing plants) Gymnospermae yields few useful
drugs as Turpentine oil, colophony, ephenedrine, male fern from
pteridophyta provides Taenicidal (tapeworm killing agents). In
Angiospermae, dicotyledon plants provide more drugs than monocotyledon
plants which yield limited drugs such as squill, lemon grass oil, aloes. We
 have drugs like quinine, atropine, cocaine, morphine, codeine, Ergotamine,
Reserpine, caffeine, sennosides, glycyrrhizin, volatile oils and fixed oils are
all obtained from plants. As we said earlier all the plant parts used as drugs
include the leaves, stem, bark, fruits and roots we will name some of the
drugs found in each parts

. Leaves:
a. The leaves of Digitalis Purpurea are the source of Digitoxin and Digoxin,
which are cardiac glycosides.
b. Leaves of Eucalyptus give oil of Eucalyptus, which is important component
of cold & cough syrup.
c. Tobacco leaves give nicotine.
d. Atropa belladonna gives atropine

2. Flowers:
Poppy papaversomniferum gives morphine (opoid)
Vincarosea gives vincristine and vinblastine
Rose gives rose water used as tonic.

3. Fruits:
• Sennapod gives anthracine, which is a purgative.

• Calabar beans Give physostigmine, which is cholinomimetic agent.

4. Seeds:
• Seeds of NuxVomica give strychnine, which is a CNS stimulant.
• Castor seeds give castor oil.
• Isabgol.

Roots:
•Ipecacuanha root gives Emetine ,used to induce vomiting as in accidental
poisoning. It also has amoebicidal properties.
•Rauwolfia serpentine gives reserpine,a hypotensive agent.
•Reserpine was used for hypertension treatment.
Bark:

•Cinchona bark gives quinine and quinidine,which are antimalarial

drugs.Quinidine also has antiarrythmic properties.
•Atropa belladonna gives atropine,which is anticholinergic. Hyoscyamus Niger
gives Hyosine, which is also anticholinergic.
There are over 100 active ingredients derived from plant for use as drugs and
medicine we will list few and its Pharmacological activities in a tubular form.

DRUGS DERIVED FROM PLANTS

DRUG/CHEMICAL PHARMACOLOGICAL PLANT SOURCE

ACTIVITY
Acetyldigoxin Cardiotonic Digitalis lanta
(Foxglove, wolly
foxglove
Aescin Cardiotonic Aesculus
hippocastanum
Vasicine Cerebral stimulant Vinca minor
(periwinkle)
Adoniside Cardiotonic Adonis vernalis
Agrimophol Anthelmintic Agrimonia
supatoria
Allylsothiocyanate Rubefacient Brassica nigra
 (black mustard)

Atropine Anticholinergic Atropa belladonna

Berberine Treatment of dysentery Berberis vulgaris
Bergenin Antitussive Ardisia japonica
Betulinic acid Anticancerous Betula alba
borneol Antipyretic, analgesic, Several plants
anti-inflammatory
Bromelain Antiinflammatory Ananas comosus
Caffeine CNS Stimulant Camellia sinesis (tea
also coffee, cocoa
and other plants
Camphor Rubefacient Cinnamomum
camphora
Camptothecin Anticancerous Camptotheca
acuminate
Cymopapain Proteolytic, mucolytic Carica papaya
Cocaine Local anaesthetic Erythroxylum coca
Codeine Analgesic, antitussive Papaver
somniferum
Colchiceine amide Antitumor Colchicum
autumnale
Convallatoxin Cardiotonic Convallaria majalis
Curcumin Choleretic Curcuma longa
(Tumeric)
Cynarin Choleretic Cynra scolymus
Danthron Laxative Cassia species
Demecolcine Antitumor agent Colchicum
 autumnale
Deserpidine Antihypertensive Rawolfia canescens
Deslanoside Cardiotonic Digitalis lanata
Digitalin Cardiotonicc Digitalis purpurea
Emetine Amoebicide, emetic Cephaelis
Ipecacuanha
Ephedrine Sympathomimetic, Ephedra sinica
antihistamine
Etoposide Antitumor agent Podohyllum
peltatum
Gitalin Cardiotonic Digitalis purpurea
Glaucarubin Amoebicide Simarouba glauca
Glaucine Antitissive Glaucium flavum
Glasiovine Antidepressant Octea glaziovii
Glycyrrhizin Sweetner, treatment for Glycrrhiza glabra
Addison’s disease
Nicotine Insecticide Nicotiana tabacum
(tobacco)
Hesperidin Treatment for capillary Citrus species eg
fragility ORANGES
Morphine Analgesic Papaver
somniferum
(Poppy)

OTHER SOURCES OF NATURAL DRUGS

 Animals
 Microorganism
  Mineral sources
 Biotechnology
We have already talked more on plants drugs we will also talk on
other natural sources as mentioned above.

2)Animal Sources
These are natural sources of drugs from animals we have Gelatin
obtained from Ox and Sheep, wool fat from sheep, bees wax from
honeycomb, we have the pancrease, product derived in it is Insulin
which is used in treating diabetes, we have sheep thyroid, product
obtained is thyroxin used in treating hypertension , we have cod liver
from COD stock fish it gives vitamin A and D. Vitamin A helps to
boost body mechanism against illness and infection, it also helps in
vision and also keeps the skin and some other part of the body such as
nose healthy. We have Vitamin D which helps to reduce cancer cells
growth , it also helps to control infections and reduce inflammation.

3)Mineral Source:
Under the mineral sources we have the following
 Metallic acid and non metallic
 Miscellaneous sources

Metallic and non metallic sources

1) Iron is used in treatment of iron deficiency

2) Mercurial salts are used in syphilis (bacterial infection)
 3) Zinc is used as zinc supplement . zinc oxide paste is used in wounds and
eczema.
4) Iodine is antiseptic
5) Iodine supplement are also used.
6) Gold salts are used in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Miscellanaeus sources

Fluorine has antiseptic properties

Borax has antiseptic properties as well

Selenium sulphide is used in anti dandruff shampoos

Petroleum is used in preparation of liquid paraffin.

Synthetic and semisynthetic sources

When the nucleus of the drug from natural source as well as its chemical structure
is altered we call it synthetic examples include Emetine, bismuth iodide.

When the nucleus of drugs obtained from natural source is retained but the
chemical structure ia altered we call it semi synthetic eg Apomorphine, diacetyl,
morphine, ethinyl, estradiol, homatropine , methyl testosterone.

4) Microbial Sources; we have some well known antibiotics produced from

microorganism we have the actinomycetes yielding antibiotics such as
actinomycin, amphotericin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, kanamycin, neomycin,
gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline, aspergillate group of fungi produce
antibiotics such as penicillin, griseofulum and cephalosporin, among the bacteria
genus bacillus produces antibiotics such as polymyxin B and bacitracin. Ergot
alkaloids also obtained from resting stage of a fungus. Algae are source limited
number of drugs such as Agar and Alginate mineral.

5) Biotechnology

We have Rosmarinic acid, Scopolamine, Podophylloxin, vanillum and

shikonin are examples of compound produced from plant cell cultures.
 THE PLANT CELL ANATOMY

The cell is the basic unit of life. Plant cells (unlike animal cells) are
surrounded by a thick, rigid cell wall
Cell wall
This is a thick rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of
cellulose fiber gives the cell most of its support and structure. The cell wall
also bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of the plant.
Centrosome
This is a small body located near the nucleus. It has a dense centre and
radiating tubules, it is were microtubules are made, during cell division
(mitosis) the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of
the dividing cell unlike the centrosomes in animal cells, plant cells
centrosomes do not have centrioles.

Chlorophyll
This is a molecule that can use light energy from the sunlight to turn water
and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen. this process is called
photosynthesis, chlorophyll is magnesium based and are usually green.
Chloroplast