3, Wave Optics

Huygens'Wave Theory
Wavefronts
Huygens'Construction
Reflection and
Behaviour of PlaneWavefronts on
Refraction
Geometrical and Optical Paths
Principle of Linear Superposition
Conditions of Interference
Coherent Sources
Interference
Concept Application Exercise3. 1
Thin-Film Interference
Concept Application Exercise 3.2
Young's Double-Slit Experiment
YDSE
Position of Bright and Dark Fringes in
Fringe Width
Angular Fringe Width
Maximum Order of Interference Fringes
Intensity Distribution on Screen in YDSE
YDSE
Shape of Interference Fringes in
Young's Double-SlitExperiment with
White Light
Concept Application Exercise 3.3
Different Cases in Young's Double-Slit
Experiment
Concept Application Exercise 3.4
Fresnel's Biprism
Lloyd's Mirror Experiment
Change of Phase Due to Reflection
Concept Application Exercise 3.5
 3 Wave Optics

HUYGENS' WAVE THEORY If we look at a small portion ofa sphericalwave, far away from
Huygens assumed that a body emits light in the form of wvaves. the source, then the wavefronts are like parallel planes. The rays
According to him, each point source of light is a centre of are parallel lines perpendicular to the wavefronts. This is called a
disturbance from which waves spread in all directions. planewave and is also sketched in Fig. (b).
The locus of all the particles of the medium vibrating in the A linear source such as a slit illuminated by another source
same phase at a given instant is called the wavefront. behind it will give rise to cylindrical wavefronts. Again, at larger
distance from the source, these wavefronts may be regarded as
WAVEFRONTS planar.
Consider a wave spreading out on the surface of water after a A wavefront is a surface joining the points of same phase.
stone is thrown in. Every point on the surface oscillates. At any For a point source, the wavefronts are spherical which become
time, a photograph of the surface would show circular rings on almost plane at a very large distance. For example, wavefronts
which the disturbance is maximum. Clearly, all points on such of sunlight are plane.
a circle are oscillating in phase because they are at the same
distance from the source. Such a locus of points which oscillate Important Points:
in phase is an example of a wavefront. Every point on a wavefront is an independent source to
A wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase. The produce secondary wavefronts.
speed with which the wavefront moves outward from the source All points on a wavefront vibrate in same phase with
is called the phase speed. The energy of the wave travels in a same frequency.
direction perpendicular to the wavefront. Wavefronts move with the velocity of wave in that
Figure (a) shows light waves from a point source forming a medium.
spherical wavefront in three-dimensional space. The energy
travels outward along straight lines emerging from the source, The shape of wavefront depends on the source producing the
i.e., radii of the spherical wavefront. These lines are the rays. Note waves and is usually spherical, cylindrical, or plane as shown in
that when we measure the spacing between a pair of wavefronts
the figure.
along any ray, the result is a constant. This example illustrates
two important general principles which we will use later:
1. Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts.
2. The time taken by light to travel from one wavefront to
another is the same along any ray.

(a) Point source (b) Line source (e) Source at

Each point on a wavefront is a source of new disturbance.

called secondary wavelets. These wavelets are spherical and
travel with speed of light in that medium. The forwardenvelope
of the secondary wavelets at any instant gives the new wave
(a front.

(b)
Wavefronts and the corresponding ravs in two cases: (a) diverging B

Spherical wave and (b) plane wave. The figure on the left shows a B
Wave (e.g., light) in three dimensions. The fiqure on the right shows (a)
a wave in two dimensions (e.q., a water surface). (b)
 3.2 Optics and Modern
Physics
A |A' particle can set its neighbours into oscillation. and therefore
as a secondary source. But what if there is no medium, as for acs
travelling in vacuum? The mathematical|theory, whichn
given here, shows that the same geometrical cannot be
construction
in this case as well. works
BEHAVIOUR OF PLANE
B ON REFLECTION AND REFRACTION WAVEFRONTS
(c) (a) Refraction of a plane wavefront by a thin prism: Sine
the speed of light wave is less in glass, the lower portion(
HUYGENS' CONSTRUCTION of the incident plane wavefront which travels through th
Huygens, the Dutch physicist and astronomer of the seventeenth greatest thickness ofglass is tilted towards sthe prism as itgt gets
century, gave a beautiful geometrical description of wave delayed as compared to its upper portion therefore, emerges
propagation. A stick placed in water and oscillated up and down as A'B'; B closer to the prism than A(shown in fhgure
becomes a source of waves. Since the surface of water is two A Refracted plane
dimensional, the resulting wavefronts would be circles instead of wavefront
spheres. At each point on such a circle, the water level moves up
and down. Huygens' idea is that we can think of every such
Incident
oscillating point on a wavefront as a new source of waves.
plane
According to Huygens' principle, what we observe is the result wavefront
of adding up the waves from all these different sources. These are
called secondary waves or wavelets.
Huygens' principle is illustrated in figure in the simple case of B
a plane wave.
1. At time t = 0, we have a wavefront F F (b) Refraction of a plane wavefront by a lens: The central
F,. E, separates these parts of the portion Cof the incident plane wavefront ABC covers the
medium which are undisturbed from greatest thickness through the glass and is delayed the most
those where the wave has already while reaching C".Other portions are delayed depending on
reached. the thickness of the glass dies traverse. The refracted
A1 Az
2. Each point on F,acts like a new source wavefront (A'B'C") is spherical and the corresponding
and sends out a spherical wave. After B B refracted rays converges to a point F which is called the
a time t, each of these will have radius focus of the lens (shown in figure).
v. These spheres are the secondary Refracted spherical
wavelets. C C2 A
wavefront
3. After a time t, the disturbance would
now have reached all points within the
region covered by allthese secondary Di D Incident
waves. The boundary of this region is plane F
wavefront
the new wavefront F,. Note that F, is
a surface tangent to all the spheres. It
iscalled the forwardenvelope of these B
secondary wavelets. Convex B'
lens
4. The secondary wavelet from point A, on F, touches F,
at A,. Draw the line connecting any point A, on F, to the (c) Reflection of a plane wavefront by a concave mirror:
corresponding point 4, on F,. According to Huygens, A,4, The incident wavefront ABC on getting refiected from die
is a ray. It is perpendicular to the wavefronts F, and F concave mirror becomes a spherical wavefront A'B'C. The
and has length u. This implies that rays are perpendicular corresponding reflected rays converge to F, the focus of the
to wavefronts. Further, the time taken for light to travel concave mirror (shown in figure).
between two wavefronts is the same along any ray. In our
A Refracted
example, the speed v of the wave has been taken to be
the same at allpoints in the medium. In this case, we can spherical
wavefront
say that the distance between two wavefronts is the same Concave
Incident
measured along any ray. mirror
5. This geometrical construction can be repeated starting with plane
wavefront
F, to get the next wavefront F, a time t later, and so on. This
is known as Huygens' construction.
Huygens' construction can be understood physically for waves
in a material medium, like the surface of water. Each oscillating
. B'
 Wave Optics 3.3
Wavefrontin different optical systems
|LLUTRATION 3.2
Mirror/Lens/Slab Wavefront
Prism AB: Incident wavefront Consider apoint at the focal point of a convergent lens.
CD: Reflected/Refracted wavefront Another convergent lens of short focal length is placed on the
Plain mirror
other side. What is the nature of the wavefronts emerging from
the final inmage?
Sol. Orientation of wave front is perpendicular to ray. The ray
diagram of the situation is as shown in figure.

Wavefront
(spherical)
0.
Convex mirror

Parellelrays incident on lens L, forms the image I, at the focal

Concave lens point of the lens. This image acts as object for the lens L, Now,
due to the converging lense L,, let final image formed is I which is
point image. Hence the wavefront for this image will be of spherical
symmetry.

GEOMETRICAL AND OPTICAL

B

D PATHS
Plane slab Considera light wave travelling in a medium of refractive index
u. Its equation may be written as

Denser medium
clu

E= E, sin ott-o=E, sin(ot -8)

If the light wave travels a distance Ax in vacuum, the phase
changes by
ILLUSTRATION 3.1
What is the shape of the wavefront on earth for sunlight? 8,=(uar)
(
...()

Sol. The sun is at very large distance from the earth. Assuming Instead, if the light wave travels in vacuumn, its equation will be
Sun as spherical, it can be considered as point source situated at
Ininity. We can treat it like a point object as seen from the surface
of earth.
E= E, sin o- - , sin or-o]=E, sin(ot-8)
Because of large distance the radius of wavefront can be If the light travels through a distance uAr, the phase changes by
Considered as large (infinity) and hence, wavefront is almost
plane.
Light 8, ="(uA) ..(i)
rays
From Eqs. (i)and (ii), we see that a wave travelling through a
distance Ar in a medium of refractive index suffers the same
phase change as when it travels a distance ar in vacuum. In
Large other words, apath length of Ar in amedium of refractive indexu
distance
is equivalent to apath length of uar in vacuum. The quantity uAx
is called the optical path of the light. In dealing with interference
of two waves,we need the difference between the optical paths
travelled by the waves. The geometrical path and the optical path
are equal only when light travels in vacuum or in air where the
refractive index is close to 1.
3.4 Optics and Modern Physics
The concept of opticalpath may also be introduced in terms of transparent cuticle-like material on the upper wing surface
the change in wavelength as the wave changes its medium. The like a thin film.
frequency of awave is determined by the frequency of the source
and is not changed when the wave enters in a new mediun. I The Nature of
the wavelength of light in vacuun is A. and that in the medium Elcctromagnetic
is 2,, then Waves Interference Phenomena
C L. Double-Slit Interference
Ao = = frequeney ofthewave 2. Thin-Film Intcrference
The Principle of
c/u
and A= Linear Superposition

At any given instant, the points differentiated by one

Sound wave: Figure indicates that transverse and longitudinl
wavelength have same phase of vibration. Thus, the points at standing waves are related to the principle of linear superposition
separation A, in the medium have same phase of vibration. On Guitars producesound by utilizing the transverse standing wave
the other hand, in vacuum, points at separation , willhave same that form on each plucked string.
phase of vibration. Thus, a path 2, in a mediunm is equivalent to
apath 2, =uh in vacuum. In general., a path Ar, in a medium of
refractive index u, is equivalent to a path Ar in vacuum which is TheNature of
Interference Phenomena
called the optical path. Sound
It means that, the length of the path covered by light in a 1. Diffraction
2. Beats
medium in agiven time known as geometrical path is obviously 3. Transverse and
lesser than in vacuum (or air) during the given time known as The Principle of
Longitudinal
opticalpath. In other words Linear Superposition Standing Waves
and
(Optical path )= ux(Geometrical path ina medium) Constructive
=Refractive index of the medium Destructive Interference
of Sound Waves
Note: Consider the situation in the figure. The geometrical
paths ABE, ACE, and ADE are different, but the optical paths Figure illustrates what happens when two identical wavs
are equal. This is because each path leads to the same phase (same wavelength 2and same amplitude) arrive at point Pin
phase, that is, crest to crest and trough to trough. According t
difference. Note that the ray having longer geometrical path
covers less distance in the lens as compared to the ray having the principle of linear superposition, the waves reinforce each
other and constructive interference occurs. The resulting totdl
shorter geometricalpath. wave at P has an amplitude that is twice the amplitude of eithe
individual wave, and in the case of light waves, the brightnes
at P is greater than that due to either wave alone. The wavs
start out in phase and are in phase at P because the distances
and /,, between this spot and the sources of the waves differ b)
one wavelength. In general, when the waves start out in phast
constructive interference will result at P whenever the distance
are the same or differ by any integer number of wavelengths;
PRINCIPLE OF LINEARSUPERPOSITION is, in other words, assuming 7, is the larger distance, whenehe
The pressure disturbance that results is governed by the principle 1,-1, = nh, where m= 0, 1,2, 3, ...
of linear superposition, which states that the resultant disturbance
is the sum of the disturbances from the individual waves. Light
is also a wave, an electromagnetic wave, and it too obeys the
superposition principle. When two or more light waves pass Source
through a given point, their electric fields combine according Constructive
to the principle of linear superposition and produce a resultant Interference
electric field. According to theory of electromagnetic waves, the
square of the electricfield strength is proportional to the intensity
Source l

of the light, which, in turn, is related to its brightness. Thus, Source

Source 2
interference can and does alter the brightness of light, just as it
affects the loudness of sound. phaseal
Optical wave: The principle of linear superposition explains The waves emitted by source 1 and source 2 start out
arrive point at P in phase, leading to constructive interferel
various interference phenomena associated with light waves
(see figure). The beautiful iridescent colors on the wings of that point.
tropical butterfly are due to thin-film interference of light. A
 Wave Optics 3.5
showS what happens when two identical waves arrive
Figure
phase with one another, or crest to trough. Now, COHERENT SOURCES
poitPoutof
cancel, according to the principle of linear T'wo sources are said to be coherent if theyproduce waves of same
wavesmutually
ihe and destructive interference results. With light
superposition, Irequency with a constant phase difference. Unlike sound waves,
this would mean that there is no brightness. The waves two independent sources of light cannot be coherent. Since sound
naves,
but are out of phase at Is a bulk property of matter, therefore, two independent sources
withthe same phase because
distancesthrough which they travel in reaching this spot of sound can be identical in all respects and can produce coherent
the one-halfof a wavelength. For waves that start out in waves, On the contrary, light is not a bulk property of matter, it is
iterby a property of each individual atom. As the individual atoms emit
phase.
destructiveinterference will take place at P whenever the
distancesdifferrby any odd integer number of half-wavelengths, light randomly and independently, therefore, two independent
1 3 5 sources of light cannot be coherent.
tik, whenever -= 2
, , , .where 1, is the larger Coherent sources can be obtained by splitting a light beam
from a source into two. This can be done in two ways:
distance. This is equivalentto I, - 1,=|m+2
2
where n = 0,
1. Division of wavefront: It is done in Young's double-slit
1.2.3,...
experiment, Fresnel's biprism, Lloyd's mirror, etc.
2. Division of amplitude: It is usually done by partial
reflection and transmission at a boundary, as it occurs in
thin film interference, Newton's rings, etc.
Source 1

Destructive INTERFERENCE
Interference
We have learned that in the superposition of waves there is
Source 1 interference of two sinusoidal waves. Let the two sinusoidal
waves be
Source 2 Source 2
y, =a, cos(ot + 0) ...()
Y, =a, cos(ot + ) ..(i)

The waves emitted by two sources have the same phase to begin
with, but they arrive at point P, out of phase. As a result, destructive
interference occurs at P.

CONDITIONS OF INTERFERENCE
We know that the superpositions of two mechanical waves can
be constructive or destructive. In constructive interference, the
amplitude of the resultant wave at a given position or time is
reater than that of either individual wave.
Ii two light bulbs are placed side by side, no interference According to the principle of superposition, the resultant
eliects are observed because the light waves from one bulb displacement would be given by
e emitted independently of those from the other bulb. The y() =acos(ot +) ...(iii)
ehissions from the two light bulbs do not maintain a constant where
acos =a, cos 0, +a, cos , ...(iv)
Plase relationship with each other over time. Light waves from a sin =a, sin , ta, sin 6, ..(v)
ordinary source such as a light bulb undergo random phase The resultant wave is also sinusoidal, with same frequency but
changes
in time intervals less than a nanosecond. Therefore, the
Conditions for rconstructive interference, destructive interference, different amplitude. On squaring and adding Eqs. (iv) and (v),
0r some we get
intermediate state are maintained only for such short
time intervals..Because the eye cannot follow suchrapid changes, a=|a +a; +24,4, cos(0, -0,)| ...(vi)
no
interference
to be incoherent.
are observed. Such light sources are said
effects tan A= Sin th ta, sin ,
a cos ta, cos ,
..(vii)
In order to observe
in light waves, the following
condi1. tions must be met:interference If 0, =0and , = 0, we have
The
sources must be coherentthat is, they must maintain
vonstant phase with respect to each other.
a= a t a +24,4, cos e .(vii)
2. The a, sin ,
source should be a single
monochromatic-that is, of tan = ...(ix)
wavelength. a t a, cos
3.6 Optics and Modern Physics
Now, as at a given point phase difference can
From Eq. (vii), we find that if 0= 0, 2n, 4n, then a=a, + a,. have beany va
between 0 and 27, the average value of intensity will
When two displacements are in phase, then the resultant amplitude 27
will be the sum of the two amplitudes; this is constructive
interference. "u +1, +2)11, cos 0)d3
Similarly, if 0 =, 3r, 5n, ..., then a =a, - a,. av

When superposing waves are in opposite phase, the resultant

amplitude is the difference of the two amplitudes; this is [as Jo (cos 8) d8=0]
destructive interference.
As the average value of intensity is equal to the
P individual intensities, in interference, energy is neither surm
nor destroyed but is redistributed and, hence, in
S
energy is conserved. interfereng
ILLUSTRATION 3.3

S Screen Light waves from two coherent sources superimpose

a point. The waves, at this point, can be expressed
y, = a sin [10" i] and y, = 2a sin [10 T1 + o]. Find %.
resultant amplitude if phase difference o is
The difference in the distances from S, and S, to a given point (a) zero (b) 3
is called the path difference. A path difference of one wavelength
corresponds to a phase difference of 27 rad because a shift in
Also find the frequency (Hz) of resultant wave in each case.
position of one wavelength along the wave changes its phase by Sol. Resultant amplitude can be obtained from the relation
a complete cycle.
For a path difference Ax, the phase difference (in radians) is A= A +A; +24,4, cos [=1,+1,+ 2\11, o86
2
(path difference) =
2T
(Ar)
A,and A, are the amplitudes of interfering waves, ois the pt
difference at the given point and Ais the resultant amplin
Here, A, =a and A, = 2a.
The factor Ax/2 is number of wavelengths corresponding to path
difference. Each wavelength corresponds to a phase difference (a) ¢= 0; A= at 4a +2a(2a) cos 0° =9a’4-3a
of n. (b) =o/3; 4' = a + 4a + 2a(2a) cos r3 =7a 4
The intensity of a wave is proportional to square of amplitude, (c) = T; A =a t4a + 2a(2a) cos = ’4=a
therefore, Eq. (vii) reduces to Interference results due to superposition of waves of s
1=1,+4+ 2/11, cos &
frequency and frequency of the resultant wave also has the sa
where 8 =
27
ar) value. Here, this frequency is

As the maximum and minimum values of cos 8 are +1 and-1, 2uf= 10!5t
respectively, the maximum and minimum values of l are given f=Sx 104 Hz
by
and ILLUSTRATION 3.4
'min
In Young's experiment, the interfering waves ha
The conditions for maximum intensity are amplitudes in the ratio 3:2. Find the ratio of amplitudes
8= 2n1, n=0,1, 2,... intensities, between the bright and dark fringes.
or Ay = n2
The conditions for minimum intensity are Sol. Here, we have to obtain the ratio max
8= (2n- l), n=0, 1, 2, 3, ... Amin
also the corresponding ratio of intensities
or Ar= (n - 1/2)2, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Imax (4 t 4,)
When 1,=I,=I
then I=4/,cos' 82
Inin (A- 4,)'
Clearly, if8 =+1, +3n, ..., the resultant intensity willbe zero But A =3 (given)
and we will have a minimum. When = 0, +2, ±4r, .., the A,
intensity will be maximum (l=41,). 3+2
By componendo and dividendo, ,= -5
3-2
Note: In interference, energy is neither created nor destroyed
but it is conserved.
Hence, Amax =5 and max =25
In case of interference, intensity at a point is given by Amin Imin (4 - 4,)'
1=1+1, + 2(/I,4,)cos 8
 Wave Optics 3.7

LUSTRATION 3.S

Two coherentsources emit light waves which superimpose at a

point where these can be expressed as
E, -E, sin(ot + r4)
E,= 2E, sin(ot -4) D
P
Here, E, and E, are the electric field strengths of the two
waves at the given point. (a) What would be the minimum and maximum path difference
at the detector as it moves along line S,P?
lis the intensity of waveexpressed by field strength E,, find (b) Locate the position of the farthest minima detected.
the resultant intensity.
Sol.
Sol Intensity of wave expressed by field strength E,, I x E
[intensity o (amplitude)] (a) Path difference at P,Ar =S,P-S,P
S)
Intensity of wave expressed by E,, I' « (2E,)
-=4 or I=41
S
phase difference between the two waves is D

=(ot +n4)- (ot -/4) = Minimum path difference will occur when the observer will
2 be at a large distance from the sources. The path difference
Resultant intensity is given by will be maximum when the observer is near source S,
I,=1+>+ 2VII' cos !;=1,+1, +2/17, cos ] As observer moves from S, toward tx-direction, the path
difference decreases from d to zero.
I,=1+41+2I(41) cos r/2 (Ar):when S,P =0, i.e., detector is atposition S,.
I,=51 i. (Ar)m = S,S, = d= 1.0 x 10 cm
Thus, resultant intensity is five times the intensity of wave (Ar).:
min when detector is at large distance and (Ar)min

expressed by E,. will be approximately zero.

(b) Let the farthest minimum occur at P. As we move away,
ILLUSTRATION 3.6 the path difference decreases, order of maxima or minima
increases as we move toward S,. At the position of the
Determine the resultant of two waves given by farthest minimum path difference is
4sin(200 ) and y, 3 sin(200 Tt + 2).
S,P-S,P=N2
Sol. In general, resultant of twowaves given by y, =A, sin o (D² + )2 D = N2
and y, = A, sin(or t ) can be obtained by the principle of
Superposition, i.e., -D = N2
y=y, ty, =A, sin o+A, sin( or + ) =A sin(or +)
where A= [4 +A; +24,A, cos o]'
=tan A, sin 2D 2
A t A, cos
m=1.7 cm
In the present case, y, =4 sin 200t and y, =3 sin 200 t+ 2) (600 x10)
Here, A, = 4, A, -3, and = 2. TLLUSTRATION 3.8
Resultant wave will be y = A sin(2000 + a) with
Two coherent point sources S, and S, vibrating in phase emit
A= [4 +4; +24,4, cos 0]" light of wavelength 2. The separation S,
A=[42 +32 + 2(4)(3) cos 2]" between the sources is 22. Consider a
A=5
A, sin 3 sin r/2 3 line passing through S and 27
tan o
4
perpendicular to line S,S,. Find the
A +A, cos 4+3 cos t/2 position of farthest and nearest minima. D

a=37°0.2 rad
Hence, the resultant wave is v = 5sin(200x1 + 0.21t). SoB. Ax - (2n- 1) 2
min

The farthest minima has path difference /2 while the nearest

ILLUSTRATION 3.7 minima has path difference (3/2)2. For the nearest minima,
wO SOurces S, and S, emitting light of wavelength 600 nm 3
de placed a distance 1.0 x 102 cm apart. A detector can be SP-sp=A [as maximum path difference is 22]
moved on line S,P which is perpendicular to SS,
 3.8 Optics and Modern Physics

J2a)' +D -D =1 As R >> d, we can consider the lines S.P

(21)² + D
2 parallel. If we drop a perpendicular fronm centre of
approximately
circle \o
line S,P, the length S,A should be cqual to the path differene
S, A= Ar
he
d cos = Ar
9 3
42 +D=2+D+2x;AxD Hence, cos =
d
92 72 =cosl
3D = 4
4 4 12
For the farthest minima, For maxima, Ar =n

SP-S,P =
2 For minima, Ar =(2n-1)
J42 + D -D = ILLUSTRATION 3. 10
Two point sources are placed on a straight line separated .
42 + D: -+ D² + D. 152 adistance d= 3. Both the sources are placed at a distance
D=42-N4=
4 4 from a wallwhich is perpendicular to the straight line. Botk
the sources are sending waves of equal intensity.
lLLUSTRATIDN 3.9
B
Two sources are placed on
X-axis at a separation d= 32. R
An observer starts moving
S S
from A on a circular track of
radius R (R> d). How many C A kd
bright points and dark points Given L>>d
will he observe? Find the
angular positions of maxima Find:
and minima.
(a) Locus of the points on the wall having equal intensity.
(b) Maximum and minimum path difference observed on the
Sol. The observer will have maximum path difference at wall.
positions A and C equal to 32. Minimum path difference equals
to zero at positions B and D. Sol.
In each quarter circle,he will have path difference between 0
and 32. (a) As shown in the figure, path difference between the waves
is same in the circular path on the wall. Hence, locus of the
points of same intensity is a circle.
(b) Maximum path difference will be at O = 32.
R>>d Minimum path difference will be at a large distance from 0
dcose

and it will be zero.

S S
k-d

S, S
Path difference corresponding to maxima in our given range is
0, 2, 22, 3.
Path difference corresponding to minima in our given range
is N2, 3N2, 5N2. ILLUSTRATION 3.11
Hence,total number of bright points in the complete circular path
is 4 x2 + 4 = 12. (a) In Illustration 3.10, how many dark rings willbe observed
Total number of dark points on circular path is 4 x 3 = 12. on the wall? (b) What is the path difference at point P?
Hence, the observer will find 12 bright points and 12 dark points Sol.
in the circular track.
(a) Path difference corresponding to minima in our given rang
Finding angular positions of maxima and minima: is N2, 32, 5A2.
Path difference at point P, S,P- S,P= Ax Hence, three dark rings will be observed on the wal.
 3.9
Wave Optics
between the waves rcaching at P, from
difference .dcost
figure,
Path Ar=SA
(0)

PT S

S
S

S S
D

path difference is Ar =SP-S,P.

Theoptical
Since L>>d
Or
=nà
Ar= dcos so-d1-2sin-d
Or
(As i s small),

...) (b) For central maxima y =0or n =d

0.5
n= =1000
Here y is the
radius of any dark or bright ring. 0.5x10-3
Ar = n
For maxima ILLUSTRATION 3.T3

And for minima Ar = (2n-1) A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is cut along its diameter
and the two halves are displaced by t= 1cm along the principal
the radius
On substituting the value Ar in Eq. () we can find axis. A monochromatic point source of wavelength 476 nm
of any dark or bright ring. is placed at a distance 40 cm from the first half, as shown
in figure. Find the position of the first maximum.
ILLUSTRATION 3 T 2

Two monochromatic coherent sources of wavelength 5000 ¢

are placed along the line normal to the screen. Determine
the:
(a) condition of maxima at P(given is small),
(b) order of central bright fringe, ifd=0.5 nm and D =1m.

40cm D=1.4 m

Sol. Using the formula

(20)(40) 40 cm
S
(40- 20)
S,
d D
(41)(20) =39.0476 cm
and V, 41- 20
Sol. d=v,- v, =0.0476 cm = 0.476 mm
(a) The optical path difference is Ax = S,P- S,P. Iy=39.0476
Since D>> d.
P
Ax= dcos
-d1-2sin
(As 9 is
small),

For maxima, Ax =
2D (:o-3) 40 cm t= l cm'
V} = 40 cm D= 1m
n
 3.10 Optics and Modern Physics
The optical path difference at P is So, Eq. (ii) gives =0°.
Ar, = (SS, + S,P) - (SS, + S,P) Hence, from Eq. (i), 7, = /[| +8 cos 20°] = 9/
= (SS, SS,)-(SP- S,P)
=d- (S,P-S,P) CONCEPT APPLICATION EXERCISE 3.1
We know that S, P - S,P = 1. Spherical wavefronts shown in figure,, strike a plane
[As we did in previous illustration]
Reflected wavefront will be as shown in mir or,
y'd
2D
The position of the nth maximum is given by
y'd = n2 or y= 2n2
2D? D d
The position of the first maximum is given by
2(1)(0.476 x 10)
y= 10 = 44.72 mm
0.476

ILLUSTRATION 3.14

Two parallel beams of light P and Qare incident normally on

a prism and the transmitted rays are brought to focus with the (c) (d)
help of a convergent lens as shown in figure. If the intensities
of the upper and lower beams immediately after transmission
from face AC are 4I and I, respectively, find the resultant
intensity at the focus. 2. Wavefronts incident on an interface between the media
are shown in the figure. The refracted wavefront will be ac
Sol. In case of interference, the resultant intensity shown in

I=1 +1, + 2( JI,/, ) cos

Here, I = I and I = 41 A45°

So, I,=51+ 4/ cos ¢

30 30°Y
...()
(a) (b)

with 2n
=(ar) ...(ii) Y600 60°Y

...(ii) (c) (d)

where Ar= [DG- EF (in medium)]
Now, from figure,
A 3. Two point source separated by d= 5 um emit light of
sin =0.8 wavelength 1 = 2 um in phase. A circular wire of radius
20 um is placed around the source as shown in figure.

d
T90-) G
90° u m

20

B
Sium
B

FE (in medium) =u(FE) = ud tan [as FE = dtan ] ..(iv)

DG= DE cos (90° - r) = DE sin r
[as DE = dlcos ] brign
or DG= (d sin rlcos) (a) Points A and B are dark and points Cand D are
[as at D, usin= Isin r] ...(v) dark.
or DG= ud tan
Eqs. (iv) and (v) in (b) Points A and B are bright and point Cand D are
Substituting the value of FE and DG from (c) Points A and Care dark and points B and D
are brign.
Eq. (iii), we get are dai
- ud tan = 0 (d) Points A and Care bright and points B and D
Ar = ld tan
 Wave Optics 3.11
having intensities I and 4I interfere to
beams of light a string undergoes a phase change of 180° when it is refiected
Tyo patternon a screen. The phase difference
a fringe Irom the boundary of denser string, or from a rigid
A produce
thebeamis 2 at point A and 21 at point B. Then no phase change when it is refected from the boundary barrter, a
between difference between the resuitant intensities
at of a
lhe Iess dense string. Similarly. an electrornagnetic wave undergoes
lindout a 180° phase change when reflected from the boundary of a
A and
B.
emitted bytwo identical sources produces intensity medium of higher index of refraction than the one in which 1t
Waves
point on screen where path difference has been travelling. There is no phase change when the
5.
K unit at a waves is 1, calculate the intensity at that wave 15
of
between these at which path difference is 4. renected rom a boundary leading to a medium of lower index of
screen
on refraction. The transmítted wave that crosses the boundary als0
pointcoherent narrow slits emitting
light of wavelength undergoes no phase change.
6 Two
same phase are placed parallel to each other at a Figure (a) shows that ray reflecting from a medium of higher
2inthe
separation of 31. The light is collected on a screen S refractive index undergoes a 180° phase change. The right side
small placed at a distance D(>> 2) from the slits. Find shows the analogy with a reflected pulse on a string.
whichis distance y suchthat the P is a maxima.
smallest 180° phase
the P No phase
change change
1

2
Air Film with
S S index u
SurfaceA
D Screen

coherent narrow slits emitting light of wavelength Surface B

7. Two phase are placed parallel to
Ain the same each other at a
small separation of 2. The light is collected on a screen Air
Swhich is placed at a distance D (>> )) from the slit s
as
shown in figure. Find the finite distance x such that the
intensity at P is equal to intensity at O. (a)

Figure (b) shows that a ray reflecting from a medium of lower

refractive index undergoes no phase change. Consequently.
condition for constructive and destructive interference in the
S S
reflected light is given by
2ud= n (for destructive interference)

D Screen (for constructive interference) ...(i)

ANSWERS where n=0, 1,2, ... and 2= wavelength in free space.

1.(c) K
2. (b) 3. (d) 4, 41 5. unit
2 Incident and reflected light
6. 242D 7. J3D
Air
Surface A
THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
In YDSE, we obtained two coherent sources from a
herent) source by division of wavefront. Here, we dosingle (inco
the same by
division of amplitude (into reflected and
When a plane wave (parallel rays) is refracted waves). Surface B
thin film of uniform incident normally on a Air

thickness
pper surface interfere with
d, then waves reflected from the
waves reflected fromn the
surface. Clearly,the waves reflected from the lower rsurfacelower
travel
Transmitted light
6Optical
flm. path of 2ud, where u is refractive index of the
(b)
Further,surface
he upper
if the film is
placed in air the wave reflected from Interference will also occur in the transmitted light and here
change of n, (from a denser medium) suffers a sudden phase conditions of constructive and destructive interference will be
while
(fromIt is ararer medium)thesuffers
wave reflected from the lower surface
no such phase change.
the reverse of Eq. (), ie.,

and the ruseful to draw an analogy between reflected light waves (for constructive interference)
na

the waVereflectionsa of atransverse wave on a stretched string when 2<ud = (for destructive interference) ...(iü)
meets
boundary, as in shown. The reflected pulse on
 3.12 Optis and Modern Physics
ILLUSTRATION 3.16
This can easily be explained by energy conservation (when
intensity is maximum in refiected light it has to be minimum Aglass lens is coated on one side
with athin filmnof
directly
in transmitted light). However, the amplitude ofonethereflection
transmitted wave and the wave transmitted after
fluoride (MgF) to reduce reflection fromn
the lensmagnesisurfaceum
(see figure). The index of Air
MgF:
differ substantially and hence the fringe contrast in transmitted refraction of MgF, is 1.38; that Glass
n= L.00 n2=1.381
interference is
light is poor. It is for this reason that the thin film of theglass is 1.50. What is
the
generally viewed only in the reflected light.
surrounding the least coating thickness that
In deriving Eq. (i). we assumed that the media eliminates (via interference)
thin
thin film on both sides are rarer compared to the medium of the reflections at the
middle of
550
ilm.
no sudden the visible spectrum (À =
If media on both sides are denser. then there is nm)? Assume that the light is
surface, but
phase change in the wave refiected from the upper from the
approximately perpendicular
in waves reflected
there is a sudden phase change of zconstructive and destructive
to the lens surface.
lower surface. The conditions for
by Eq. (i).
interference in reflected light would still be given denser Sol. This situation here is different trom previous Drobla
that
and in that n, > n, > n,. The reflection at point a still introduces:
However. if medium on one side of the film is
phase reflection at point b also
on the other side is rarer. then either
there is no sudden phase difference of nbut now the
glass Can k
in any reflection. or there is a sudden
phase change of z in both the same (see figure). Unwanted reflections from the glass with
reflection from upper and lower surfaces. suppressed (at a chosen wavelength) by coating
of a properly chosen
thin transparent film of magnesium fluorideof
Incident wave
thickness which introduces a phase change half a wavelenot
2L within the film must h
For this, the path length difference
wavelengths:
equal to an odd number of half
2n, L = (n + 1/2)2
smalles
We want the least thickness for the coating, that is, the
the smallest value of n. Solving for I
L. Thus, we choose n =0,
we obtain
Reflected Rigid support and inserting the given data,
wave
550nm 96.6 nm
(a) 180° phase change L= (4)(1.38)
4n,
Incident wave ILLUSTRATION 3.17

glass plate of thickness

White light is incident normally on a
refraction 1.50. Which wavelengths
0.50 x 105 and index of
nm) are strongly reflected
in the visible region (400 nm-700
by the plate?
Reflected wave
strongly reflected if
Sol. The light of wavelength 2 is
Free support
..0)
n<n
2ud=
(b) No phase change
where n is a non-negative integer.
l.5 x 10-m.
ILLUSTRATION 3.15 Here 2ud= 2x 1.50 x0.5 >x 10m =
intensity across the visible Putting =400 nm in Eq. (i), we get
White ight, with a uniform
nm, is perpendicularly incident
wavelength range 430-690 refraction u = 1.33 and thickness
on a water film of index of
1.5x 10'm =(nJ(400 x10m)
wavelength iis
At what n=3.25
d= 320 nm, that is suspended in air. to an observer?
or

brightest Putting =700 nm in Eq. (i), we get

the light reflected by the film
the interference maxima. 1.5 × 10m m)
Sol. In this situation, Eq. (i)) gives
data, we obtain
Solving for 2and inserting the given n=1.66
851nm integer n can take the valuCs
2ud (2)(1.33)(320 nm) Thus, within 400 nm to 700 nm, the
Eg. (i), the wavelengths becomk
n+1/2 n+1/2 n+1/2 and 3. Putting these values ofn in
infrared
1700 nm, which is in the 4pd 600nm and 429 nm
For m=0, this give us 2= yellow-green
nm, which is 2n +1
region. For n= 1, we find 2= 567 spectrum. For n = 2, nm and 600 nm are strong
light, near the middle of the visible Thus, light of wavelengths 429
region. So. the wavelength
2=340 nm, which is in the ultraviolet brightest is 2 = 567 nm. reflected.
observer is
at which the light seen by the
lLLUSTRATION 3.18 Wave Optics 3.13

(wavelengthA)is incident at an angle i at Aof a glass Ax, =2urcosr - ...()

I andrefractive index =
u.
Araythickness Net phase difference between the
ahof ray 1' and 2
|2ur cosr - ...(V1)

n=1 (b) For normal incidence i =). the

to zero. Hence for value of r should also near
and 2, we have constructive interference of the rays l
2ut cos6 - or = (2n+1)2. .n= 0.12...
4u
B (c) As 50% energy get reflected at A. B and C. Hence the
ng=1

Findthe
intensities of rays 1'and -2 will be I = and I =
between the
rays 1 and 2
phase difference The resultant intensity of ray 1' and 2'
(a) of i for normal incidence i = 0 so as to have a will be
(b) value superposition of the rays 1 and 2
constructive
50 %of light gets
if.
reflected at each interface, find
the
I;=l,+1,+2/11, cos o, =b, 2
-cosO,
(c) intensity
of light after superposition of the rays 1 and 2, I,(5
assume I,= intensity of incident
ray
(d) minimum intensity after superposition of the rays 1 and
cos0, ...(Vii)
On substituting the value of o from Eq. (vi) and
2 (put i= 0) in Eq. (vii) we can get the substituting
resultant intensity of ray 1
(e) valueoft for minima for normalincidence of the lighti=0. and2
(d) The minimum intensity can be
Sol. obtained by putting
D cosÓ, =-l andI =
2

n =1 (e) In case of normal incident (i = 0 ) for

Phase charge
> No phase charge minima
or 2ur = (n+1)à
The phase relationship of the interfering waves does
change if one full wave is added or subtracted from anynot
of
the interfering waves.
B
Hence above equation can be written as
No phase charge n=1
2ur =mÀ or r= mà
(a) Optical path difference Ax,optical (AB+ BC)- AD 2u
In AABC, AB = BC = where m = 1,2, 3...
COS ...i)
Also AE= EC= t tan r
Hence AC= 2AE= 2t tan r CONCEPT APPLICATION EXERCISE 3.2
In AACD: AD = ACsin i ...(ii) 1. Aray of light is incident on a thin film. As
=2r tan r sin i ...(ii) shown in figure
Snell law at A: Isini= u sin r M.N are two refiected rays and P, O are two
...(iv) rays. Rays N and O undergo a
transmitted
from (iii) and (iv), 4D= 2r tan r(u sin 2ut sin r phase change of n. Corect
r)= COSr ordering of the refracting
Hence required path difference
indices is
21
optical u 2ur sin' r (a) n, > n, > n,
COS COSr
(b) n, > nh > n, n
2ut
COS -sin' r]= 2ul cos r
cOS r
(c) n, > n > n,
(d) none of these, the specified changes
cannot occ°
optical =2ut cosr 2. Refractive index of a thin soap film of a unifom
When aray is reflected at the boundary of a rarer to denser is 1.34. Find the smallest thickness of the film
thickness
that gives
medium., a phase difference of (T) or path difference
an interference maximum in the refiected light when light
of wavelength 5360 A falls at normal incidence.
Occur for the ray 1'. There is no path difference due to 3. A thin transparent film of thickness 3000 A and
transmission at Cincluding the change in path difference
due to
refractive
index 1.5 is deposited on a sheet made ofa metal. Assuming
reflection, the true path difference normal incidence of light and also that the film is a plane
3.14 Optics and Modern Physics

parallel one, which wavelength will be strongly reflected nature of light by showing that two
from this sheet when observed in white light? overlapping light
interfered with each other. His cxperiment Was waves
4. By an anodizing process, a transparent film of aluminium
Oxide of thickness = 250 nm and index of refraction
important because he was also able to
pa rtic ul
determine the
of the light from his measurenments, the first such
wa v elenat
g l
thy
of Young's experiment, in which light of a singledearterramngemen
ination
n, = 1.80 is deposited on a sheet of polished aluminium. important
of this Figure
property. (a) shows One
Which wavelength will be strongly reflected if utensils
made from this sheet with observer in white light? Assume
normal incidence of the light.
5. An oil film (n = 145) floating on water is illuminated
(monochromatic light) passes through a single narrow
falls two closely
on narrovw
spaced S, and Thesc
slits wavtwoe"lh
elength
S,.
act as coherent sources of light wavesthat interfere slits
by white light at nomal incidence. The film is 280 nm
thick. Find: (a) the wavelength of the light in the visible
and destructively at different points on thc screcn to
pattern of alternating bright and dark fringes. The
constructiv
produce
purpose the
el
of
y
,
spectrum most strongly reflected and (b) the color of the single slit is to ensure that only light from one direction fal.
light in the spectrum most strongly transmitted. Explain the double slit from diflerent points on the light source wot
your reasoning. strike the double slit from different directions and cauSe
6. Asoap film of thickness 0.0011mm appears dark when patten on the screen to be washed out. The slits S,
and S,
seen by reflected light of wavelength 5800 A. What is as coherent sources of light waves because the light from act
the refractive index of soap solution ifitis between 1.2 originates from the same primary source, namely, the single sli
and 1.5.
To explain the origin of the bright and dark
7. A glass plate of refractive index 1.5 is coated with a
thin layer of thickness and refractive index 1.8. Light the figure presents three top views of the double slit and thefrseron
inges,
of wavelength à travelling in air is incident normally on Figure (b) illustrates how a bright fringe arises directly obposi
the midpoint between the two slits. In this part of the figure, the
the layer. It is partly reflected at the upper and the lower waves (identical) from each slit travel to the midpoint on th
surfaces of the layer and two reflected rays interfere. Write screen. At this location, the distances x, and x, to the slits are eaual
the condition for their constructive interference. If2 = 648
nm, obtain the least value of r for which the rays interfere cach containing the same number of wavelengths. Therefor
constructively. constructive interference results, leading to the bright frinpe
Figure (c) indicates that constructive interference produces another
ANSWERS bright fringe on one side of the midpoint when the distance x ik
1. (b) 2.0.1 um 3. 6000 ¢ larger than x, by exactly one wavelength. Abright fringe also ocurs
4.450 nm
symmetrically on the other side of the midpoint when the distance
5. (a) $41 nm, green (b) 406 nm, violet x, and x, by one wavelength; for clarity, however, this bright frige
6. 1.318 7.90 nm
is not shown. Constructive interference produces additional bright
fringes on both sides of the middle wherever the difference between
YOUNG'SDOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT x, and x, is an integer number of wavelengths: 2, 22, 32, etc.
Figure (d) shows how the first dark fringe arises. Here, the distance
In 1801, the English scientist Thomas Young (1773-1829)
performed a historic experiment that demonstrated the wave x, is larger than x, by exactly one-half awavelength, so the waves
Wave fronts
Cylindrical from two slits
wave fronts
Monochromatic
Bright regions:
interference is
light constructive,
intensity is
maximum
So

Dark regions:
interference is
destructive,
Screen intensity is
minimum
(a)

S S
Bright fringe Bright fringe Dark fringe
(constructive (constructive (constructive
interference) interference) xy=X} t5 interference)
S

(b) (c) (d)

The waves slits 5, and S, interfere constructively (Parts (b) and (c)) or destructively (Part (d)) on the screen, depending on the difference
in distance between the slits and the screen. The slit widths and the distance between the slits have been exaggerated for carity.
 Wave Optics 3.15
to
giving rise the dark fringe. Destructive Dark fringes of a double slit:
destructively,
additional dark fringes on both sides of the
intertere creates difference between x, and x, cquals an odd sin ...(ii)
interlerence
wheneverthe n=0,1, 2, 3,..
center half-wavelengths: etc.
Conditions for observing sUstained jnterference: Following
number of
are the conditions for observing sustained interference with good
inMeger
fringes observed on the screen in Young's
positionofthe
Contrast:
calculated with the aid of following figure. If
The canbe 1. The ínitíal phase diference between the interfering waves
experiment away comparcd with the separation d
screenislocated far labeled x, and x, in Fig. (a) are nearly must remain constant otherwise the interference willnot be
the slits,then
thelines sustained.
parallel. these lines make approximately
of'the Being nearly Z. The frequencies and wavelength of the two waves should be
paralle! horizontal. The distances x, and x, differ
the
angles2 with equal. If not, the phase difference wil] not remain constant
cqualamount Ar which is the length of the short side of the and so the interference will not be sustained.
(b). Since the triangle is a right angled
byan trianglein Fig. 3. The light must be monochromatic. This eliminates
shaded follows that Ar = dsin . Constructive interference
riangle,it distances differ by an integer number n of overlapping of pattern as each wavelength corresponds to
when the one interference pattern.
OcCurs A=, d sin = n. Therefore, the angle for
wavelengths 1, or
maxima can be determined from the following 4. The amplitudes of the interfering waves must be equal. This
interference Improves constant with =41, and/=0.
the 5. The sources must be close to each other, otherwise due to
expression.
small fringe, width fringes may be so close to each other
that the eye cannot resolve them. resulting in uniform
illumination.
6. The sources must be narow. A broad source will be equal
S to a large number of narrow sources and each set of two
S
sources willgive its own pattern and overlapping of patterns
will result in unifom illumination.
PosITION OF BRIGHT AND DARK FRINGES IN YDSE
Let us consider point P on the distant screen. at a distance D

(a)
Screen

| (b)
from the slits widthD>>d The small arc of the circle from P is
almost a straight line. From figure, path difference Ar = d sin .

2
1
Ar
Arc of circle
1 centered at P
2 (a)
3
To distant
Screen
(c)

(9) Rays from slits S, and S,, which make approxi-mately the same angle
bwith the horizontal, strike a distant screen at the same spot. (b) The
Giference in the path lengths of the two rays is A =d sin 8. () The
angle is the angle at which a bright fringe (m = 2, here) occurs on
S

either side of the central bright fringe (m = 0). Ar Arc of circle

centered at P
Bright fringes of a double slit: (b)
Sin 9 The condition for constructive interference is
n=0, 1, 2, 3,... ..)
Ar= S,P-S,P= tnl, where n=0, 1,2..
The value of n specifies the Thus, n=2
ithedentifies the 'second-order' brightorderfringe.of theFigure
fringe.
(c) stresses that dsin = tn [Condition for maxima]
The condition for destructive interference is
...(i)
angl
of the e 0 given by Eq. (i) locates bright fringes on either side
leads to midpoint betweenthatthe slits. Asimilar line
the conclusion
of reasoning Ar= S.P- S,P= where n=1,2, ...
Ihe bright the dark fringes, which lie between
expression. fringes, are located according to the following d sin = [Condition for minima] ..(ii)
 3.16 0ptics and Modern Physics
If the separation between screen and slits is large (D >> d),
then we have
S 2
sin =tan = =
D
where y is the vertical distance from the center of the pattern.
Position of nth bright and dark fringes are, respectively, S

V,d
D
= n2 or y,
) The angular fringe width is defined as
the ratio of
and y,d
D or y,=
of light and the distance between the slits S, and S, wavelengthof
(sources)
coherent light.
Each value of n corresponds to particular bright or dark fringe. Important Points:
The absolute value of n is called the order of interference.
The nth and (n + 1)th maxima are given by
Fringe width is independent of n, i.e., all the interference
fringes have same width in experiments where there isa
nhD (n +1) 2D division of wavefront of the incoming waves.
or ,+ d
d Fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of
light used, i.e., ß c . So, fringes for red light are wide
FRINGE WIDTH than those for blue light.
The distance between two successive maxima (or minima) is Fringe width is inversely proportional to the separation
called fringe width given as between the slits, i.e., ß oc (1/d). Thus, with increase
in separation between the sources, fringe widh
decreases.
Distance between (n+1)th maxima and nh maxima will also
With increase in distance between screen and plane of
equal to fringe width
slits, fringe width ß increases linearly with D. However.
AD AD with increase in D, intensity of light sources and hence of
B=(n+1)-n d interfering waves is adversely affected.
AD If the interference experiment is performed in a
B= medium of refractive index u (say water) instead of air.
The fringe width is measured from centre of one fringe to
the wavelength of light will change from to (Wu) and
SO
centre of next fringe. The bright fringe has maximum intensity
at its centre similarly dark fringe has minimum intensity at its
centre.
Screen
That is, fringe width reduces and becomes (1/u)times of
3rd bright its value in air.
3rd dark If monochromatic light is replaced by white light, due to
2nd bright overlapping of patterns (each corresponding to a single
2nd dark B
wavelength with fringe width ß ), central band, i.e,
principal maxima will be white with red edges on either
Ist bright
S side of it also we shall get a few colored bands and then
Ist dark uniform illumination.
Central bright
S Ist dark
ILLUSTRATION 3.19
Ist bright
2nd dark
In Young's experiment for interference of light the S
2nd bright
0.2 cm apart are illuminated by yellow light (a = 6000 A}
What would be the fringe width on a screen placed l mtrou
3rd dark
the plane of slits ? What will be the fringe width if the ssteu
3rd bright is immersed in water. (Refractive index = 4/3)

Sol. Fringe width, B= AD 6000 ×10-10 x1

Fringe pattern in YDSE d 0.2 x10
ANGULAR FRINGE WIDTH =3.0x 10 m= 0.3 mm widt
If system is immersed in water
A-P_(AD/d) (u=4/3), then the fringe
The angular fringe width is D D
becomes
B_0.3
or =
mm =0.225 nmm
d 4/3
 Wave Optics 3.17

LLUSTRATION 3.20. If the experiment is performed in air, then fringe width,

double slit is illuminated by light of wave B-AairD_Sx107x = 2.5 mm
ofthe
slits
The S0004A.The slit are Immapart and the screen is placed 0.2 x 103
kength
maway.Calculate
angular position ofthe 10th maxima in radian and ILLUSTRATION 3.22
) the
separationoffthetwo adjacent minima.
In Young's double slit interference experiment, with
i) monochromatic light, fringes are obtained on a screen placed
at some distance from the slits, If the screen is moved by
So
rpositionn of the nth maximum
Angular 5x 102 m towards the slíts, the change in fringe width is
()
nß naD/d n2 3x 10m. If the distance between the slíts ís 10 m, calculate
8,= D D the wavelength of the light used.
2D
Sol. Initial fringe width B, = d
nß The fringe width when the screen is moved by 5 x 10 m towards
S the slits
D A(D-5x10)
B,= d
The fringe width willdecrease in second case.
2(D-5x10) 2D =3x10m
Hence the angular position of the 10th maxima
It is given |B,-B= d

l=5000 À= 5000 x10°m,d=1x10m and n=10 3x10-5Ax5x102

n2 10x 5000 x 10-l0 =5x10 rad
8, = 10 3x10 x10-3
(ü Separation between two adjacent minima = fringe width B 5x102
= 6000 ¢
AD 5000 x10-1 x1 =5x10m= 0.5mm
lx10-3 TLLUSTRATION 3.23

ILLUSTRATIDN 3.21
In Young's double slit interference experiment, the distance
between two Sources 1s mm. The distance of the
Young's double slit experiment is performed inside water 100
u=43) with light of frequency 6x 1014 Hz. If the slits are
screen from the source is 1.0 m. Wavelength of light used is
separated by 0.2 mm and the screen kept 1 m from the slits, 5000 Å. Then what is the angular position of the first dark
ind the fringe width. Using the same set-up, what will the
ringe width be if the experiment is performed in air? fringe?

L Wavelength of given light in air can be obtained from the width. e=P
Sol. Angular fringe D d
relation
3x10 =5x10 m Ist dark fringe
C=fj ==6x10!4
S

Waveledingtfhferent and
wil be
of light of same frequency (6 x 10' Hz) in water

5x10-7 S
=3.75 x10 m
As the Hwater 4/3

experiment is performed in water, so fringe width,

The first dark fringe will be at half the angular fringe width
B= Ane D from the mid point of central maximum. Thus the angular
position of first dark fringe will be
D=1m and d= 0.2 mm=0.2 ×10- m. 5000 x100r X10-lo/l80 =0.5°
B= 3.75x10 xl m 9x10-3
0.2x10
B=1.87 mm
3.18 Optics and Modern Physics

MAXIMUM ORDER OF INTERFERENCEFRINGES 1

naD
The position of nth order maxima on the screen, y= S
d
n=0,+1, +2 [for interference maxima, butn cannot take infinitely
large values, as that would violate the approximation (|1)])
n
i.e., is small or y<<D ’ D
D d
Hence, the above formula for interference maxima is applicable
when n <K d|. Sol. S,L= dsin or Ar= dsin
When n becomes comparable to d/, path difference can no For intensity at P to be maximum, Ar = d sin = n2
longer be given by dylD. Hence, for maxima, nà
dsin sin =
Ar =n ’ dsin =n ’ d
n
Hence, the highest order of interference maxima, Now, sin 0sl’

"maN d
or ns
where [ ]represents the greatest integer function.
Similarly, the highest order of interference minima, In this problem, nmax =2 and =5500¢=5500 × 10-10 m.
d=n1=2x 5500 x 10-0 =1.lx 104m
nmin
ILLUSTRATION 3.26
ILLUSTRATION 3.24
In Young'sexperiment, light of wavelength 600 nm falls on the
In a YDSE, D = 1m, d= 1mm, and =1/2 mm. double slits separated by 0.1 mm. What is the highest order
(a) Find the distance between the first and central maxima on of maximum intensity in the interference pattern obtained
the screen.
on a screen kept 3 m from the slits? How does the highest
(b) Find the number of maxima and minima obtained on the order change if the distance of screen from the slits is
Screen. changed?
Sol. d
(a) D>>d Sol. As we know, n
Hence, path difference at any angular position on the
screen, Ar = d sin Given, d=0.1 mm =0.1 x 10 m
The path difference for first maxima and A=600 nm = 600x 10 m.
Ax = dsin =1 ’ sin = 0.1x10
d 2 "max =166.67
=30° 600 x 109
Hence, distance between central maxima and first maxima "mayl66

y=D tan =
" Obviously, n,nax
from the slits.
=dl does not depend on the distance of scre
(b) Maximum path difference, Axmax =d=lmm Hence, it remains 166 if the distance between the slits and uk
screen is changed.
’ Highest order maxima, nmax = 2 and highest
ILLUSTRATICDN 3.27
order minima "min
n At a point on the screen directly in front of one of
the sllS
find the missing wavelengths.
Total number of maxima = 2n+1=5
Total number of minima = 2n. =4
min D
ILLUSTRATION 3.25 P
In Young's experiment performed with light of wavelength
5500 Å, what should be the separation between the two slits so
that the highest order of maximum intensity in the interference
pattern is 2? You may assume D <<d.
 Wave Optics 3.19
IInd
order
maxima
SAL According to theory of interference, position y of a point 4l0
given by
onthe screen is IInd
order
minima

Ist
order
maxima

As for missing wavelengths, intensity will be minimum (=0), Ist

order
minima

xima
Centralmaxim
S
Ar= (2n -1); I s order
t minima

I s order
t maxima

2d S IInd
order
minima

However, here d= b and y=(b/2). IInd

order
maxima

Hence, = with n= 1,2, 3, ...

(2n- 1)D
L. wavelengths (b²/D), (b/3D), (b-/5D), etc., will be absent
(or missing) at point P.
INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION ON SCREEN IN YDSE
If I, and I, be the intensity of the light from slits S, and S,
respectively reaching at point P on the screen. Then resultant
intensity at P is given by
-22DId
I=h+1, +21,7,cos¢ ...(i)
41 -2T ( 27 471
where # is the phase difference between the waves reaching at P. dsin
42 -1 42

Intensity maxima occur where is an integral

multiple of 2r and d sin is an integral multiple of 2
Phase difference, path difference and intensity variation
within one fringe:
2Tyd
The phase difference, ¢ = ...)
AD
Ar= dsin
AD
We express the fringe width as, B= ...(i)
2Ty
If intensities of the light coming out from slits are equal i.e., From (i) and (i), =
4=l,=1,, then from Eq. (i), I, =21, +2/, cos¢ =21,(1 +cos¢) The resultant intensity on screen in function ofy can be expressed
as,
I, = 41,cos? 2 I=41, cos? Tyd AD
...(ii)
217 Then Eq. (iii) in terms of fringe width can be expressed as
As phase difference = Ax and in Young's double slit
experiment (YDSE), Ax= dsin then o=
27 I, =41,cos ..(iv)
-(dsin 8)
It mean the resultant intensity at P can be expressed as Value ofy Phase Path difference Intensity
difference () Ax = -
I, =41, cos|dsin 21

Twe are observing near centre of screen we can eXpress path -or60° R|ost | 3lo
6 3 6
difference as, D 21
-or 90°
The phase difference, = 2T 2t yd 4 2 4
AD 2T
And the resultant intensity at P can be -or120° 3
expressed as 3 3

yd T Or180°
I= 41, cos 2 D
B
2 2
3.20 Optics and Modern Physics
AIntensity
4l6

S;

|2/, Ar= dsin

Atany angular position 0, at P,

6 4 3 2
I, =Kha'+(2a)° +2(a)(2a) coso}
=Ka' {5+4cos o}
Distance from centre of bright fringe
= Ka
Important Point: 27T 27
The intensity of light coming through the slits is
directly where = Ar= 1 dsin
proportional to the opening of the slit (or width of the slit) Rdsin
i.e. Intensity width of slit (amplitude)? I, =Ka'|1+8cos?
rd sin
From Eqs. () and (i), I 9
+Scos?
ILLUSTRATIDN 3,28
TLLUSTRATIDN 3.3O
In YDSE interference pattern, if the slit widths are in the
ratio 1:4. Then find out the ratio of minimum and maximum
In Young's experiment, the. slits, separated by d = 0.8 mm.
are illuminated with light of wavelength 7200 À. Interference
intensity. pattern is obtained on a screen D = 2 m from the slits. Find
Sol. As we know Intensity oc width of slit (amplitude)? the minimum distance from central maximum at which the
average intensity is 50% of the maximum?
Hence the slit width ratio
Sol. Resultant intensity at a point due to superposition ot
a, 4
coherent waves and phase difference ¢ can be expressed as
1, W
IR=4/, cos?
At the position of interference maxima, ) = 2nt
cos (0/2)= cos´ nr =1 n is integer
Imin (a -a,)_(a - 2a,)'
Imax (a, +a,)' (a +24,)' -1:9
9 Imax =4, ’ I= Imay cos (0/2)
Here, I = [50% ofmaxima!
ILLUSTRATION 3.29 2
In YDSE one slit is wider than other slit. It is found that the I max may COg2 1
amplitude of light reaching the central point of the screen 2 2 2
from one of the slit, acting alone is twice that from the
other slit when acting alone. Find the ratio resulting intensity Cog
or =n/2
at a direction on the screen and that at the centre of the V2 4
intensil)
screen, Therefore, phase difference at a point at which resultant
is50% of maximum is x/2.
Sol. The intensity at any point P on screen is given by Now, phase difference, ) = (2r) (path difference)
I,= Ka'+(2a)' +2(a)%2a) coso Path difference = -X 2
At centre of screen, =0 21
But Ar= dD
or
Iç=9Ka' ...()
 Wave Optics 3.21

violet
AD then completely destructive interference will occur for
= devoid of violet color that will
D4
’
4d light. Hence, we will have a line
appear reddish. And if
7200 A
and,=2 m, d=0.8 mm.
sP- s,p= = 350nm
7200x10x2 2
= 4.5x10* m = 45 mm
|'= 4x0.8xl0 then completely destructive interference for red light results
and the line at this position will be violet. The colored fringes
FRINGES IN YDSE
INTERFERENCE disappear at points far away from the central white fringe; for
SHAPEOF these points, there are so many wavelengths which interfere
theshape of fringes whentwo pinholes are used
wediscuss YDSE constructively that we obtain a uniform white illumination. For
slits in
oted ofthetwo which move in such a way that its example, if S,P - s, P= 3000 nm, then constructive interference
elocus
Fringesare of points
from the two slits remains constant. will occur for wavelengths =3000/n nm. In the visible region,
diference
Aith SP-S,P= Ar=constant these wavelengths are 750 nm (red), 600 nm (yellow), 500 nm
..)
minima. (greenish-yellow), and 430 nm (violet). Clearly, such a light will
vEt2, the fringe represents Ist appear white to the unaided eye.
minima.
'=+32, itrepresents2nd maxima. Thus, with white light we get a white central fringe at the point
ir=0, it represents central of zero path difference, followed by a few colored fringes on its
maxima, etc.
r=t it represents Ist both sides, the color s0on fading off to a uniform white.
S. and
Eauation (i) represents a hyperbola with its two foci at In the usual interference pattern with a monochromatic source,
Sseefhgure).
YA
a large number of identical interference fringes are obtained and
it is usually not possible to determine the position of central
Ax=32 maxima. Interference with white light is used to determine the
S1 Ar = 22 position of central maxima in such cases.
Ar=
’X TLLLSTRATION 3.31
Ax =0
Ax = White coherent light (40007000 À) is sent through the slits
Ax =-2 of a YDSE. The separation between the slits is 0.5 mm and
S screen is 50 cm away from the slits. There is a hole in the
Screen at a point l.0mm away (along the width of the fringe)
The interference pattern which we get on screen is the section from the central line.
of byperboloid of revolution when we revolve the hyperbola (a) Which wavelength(s) will be absent in the light coming
about the axis S,S,. from the hole?
I thescreen is perpendicular to the X-axis, i.e., in the YZ plane, (b) Which wavelength(s) will have a strong intensity?
s is generally the case, fringes are hyperbolic with a straight
Cntral section (see Fig. (a)]. Sol.
(a) The absent wavelength will correspond to minima at this
position order of minima corresponding to 4000 A,
(2n-1)D. ’(2n-)= 2d
2d D.

1 0.5 x10xx10 x2
n,
2 50x 10 x 4000x 10n-10
B
12x10
I the (a) (b) 2 4000
\see Fig.scr(b)]
een is in the XY
plane, again fringes are hyperbolic
p

WHIYoTheuTNEG'SLIGHTDoUBLE-SLIT ExPERIMENT WITH y=lmm

Ml central maxima will be white because all wavelengths

d=0.5 mim
\or
dboveconsjtruthcetivposition
ely interference here. Howeve, slightly below
maxima fringes will be colored.
S

Cxample, ifP is apointof central on the screen such that D= 50 cm

S.P-s,P= 2
= 190 nm
3.22 Optics and Modern Physics
Order of minima corresponding to 7000 Å, 5. Abeam of light consisting of wavelengths 6000 A
4500 Åis used in a YDSE with D=| 1 mand d= and
12x 10 Find the least distance from the central maxima. mm =\
n, = 2 7000 bright fringes due to the two wavelengths coincide where
6. In Young's experiment, find the distance between
Number of integers between 1.9 and 3.0 are 2 and 3. two sits
that results in the third minimum for 420 nm violet
Wavelength correspondingto n=2 is
y, 2d 1x10 x 2x 0.5x 10
an angle 30°. tighta
(2n-1)D (2x 2-1) x 50× 10
104 2x10-6
=0.6667x 10-6
(2x2-1)x 50 3

=667 nm
Now,wavelength corresponding ton=3 is D
2x10-6
400 nm
(2x3-1) 7. In an interference arrangement similar to double.sli
Hence the wavelengths 400 nm and 667 nm will be absent experiment, S, and S, are illuminated with coherent
source microwave source each of frequency 1 MHz Th
at the hole.
sources are synchronized to have zero phase differenoe
(b) The wavelengths corresponding to strong intensity will The slits are separated by distance d = 150.0 m m
correspond to maxima at the position. Order of maxima
intensity I(O) is measured as a function of 8, where 6i
corresponding to A, defined as shown in figure. lf I, is maximum intensity
nD2
’n=
y,d lx10 x 0.5 x10-3 calculate I(0) for:
DA 50 x10 xh
10-6 10000
n4000= = 2.5
4000 x 10-10 4000
10000
and o00 =14 D
7000
Integer between 1.4 and 2.5 is 2.
y,d_10-6 = 500 nm
(a) =0 (b) =30° (c) =90°
nD 2
8. Young's interference experiment is performed with
monochromatic light. The separation between the slits i
0.500mm, and the interference pattern on a screen 3.30 m
CONCEPT APPLICATION EXERCISE 3.3 away shows the first side maximum 3.40 mm from the
center of the pattern. What is the wavelength?
1. In Young's double slit experiment, one of the slits is so 9. Young's double-slit experiment is performed with
painted that intensity of light emitted from it is half of that 600 nm light and a distance of2,00 mbetween the slits and
of the light emitted from other slit. Then the screen. The tenth interference minimum is observed
(a) fringe system willdisappear 7.5 mm from the central maximum. Determine the spacing
(b) bright fringes willbecome brighter and dark fringes will of the slits.
be darker 10. Two slits are separated by 0.320 mm, A beam of 500 nm
(c) both bright and dark fringes willbecome darker light strikes the slits, producing an interference patten
(d) dark fringes will become less dark and bright fringes Determine the number of maxima observed in the angulat
willbecome less bright. range -30.0°<<30.0°.
2. In YDSE performed with wavelength = 5890 Å, the 1.The intensity on the screen at a certain point in
angular fringe width is 0.40°. What is the angular fringe double-slit interference pattern is 25.0% of the maximun
width if the entire set-up is immersed in water? value. (a) What minimum phase difference (in radian)
3. In YDSE for wavelength = 589 nm, the interference between the sources produces this result? (b) Expr
fringes have angular separation of 3.50 x 10 rad. For this phase difference as a path difference for 486.1
light.
what wavelength would the angular separation be 10.0% 12. The intensity of the light of theslis
greater? coming from one
4. In Young's double slit experiment with wavelength in Young's double slit experiment is double the intens"
5890 À, there are 60 fringes in the field of vision. How from the other slit. Find the ratio of the maximum inten
many fringes will be observed in the same field of vision to the minimum intensity in the interference fringe patic
observed.
if wavelength used is 5460 Å?
 Wave Optics 3.23
one of the two slits in Young's double slit
The width of
13.experiment Ar=(S,P)-(BS, +S,P)
is double of the other slit. Assuming that the
amplitude of the light coming from a slittis proportional to Ar= (S,P- S,P) - BS,
eslit width, find the ratio of the maximunm to minimum
ya
intensity in the interference pattern. Ar= -d sin
that one of the slits in Young's experiment is D
14.Suppose
erthan the other, so the amplitude of the light reaching
central part of the screen fromn one slit, acting alone, And for maxima Ar= tn, for minima Ar = t(2n-I)
twice that from the other slit, acting alone. Obtain an
exDression for the Iight intensity Iat the screen as a function ILLUSTRATION 3.32
ofe. the angular position.
A coherent parallel beam of microwaves of wavelength
ANSWERS
2= 0.5 mm falls on a Young's double-slit apparatus. The
2. 0.30° 3. 648 nm 4. 65 5. 1.8 mm separation between the slits is 1.0 mm. The intensity of
1.(d)
microwaves is measured on a screen placed parallel to the
6.2.1 x 10m 7. (a) 1, (b) 1/2 (c) 0 8.515 nm plane of the slits at a distance of 1.0m from it as shown in
9. 1.52 mm 10. 641 11. (a) (b) 162 nm 12.34 figure.
3
13.9
S
DIFFERENT CASES IN YoUNG'S DoUBLE-SLIT d= 1.0 mm

EXPERIMENT S,
Rays Not Parallel to Principal Axis
Case 1. When source is at infinite distance and obligue Screen

incidence above the axis: Here, rays reaching at S, and S, have If the incident beam makes an angle of 30º with thex-axis (as
intial path difference. Path difference between the rays reaching in the dotted arrow shown in the figure), find the y-coordinates
at point P, of the first minima on either side of the central maximum.

Sol. Path difference before slits = dsin

S

iS d sin d S

Path difference between the rays reaching point P i.e.,

dsin
Ar =(AS, +S,P)- S,P
Ar= AS, +(S,P-S,P)
Ax= dsina + yd
D Path difference after slits = dsin
As path of rays before slits is longer at S, and S,P> S,P after
And for, maxima Ar =t . for,minima Ax =t(2n-1)2 slits, so net path difference for first minima is
aSe 2. When source is at infinite distance and oblique Ar= dsin -d sin =
dence below the axis: Path difference between the rays
reaching at point P, sin =sin ± = sin 30° ±
0.5 3
2d 2x1
3
tan = and

So, the position of first minima on either side of the central

max1ma is

3
y=Dtan = and
VIs
3.24 0ptics and Modern Physics
Line
Source Placed Beyond the Central Line Source Placed Beyond the Central at
Certain inite
Here, the source is placed a little beyond the center line. In Distance
In this case also the rays reaching at S, and S, have initial
this case, the waves interaction with S, and S, has initial phase
difference as shown in figure. difference.

s,
S

S
S C

T
D

Path diference at point P on the screen,

Ar= (SS, + S,P) -(SS, +S,P) Path difference at point P,
=(-SS, + SS,) + (SP - S,P)
bd Ar=[(SS, +S,P) -(SS, +S,P)]
...) Ar= (SS,-SS)-(S,P- S,P)
a D
For maxima: A÷n
Ar=((, -)+dsin =(, -)+ D
For minima: Ar = (2n - Here, we assume that interference pattern formed at point Pi:
If we know the value of Ar from Eq. (i), we can calculate above the point 'C'.
different positions of maxima and minima.
ILLUSTRATION 3.34
TLLUSTRATION 3 . 3 3 In a Young's experiment the light source is at distance
In Young's double-slit experiment, the point source of I,=20 um and 7,=40um fromn the slits. The light of wavelength
wavelength 2= 500nm is placed slightly off the central axis i=500 nm is incident on slits separated at a distance 10 um.
A screen is placed at a distance D= 2 m away from the slits
as shown in figure.
as shown in figure.
P

5 mm
1 mm 10 mmt
klmy S 1m S

S
(a) Find the nature and order of the interference at point P. D
(b) Find the nature and order of the interference at point 0.
Sol. (a) Find the values of relative to the central line where
(a) As discussed in previous case, here b =1 mm, d= 10 mm, maxima appear on the screen.
a=1 m, and D=lm. (b) How many maxima will appear on the screen?
Using Eq. () for path difference between the waves
reaching at point P, Sol.
1.10 5x10
=35 X 10-* mm
(a) The optical path difference between the beams arriv;
Ax=
10 2x10 at P, Ar= (,-)+dsin
Ifit is maximum at point P, then Ax/ will be an integer, i.e., The condition for maximum intensity is, Ar = n
35 x10-3 where, n=0, tl, t2,...
70
500 x 10x10
A maximum of the order 70occurs at P.
Thus, sin®=IAr-,-4)1=nà-(, -4)
lx 10
= 10 x10 mm
(b) At 0, Ax
10 10x10-6 lMXS00 -20x10")
>X10-9_
Ax
= 20
hence, = sin
Hence. maximum of the order 20 occurs at O.