Introduction to ICT and

Cyberspace
UNIT 2 COMPUTER HARDWARE,
SOFTWARE AND PACKAGES
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Evolution and Development of Computing
2.4 Hardware Components of Computers
2.5 What is Software?
2.5.1 Difference between System Software and Application Software

2.6 System Software: Functional Categories

2.6.1 System Control Programs
2.6.2 System Support Programs

2.7 Software Crisis

2.8 Application Software or Packages
2.9 Summary
2.10 Terminal Questions
2.11 Answers and Hints
2.12 References and Suggested Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Modern computers are equipped with powerful hardware facilities driven by extensive
software packages. Today computing speed is very high and it is capable of doing
huge amount of work within seconds with proper accuracy. Nowadays computing
and telecommunication both controls the whole universe with multiple manners. To
access the state of art of computing, it is always better to review the historical
milestones in the developments of computers. Nowadays the computer system plays
such a vital role that no corporate or individual can survive without it by any means.
Starting from the country’s national security to any common issue, the use of the
computer system is enormous.
In general, the computer accepts inputs, then processes it, and gives the output.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• describe the evolution and development of computing;
• list hardware components of a computer;
• explain what is software and the different types of software; and
• discuss major problems faced by the management, namely software crisis.
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 Computer Hardware,
2.3 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF Software and Packages

COMPUTING
As far as hardware technology is concerned, the first generations (1945-1954)
used vacuum tubes and relay memories interconnected by insulated wires. The second
generation (1955-1964) was marked by the use of discrete transistors, diodes, and
magnetic ferrite cores, interconnected by printed circuits. The third generation (1965-
1974) was started with integrated circuits (ICs) for both logic and memory in small
scale or medium scale integration (SSI or SMI) and multilayered printed circuits.
The fourth generation (1974-1991) was started with large scale or very large scale
integration (LSI or VLSI) having core memory replaced with semiconductor memory.
High density and high-speed processors are used in the fifth generation (1991-
Present) and memory chips based on even more improved VLSI technology are
used. For example, 64-bit 3.0 GHz microprocessors are now available on a single
chip. Random Access Memory (RAM) of more than 1024 MB is commonly available
in the market now.

The First Generation: From architectural and software point of view, these were
built with a single central processing unit (CPU) which performed serial fixed-point
arithmetic using a program counter, branch instructions, and an accumulator. The
CPU must be involved in all memory access and input/output (I/O) operations.
Machine and assembly language were used in first generation computers.

The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC), built at the school
of the University of Pennsylvania in 1950, was the first model of the first generation
Computers.

The Second Generation: In this era of computers, index registers, floating-point

arithmetic, multiplexed memory, and I/O processors were introduced. High-level
Languages (HLLs), such as Fortran, ALGOL, and Cobol were introduced along
with compilers, subroutines and batch processing monitors. Irving Reed (1957)
developed registers Transfer Language for systematic design of digital Computers.
Example for the above system is IBM 7030 (the stretch computer) featuring
instruction look ahead and error-correcting memories built in 1962.

The Third Generation: These were being started with microprogrammed control.
Pipelining and cache memory were introduced to close up the speed gap between
the CPU and main memory. The idea of multiprogramming was implemented to
interleave CPU and I/O activities across multiple user programs. Example of the
third generation system is IBM/360-370 series.

The Fourth Generation: Parallel computers in various architectures were started

in this era, using shared or distributed memory or optional vector hardware.
Multiprocessing OS, Special languages and compilers were developed for parallelism.
Software tools and environments were created for parallel processing or distributed
computing. During this period, the technology of parallel processing matured and
entered the production mainstream. Example of fourth generation system is VAX
9000.

The Fifth Generation: The development in the fifth generation is still in progress.
Here more importance is placed on massively parallel processing (MPP). Scalable 19
Introduction to ICT and and latency to lerant architecture is being adopted in MPP system using VLSI silicon,
Cyberspace
GaAs technologies, high-density packaging and optical technologies.

2.4 HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF COMPUTERS

The electronics or mechanical parts of the computer are generally called
hardware components. From a layman point of view, the common visibility
hardware of computers are Central Processing Unit (CPU), Display Unit
(Monitor), Input Unit (Keyboard), Pointing Device (mouse), Multimedia Unit (Sound,
video and Game) and Output Unit (Printer). Apart from these, there are so
many enhancing devices like pen drive (high capacity removable storage device,
scanner (for scanning Photo etc), combo drive (for DVD play) which are easily
available in market.
As our study is basically concerned with cyberspace (Internet related) only, so it is
better to understand more about network and the Internet application hardware.
These are the essential components, which are needed if somebody desires to work
on the Internet:
a) Autonomous computer,
b) Modem or Lan Card,
c) Connection from ISP,
d) Normal phone line (If dial up connection), and
e) Browsing software.
Nowadays broadband connection (speed is more than 256 KBPS) is available
almost everywhere throughout India. So customers are generally attracted towards
high speed Internet instead of dial-up access.
Though the Internet may run on Pentium-I machine having min 32 MB RAM, the
following system configuration is highly desirable:
A) Pentium 2.0 GHz (or more), cache 512, Intel Genuine Based Motherboard
Chip set and Min FSB 512,
B) At Least 128 MB RAM (or more) having 80 GB HDD (Hard disk Drive),
C) Ideally 17” Color Monitor,
D) Quality VGA card (min 32 MB) with better sound Quality, and
E) Branded Modem or Ethernet Card.
Modem is the most important hardware when the need of the Internet arises. Let us
analyse how modem works.
Modem stands for modulator/demodulator. It is the most popular type of Data
Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE).
Additionally, some other enhancing device like the web cam and microphone may
also be used for better multimedia facilities.

20 Please answer the following Self Assessment Question.

 Computer Hardware,
Self Assessment Question 1 Spend 2 Min. Software and Packages

Fill in the blanks:

i) The __________________ part of the computer is called hardware
components.
ii) ______________ is the most popular type of Data Circuit-Terminating
Equipment (DCE).

2.5 WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

Software is a program, which controls hardware and user interface. It combines the
user and hardware through common set of instructions of particular software. So,
for starting a computer, an Operating System (OS) is needed first. An OS makes a
computer prompt to understand what the human input coming in and what output
needed there. As computer understands only binary code (means only 0 and 1), OS
converts human code to binary code.
Software consists of computer programs, which are sequences of instructions for
the computer. The process of writing (coding) programs is called programming and
individuals who perform this task are called programmers. The computer is unable
to do anything until it is instructed by software. Although computer hardware is,
made for, general purpose, software enables the user to instruct a computer system
to perform specific functions that provides commercial value to individual as well as
corporate. There are two major types of software: system software and application
software. The relationship between hardware, system software and application
software is pictured here in figure.

The relationship between Hardware, System Software and Application Software.

2.5.1 Difference between System Software and Application

Software
System Software is a set of instructions that serves primarily as an intermediary
between computer hardware and application programs and also is directly
manipulated by skilled users. System software provides important self-regulatory
functions for computer systems, such as loading itself when the computer is first
turned on, managing hardware resources such as secondary storage for all applications
and providing commonly used sets of instructions for all applications to use. System
programming is either the creation or maintaince of system software.
Application software is a set of computer instructions that provide more specific
functionality to the user. That functionality may be broad, such as general Excel 21
Introduction to ICT and Sheet or narrow such as a Stock Programming. An application program applies to
Cyberspace
a computer to a certain need. Application programming is either the creation or
modification and improvement of application software. There are large numbers of
application software available in the market today.

Finally, the basic difference between both of them is the application programs primarily
manipulate data or test to produce or provide information where as system programs
manipulate computer hardware resources.

Please answer the following Self Assessment Question.

Self Assessment Question 2 Spend 3 Min.

True or False:
i) Software consists of computer programs, which are sequences of
instructions for the computer. ( )
ii) The computer can do everything without any instructions by the
software. ( )
iii) Application programs manipulate data or test to produce or provide
information where as system programs manipulate computer hardware
resources. ( )

2.6 SYSTEM SOFTWARE: FUNCTIONAL

CATEGORIES
Basically two major functional categories come under the system software:
System Control Programs
System Support programs
2.6.1 System Control Programs
System control programs control the use of the hardware, software and data resources
of a computer system. The main system control program is the Operating System.
The operating system provides the overall operations of the computer including
monitoring the computer’s status and scheduling operations, which includes the input
and output process. In addition, the operating system allocates CPU time and main
memory to programs running on the computer and it also provides an interface
between the user and the hardware. Especially the operating system provides services
that include process management, virtual memory, file management, security, fault
tolerance and the user interface.
Process management involves managing the program or programs (jobs) running
on the processor at a given time. In a desktop operating system, it loads a
program into the main memory and executes it. The program utilizes the computer
resources until it relinquishes control. Some operating systems offer more sophisticated
forms of process management, such as multitasking, multithreading and
multiprocessing.
The management of two or more tasks or programs, running on the computer system
22 at the same time is called multitasking, or multiprogramming. The first program is
executed until any interruption occurs, such as request for input or with the priority Computer Hardware,
Software and Packages
defined by the batch process. While the input request is handled, the execution of
second program begins. Multithreading is a form of multitasking that focuses on
running multiple tasks within a single application at a time. When the parent process
generates multiple child process on the same parent process ID is called threading.
The idea of threading is to faster the application process with higher resource utilization.
For example, a word processor application may edit one document while another
document is being checked for spelling. Time-sharing is an extension of
multiprogramming. In this mode, a number of users operate online with the same
CPU, but each user uses a different input/output terminal. The programs of these
users are placed into partitions in primary storage. Execution of these programs
rotates among all users, occurring so rapidly that it appears to each user as though
he or she were the only one using the computer.

Multiprocessing occurs when a computer system with two or more processors can
run more than one program, or thread, at a given time by assigning them to different
processors. Multiprocessing uses simultaneous processing with multiple CPUs,
whereas multiprogramming involves concurrent processing with one CPU. The idea
of multiprocessing is, all the processors will continue different jobs of the application
program without interrupting or waiting for the other processor, to complete or
release the resources, multiprocessing is highly recommended where application
response time is critical like less than one millisecond.

Virtual memory simulates more main memory than what actually exists in the
computer system. It allows a program to behave as if it had access to the full storage
capacity of a computer, rather than just access to the amount of primary storage
installed on the computer. Virtual memory divides an application program or module
into fixed-length portions called pages. The system executes some pages of
instructions while pulling others from the secondary storage. In effect, primary storage
is extended into a secondary storage device, allowing users to write programs as if
the primary storage were larger than it actually is. This enlarged capability boosts
the speed of the computer and allows it to efficiently run programs with very large
number of instructions. Virtual memory is not good for high memory intensive
program. High memory intensive program requires higher memory space and memory
access time, since the virtual memory is defined or secondary storage, to access the
page of program or data again required some I/O operation or extra CPU and other
resource cycle.

The operating system is responsible for resource management of the system like, file
management, memory management or device management and security management
up to some extent. The file management is to create and manages a directory structure
that allows file to be created and retrieved by name, and it also responsible to
manage the indexes for it is internal usages. It may control access to those files
based on permissions and access controls. The operating system provides other
forms of security as well. For example, it must typically provide protected memory
and maintain access control on files in the file system. The operating system also
must keep track of the users and their authority level as well as audit charges to
security permissions.

Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to produce correct results and to continue to
operate even in the presence of fault or errors. Fault tolerance can involve error- 23
Introduction to ICT and correcting memory, redundant computer components and related software that
Cyberspace
protect the system from hardware, operating systems or user errors.

Although operating systems perform some of their functions automatically, for certain
tasks, the user interacts directly with the computer through the system software. The
ease or difficulty of such interaction is to a large extent determined by the interface
design. Older text-based interfaces like Disk Operating System ( DOS) needed
typing in cryptic commands. In an effort to make computers user-friendlier, the
Geographical User Interface (GUI) was developed.

The GUI allows users to have direct control of visible objects (such as icons) and
actions that replace complex command syntax. The GUI was developed by
researchers at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) and then popularized by
the Apple Macintosh computer. Microsoft soon introduced its GUI-based Windows
operating system for IBM-style PCs. The next generation of GUI technology will
improve features such as wireless communication, artificial intelligence, etc. The
next step in the evolution of GUIs is social interfaces. A social interface is a user
interface that guides the user through computer applications by using carttonlike
characters, graphics, animations and voice commands. The carttonlike characters
can be cast as puppets, narrators, guides, inhabitant’s avatars (computer generated
human like figures), or hosts.

Types of Operating System: If hardware is the skeleton and software is the body
then operating system (O.S.) is the soul of the system. It manages all the hardware
and gives operating environments, from which the user can communicate with the
system, it allows system developers to create system applications or share the system
resources by requesting the allowed operating system services and allow the
application developers to develop the run user application from application
environment. Operating system can directly and indirectly interact with user programs.
Operating environments are not operating systems, but work only with an operating
system. For example, the early versions of Windows were operating environments
that provided a graphical user interface and worked only with MS-DOS.

Operating system can be categorised by the number of users they support as well as
by their level of sophistication. OS, for mobile devices, are designed to support a
single person using a mobile, handled device, or information appliance. Desktop
operating systems are designed to support a single user or a small workgroup of
users. Departmental server OSs generally support thousands of simultaneous users
and millions or billions of simultaneous transactions. Super computer operating system
supports the particular processing needs of a supercomputer.

Supercomputer and enterprise server operating system offer the greatest functionality,
followed by departmental server operating systems, desktop operating systems and
finally mobile device operating systems. An important exception is that the user
interface, which is most sophisticated on desktop operating system is least
sophisticated on supercomputer and enterprise server operating systems.

Mobile device operating systems are Embedded Linux, Windows CE 32 bit, Pocket
PC, Windows Embedded NT 4.0 32 bit, and Palm Operating System.

Desktop and notebook computer operating system: The Windows family is

24 the leading series of desktop operating system. The MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk
Operating System) was one of the original operating systems for the IBM PC and Computer Hardware,
Software and Packages
its clones. This 16-bit operating system, with its text-based interface, has now been
almost totally replaced by GUI operating system such as Windows 2000 and XP.
Windows 1.0 through 3.1 were not operating system, but were operating
environments that provided the GUI that operated with and extended the capabilities
of MS-DOS.

Windows 95, released in 1995, was the first version of a series of products in the
Windows operating system that provided a streamlined GUI by using icons to provide
instant access to common tasks. It is a 32 bit processing that features multitasking,
multithreading, networking, etc. It also offers plug-and-play capabilities, which is a
feature that can automate the installation of the new hardware by enabling the
operating system to recognise the new hardware and install the needed software
(called device drivers) automatically.

Subsequent products in the Microsoft Windows Operating System are:

Windows 98,Wndows Millennium Edition, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows

XP, Windows 2003 and Windows 2005.

UNIX provides many desktop features including multiprocessing and multitasking.

It is more secured than desktop operating system so, big commercial organizations
use the UNIX servers. Linux is a powerful version of the UNIX that is totally free of
charge. Nowadays, various organizations use Linux as most windows version are
being pirated in the market.

2.6.2 System Support Programs

The second major category of systems software, system support program, supports
the operations, management, and users of a computer system by providing a variety
of support services. Examples of system support programs are system utility
programs, performance monitors, and security monitors.

System utilities are the programs that have been written to accomplish common
tasks such as sorting records and checking the integrity of diskettes and creating
directories and subdirectories. They also restore accidentally erased files, locate
files within the directory structure, manage memory usage, and redirect the output.

System performance monitors are programs that monitor the processing of jobs on
a computer system. They monitor computer system performance and produce reports
containing detailed statistics relating to the use of system resources such as processor
time, memory space, and application program. These reports are used to plan and
control the efficient use of the computer system resources and to help troubleshoot
the system in case of problems.

System security monitors are programs that monitor the use of a computer system
to protect it and its resources from unauthorized use, fraud or destruction. Such
programs provide the computer security needed to allow only authorized users access
to the system. Security monitor also controls the use of the hardware, software and
data resources of a computer system.

Please answer the following Self Assessment Question.

25
Introduction to ICT and
Cyberspace Self Assessment Question 3 Spend 3 Min.
What do you mean by software? How many types of software are there?
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2.7 SOFTWARE CRISIS

At present, software comprises a much larger percentage of the cost of modern
computer system then it was earlier. There are so many grounds for this trend. First,
the price of the hardware has dramatically reduced, while the performance of
hardware has exponentially increased. Second, building applications−a process called
software development−is slow, complex and error-prone. Software is, therefore,
expensive and getting more so as its complexity grows. Thirdly, salaries of software
developers are steadily increasing because there is an increased demand for their
skills.
The above factors have led to major problems for the management, called Software
Crisis. The software crisis arises when the organizations are not able to develop
new software applications fast enough to keep up with rapidly changing business
conditions and the rapidly evolving technologies. Computer hardware can be designed
and manufactured on automated assembly lines and so can be turned out quickly
but, software must be engineered by hand. Therefore, software generally lags several
generations behind hardware. The result is that the organizations are unable to make
full use of hardware due to a lack of software to effectively exploit the hardware.
The increasing complexities of software exacerbate the software crises. This
complexity naturally leads to the increased potential for error or bugs. Large
applications today may contain millions of lines of computer code, written by hundreds
of people over the course of several years. So the potential for errors is huge and
testing and debugging software is expensive and time-consuming.

2.8 APPLICATION SOFTWARE OR PACKAGES

Application software consists of an instruction that directs a computer system to
perform specific information processing activities and that provides functionality for
users. As there are so many different users for the computers, there are
correspondingly large numbers of different application softwares available. A
controversial set of software applications involves surveillance.
Application software includes a proprietary software and off-the-shelf application
software. Proprietary software addresses a specific business need for an organization.
This type of software may be developed in-house by the organization’s IT experts
or it may be commissioned from a software vendor. Such specific software programs
26 developed for a particular company by a vendor is called Contract Software.
Alternatively, off-the-shelf application software can be purchased, leased or rented Computer Hardware,
Software and Packages
from a vendor that develops programs and sells them to many organizations. It may
be a standard package or it may be customizable.

Personal applications software is designed to help the individual users to increase

their productivity. Some of them are highlighted below:

Spreadsheet: This software transforms a computer screen into a ledger sheet, or

grid, of coded rows and columns. Users can enter numeric or textual data into each
grid (cell). In addition, formula can be entered into a cell to obtain a calculated
answer displayed in those cells location. It is very useful for financial transaction
such as income statements or cash flow analysis.

Data Management: It supports the storage, retrieval and manipulation of related

data. DBMS and RDBMS are most popular in this regard.

Word Processing: It allows the user to manipulate the text rather than just numbers.
Modern word processors contain many productive writing and editing features. MS
Word is popular in this regard.

Desktop Publishing: It allows microcomputers to perform photographs, pictures

and other images combined with text, to produce a readymade document.

Graphics: It allows the user to create, store and display or print charts, graphs and
maps and drawings. There are basically three categories of graphics software
packages: presentation graphics, analysis graphics and computer aided-design
software. Example of this software is PhotoShop and CorelDraw, etc.

Multimedia: It combines at least two media for input or output of data. These
media include audio, voice, animation, video, text, graphics, and images.

Communications: To exchange information between networked computers,

computers utilize communication software. E-mail and video conferencing rely on
communication software.

Speech-Recognition Software: Two categories of this are available today: discrete

speech and continuous speech. Many firms and people use speech-recognition
software when use of a mouse and a keyboard is impractical.

GroupWare: It is a class of software that facilities communication coordination and

collaboration among people. It is useful because it allows the workgroups to
communicate and share information even when they are working together at a distance.
The most elaborate system, IBM’s Lotus Notes/Domino, is a document management
system, a distributed client/server database, and a basic for Intranet and electronic
commerce system as well as a communication support tool.

So the importance of software in the computer system has brought new issues to the
forefront for the organizational managers. These issues include software evaluation
and selection, software testing, software upgradations, open systems, and open
source software.

Please answer the following Self Assessment Question.

27
Introduction to ICT and
Cyberspace Self Assessment Question 4 Spend 3 Min.
Write about the different types of application software
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Let us now summarize the points covered in this unit.

2.9 SUMMARY
• Computer accepts Inputs, then processes the inputs and finally produces the
output.
• The VLSI technology is the latest technology used in the modern computers.
• The electronic and mechanical parts of a computer are generally called Hardware
components of the system.
• A computer system consists of a CPU, monitor, keyboard, mouse and
multimedia the device.
• For simple Internet connection, an autonomous computer with modem or LAN
card, an Internet account or broadband connection and browsing software are
must.
• Broadband connection means an Internet connection with speed more than
256 KBPS without interruption.
• Modem stands for modulator /demodulator. It is the most popular type of Data
Circuit Termination Equipment.
• Software is a program, which controls the hardware and the user interface.
• System Software is a set of instructions that serves primarily as an intermediary
between computer hardware and application program.
• Application software is a set of instructions that provides more functionality to
the user.
• Software crisis are the unbalanced situation between changing hardware and
software version.

2.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) How computer was developed? Write about its generation-wise progress.
2) What do you mean by Software crisis? How can it be managed?
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3. What are DBMS and RDBMS? Do you think there is any difference between Computer Hardware,
Software and Packages
these two?
4. Define system software. Discuss its functional categories.

2.11 ANSWERS AND HINTS

Self Assessment Questions
1) (i) electronics or mechanical (ii) Modem
2) (i) True, (ii) False (iii) True
3) Software is a program, which controls the hardware and user interface. There
are two types of software: System Software and Application Software.
4) Application software includes proprietary software and off-the-shelf application
software. Proprietary software addresses a specific business need for an
organization. This type of a software may be developed in-house by the
organization’s IT experts or it may be commissioned from a software vendor.
Such specific software programs developed for a particular company by a
vendor is called Contract Software. Alternatively, off-the-shelf application
software can be purchased, leased or rented from a vendor that develops
programs and sells them to many organizations. It may be a standard package
or it may be customizable.
Terminal Questions
1) Refer section 2.3 of the unit.
2) Refer section 2.7 of the unit.
3) Refer section 2.8 of the unit.
4) Refer section 2.6 of the unit.

2.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Kai Hwang. Advanced Computer Architecture. Singapore: McGraw-Hill
International Edition, 1993.

2. Turban, Rainer and Potter. Introduction to Information Technology. 2nd ed.

John Wiely & Sons, INC 2003, 2004.

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