Book 4 Power plant Oxford CAE 2020

CAE ATPL Ground Training Series
021 Powerplant
Aircraft General Knowledge
Book 4
EASA Edition 2020
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A Introduction
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II
A Introduction
Edition 2020
021 Powerplant
Aircraft General Knowledge
III
2 050.01 = Subject. Section
C A B
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IV
A Other Publications
CAE APTL Ground Training Series
Book 1: Subject 010 - Air Law
Book 2: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Airframes and Systems
Book 3: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Electrics and Electronics
Book 4: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Powerplant
Book 5: Subject 022 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Instrumentation
Book 6: Subject 031 - Mass and Balance
Book 7: Subject 032 - Performance
Book 8: Subject 033 - Flight Planning and Monitoring
Book 9: Subject 040 - Human Performance and Limitations
Book 10: Subject 050 - Meteorology
Book 11: Subject 061 - General Navigation
Book 12: Subject 062 - Radio Navigation
Book 13: Subject 070 - Operational Procedures
Book 14: Subject 081 - Principles of Flight
Book 15: Subject 090 - Communications
Book 16: Subject 100 - Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA)
V
A Table of contents
021 Powerplant
021.10 Piston Engines ......................................................... 1

00.00 Introduction .....................................................................................3
00.01 History ..................................................................................3
00.02 Terminology.........................................................................4
00.03 Dynamics .............................................................................5
00.04 The Gas Laws .......................................................................8
00.05 Other Physical Quantities, Units and Equations.......... 10
01.00 General .......................................................................................... 11
01.01 Types of Internal-Combustion Engines:
Basic Principles, Definitions ........................................... 11
01.02 Engine: Design, Operation & Components .................. 14
02.00 Fuel................................................................................................. 30
02.01 Types, Grades, Characteristics, Limitations ................. 30
03.00 Engine Fuel Pumps ....................................................................... 39
03.01 Engine-Driven Fuel Pump ............................................... 39
04.00 Carburettor and Injection System.............................................. 40
04.01 Carburettor: Design, Operation, Degraded Modes of
Operation, Indications and Warnings ....................................... 40
04.02 Injection: Design, Operation, Degraded Modes of
Operation, Indications and Warnings ........................... 50
04.03 Icing ................................................................................... 53
05.00 Cooling Systems ........................................................................... 58
05.01 Design, Operation, Indications and Warnings ............. 58
06.00 Lubrication Systems .................................................................... 63
06.01 Lubricants: Characteristics, Limitations ....................... 63
06.02 Design, Operation, Indications and Warnings ............. 65
07.00 Ignition Circuits ............................................................................ 73
07.01 Design, Operation ............................................................ 73
08.00 Mixture .......................................................................................... 79
08.01 Definition, Characteristic Mixtures, Control
Instruments, Associated Control Levers, Indications ....79
09.00 Aeroplane: Propellers .................................................................. 84
09.01 Definitions and General .............................................. 84
09.02 Constant-Speed Propeller: Design, Operation
and System Components................................................ 87
09.03 Reduction Gearing: Design ........................................... 100
09.04 Propeller Handling: Associated Control Levers,
Degraded Modes of Operation, Indications
and Warnings ................................................................. 102
VI
A Table of contents
021 Powerplant
10.00 Performance and Engine Handling .......................................... 110

10.01 Performance ................................................................... 110
10.02 Engine Handling ............................................................. 123
021.11 Gas Turbines Engines ............................................ 133

01.00 Basic Principles ........................................................................... 134
01.01 Basic Generation of Thrust and the Thrust Formula 135
01.02 Design, Types and Components of Turbine Engines . 140
02.00 Main-Engine Components ......................................................... 155
02.01 Aeroplane: Air Intake .................................................... 155
02.02 Compressor and Diffuser.............................................. 160
02.03 Combustion Chamber ................................................... 174
02.04 Turbine ............................................................................ 184
02.05 Aeroplane: Exhaust ....................................................... 194
03.00 Additional Components and Systems...................................... 201
03.01 Engine Fuel System ........................................................ 201
03.02 Engine Control System .................................................. 208
03.03 Engine Lubrication ......................................................... 215
03.04 Engine Auxiliary Gearbox.............................................. 224
03.05 Engine Ignition ............................................................... 228
03.06 Engine Starter................................................................. 231
03.07 Reverse Thrust ............................................................... 237
04.00 Engine Operation and Monitoring ........................................... 243
04.01 General............................................................................ 243
04.02 Starting Malfunctions .................................................... 252
04.03 Relight Envelope ............................................................ 255
05.00 Performance Aspects ................................................................. 256
05.01 Thrust, Performance Aspects and Limitations .......... 256
06.00 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)........................................................ 263
06.01 Design, Operation, Functions,
Operational Limitations ............................................................ 263
Glossary Index .................................................................. 268
VII
021.10 Piston Engines
0 Section 10 Table of Contents
10
Piston Engines
00.00 Introduction ...............................................................3

00.01 History..............................................................................................3
00.02 Terminology ....................................................................................4
00.03 Dynamics .........................................................................................5
00.04 The Gas Laws ..................................................................................8
00.05 Other Physical Quantities, Units and Equations ..................... 10
01.00 General .....................................................................11

01.01 Types of Internal-Combustion Engines: Basic Principles,
Definitions ................................................................................... 11
01.02 Engine: Design, Operation & Components .............................. 14
02.00 Fuel ............................................................................30

02.01 Types, Grades, Characteristics, Limitations ............................. 30
03.00 Engine Fuel Pumps ..................................................39

03.01 Engine-Driven Fuel Pump ........................................................... 39
04.00 Carburettor and Injection System .........................40

Operation, Indications and Warnings ....................................... 40
Operation, Indications and Warnings ...................................... 50
04.03 Icing ............................................................................................... 53
05.00 Cooling Systems .......................................................58

05.01 Design, Operation, Indications and Warnings ......................... 58
06.00 Lubrication Systems ...............................................63

06.01 Lubricants: Characteristics, Limitations ................................... 63
06.02 Design, Operation, Indications and Warnings ......................... 65
1
0 Section 10 Table of Contents
10
Piston Engines
07.00 Ignition Circuits .......................................................73

07.01 Design, Operation........................................................................ 73
08.00 Mixture .....................................................................79

08.01 Definition, Characteristic Mixtures, Control Instruments,
Associated Control Levers, Indications .................................... 79
09.00 Aeroplane: Propellers .............................................84

09.01 Definitions and General .......................................................... 84
09.02 Constant-Speed Propeller: Design, Operation and
System Components ................................................................... 87
09.03 Reduction Gearing: Design ....................................................... 100
09.04 Propeller Handling: Associated Control Levers, Degraded
Modes of Operation, Indications and Warnings.................... 102
10.00 Performance and Engine Handling..................... 110

10.01 Performance .............................................................................. 110
10.02 Engine Handling ......................................................................... 123
2
0 021.10 Piston Engines
00.00 Introduction
This introduction serves to cover some basic physics principles before the teaching of the Aircraft
General Knowledge Power Plant sections. It does not form part of the EASA learning objectives,
but it is useful to understand the rest of the book.
00.01 History
an s early attem t at owered ight was set back by the lack of a suitable engine to rovide
the necessary ower. The steam engine widely in use at the time was heavy and ine cient.
Combustion took place outside of the engine, and much of the heat energy produced was wasted
to the atmosphere.
In 1862, Beau de Rochas developed an

engine where the combustion process took
place inside the engine, but in 1876, Nikolaus
tto first succeeded in roducing a working
engine based on the principle. The principle
of operation of the engine is accomplished
by inducing a mixture of air and fuel into a
cylinder, which is then compressed by a piston.
The mixture is ignited, and the rapid rise in
temperature causes the gas pressure in the
cylinder to rise and forces the piston down
the cylinder. Linear movement of the piston is
converted into rotary motion by a connecting
rod and crankshaft. The burnt gases are then
exhausted to the atmosphere. The engine
converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Internal combustion engines fall into three

main categories: compression ignition engines
(diesels), two-stroke and four-stroke spark
ignition engines, and the Wankel rotary
engines. This book will cover in detail the
construction and operation of the four-stroke
engine, which is commonly used in aviation,
and generally referred to as the piston engine.
References will be made to diesel engines; the
diesel technology is used in aviation although Figure 10.1 Piston engine
diesel fuels are not.
Diesel Engines
Credit for the design of ‘cold-fuel’ compression-ignition is often given to Rudolf Diesel. However,
in 1891, a year before Diesel patented his design, Herbert Akroyd Stuart invented the ‘cold-fuel’
injection system. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel designed and patented a similar engine to Akroyd Stuart’s,
known as the ‘hot-bulb’ system. In this design, the fuel was introduced to the engine using a
compressed-air delivery, which ‘pre-heated’ the fuel, allowing an easier start to be achieved.
Thereafter, although it was Akroyd Stuart’s design, the compression-ignition engines became
3
known as ‘diesels’. Cold-fuel compression-ignition engines were developed further because they
can run faster, weigh less, and are simpler to maintain.
Diesel engines, for use in aircraft, are by no means a new idea; with aero diesels appeared
during the late 1920s. The mechanical parts of the diesel engine are similar to those of a
conventional gasoline-driven engine, with the exception that diesels moving parts are slightly
heavier, in order to cope with higher compression ratios within. This made them generally
unsuitable for e cient ight.
Recent developments in materials technology, superchargers, and design have brought the
diesel to comparable weights with conventional engines, and indeed, with even better power/
weight ratios; they are now seen in some light aircraft.
00.02 Terminology
Figure 10.2 Terminology table
4
Example 1:
Force: The mass of the piston being accelerated by the fuel combustion pressure.
Work done: The piston is moved from the top to the bottom of the cylinder by a force
Conservation of energy:
The chemical energy of the fuel is converted to heat energy during combustion in the engine.
The engine then converts this to mechanical energy.
Power: Work is done as the piston moves in the cylinder. It is moved so many times a minute,
and so the power can be measured. The horsepower is a measurement of power, which is equal
to 33,000 foot-pounds-a-minute.
Example 2:
Force: Gravity of the weights and the force of the person stand-
ing on the ground.
Work done: Moving the weights up against the force of grav-
ity, and the distance the move is from hip height to above the
shoulders.
Energy:
• Chemical energy in the person’s body/muscles
• Gravitational potential energy for the weights
• Heat energy from the body
• Sound energy of the hard-exercising breathing
Figure 10.3 Weightlifter • Kinetic energy of moving limbs and weights
Conservation of energy: The energy is being changed from the chemical energy in the muscles
to the kinetic energy of the movement.
Power: Increased but lifting the weights faster, i.e. more repetitions per minute.
00.03 Dynamics
Newton’s Laws
Isaac Newton developed three laws of motion. They deal with the properties of moving objects
(or bodies) in terms of their mass and forces applied to that mass. This may change the bodies’
velocity and acceleration. It is easy to see a piston or crankshaft move, but air is also a body, and
will obey ewton s laws. It should be remembered that air is the working uid within the engine
and so the mass ow of air becomes an im ortant measurement.
Newton’s First Law - “A body will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted on by an external force.”
To move a stationary object, or to make a moving object change its direction, a force must be
a lied. The mixture of fuel and air will not ow into the iston without a force a lied to make
it move. The piston moving down the cylinder does not want to stop. This opposition of a body to
5
change its motion or state of rest is called inertia. ewton s first law has no units of measurement.
It is a property a body possesses, when stationary or moving. Newton’s first law is known
as the inertia law.
Newton’s Second Law - “The acceleration of a body from a state of rest, or uniform motion in
a straight line, is proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the mass.”
F=m×a
The energy released by the fuel during combustion increases the pressure energy of the air in
the cylinder, and work can be done. The force to move the piston can be controlled by changing
the pressure in the cylinder. The mass of the piston is accelerated to a velocity.
Momentum = mass × velocity
It is similar to inertia, but only applies to moving bodies and has unit of measurement: kilogram
metres per second. Newton’s second law is known as the momentum law.
Newton’s Third Law - “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
Many examples of the application of Newton’s third law can be observed. The recoil of a gun as
the bullet is forced from its barrel, the snaking of a hose as water is forced from its nozzle, and
the operation of the jet engine. Newton’s third law is known as the reaction law.
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of heat and pressure energy. Thermodynamics is a theory, and so
differs from real life scenarios but for the a roximations in this study ackage its laws can be
considered accurate enough. The first law of thermodynamics is just a s ecial version of the law
of conservation of energy regarding heat and mechanical work.
First Law of Thermodynamics - “Heat and mechanical energy are convertible, and the rate of
exchange is constant and can be measured.”
If two moving surfaces are rubbed together without lubrication, heat will be generated and
can be measured with a thermometer. This is mechanical energy converted into heat energy,
conversely, when fuel is burned in a piston engine, the heat energy in the fuel is converted to
mechanical energy by the action of pistons and crankshaft. This too can be measured.
Second Law of Thermodynamics - “Heat cannot be transferred from a region at a lower tem-
perature to one at a higher temperature without the expenditure of energy from an external
source.”
ore sim ly ut the second law shows that heat energy will naturally ow from a radiator to the
colder atmosphere which surrounds it, but if it is required to lower the temperature of a refrigerator
to a level below that of the surrounding atmosphere, energy must be spent to achieve this.
6
Fluid Dynamics
aniel ernoulli ( ) a Swiss scientist discovered certain ro erties relating to uids in
motion. These were expressed in the mathematical statement that the total energy in a moving
uid or gas is made u of three forms of energy the energy due to the height or osition (the
potential energy), the energy due to pressure, and the energy due to movement (the kinetic
energy) and that in the streamline ow of an ideal uid the sum of all these is constant.
When considering the ow of air the otential energy can be assumed to be constant the
statement can therefore be modified for all ractical aerodynamic ur oses by saying that
Bernoulli’s theorem: In a smooth ow kinetic energy ressure energy constant.
Thus, if the kinetic energy is increased, the pressure energy drops proportionately to keep the
total energy constant.
A practical application of Bernoulli’s theorem, that pilots should be familiar with, is the Venturi
tube, sometimes called a convergent/divergent duct. The Venturi tube has an inlet, which
narrows to a throat, and an outlet section, relatively longer, which increases in diameter towards
the rear.
or a ow of air to remain streamlined the volume assing a given oint in unit time (the mass
ow) must remain constant. The mass ow is de endent on the cross sectional area of the duct
and the density and velocity of the uid. If a enturi tube is ositioned in such an airstream
then for the air to remain streamlined the mass ow must be constant. This is ex ressed in the
continuity equation:
Figure 10.4 Venturi effect
area × density × velocity = constant
7
To do this and still ass through the reduced cross section of the throat the s eed of ow
through the throat must be increased. In accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem, this brings about
021.10.04 an accompanying pressure and temperature drop. Venturi tubes have many applications in
aircraft systems. For example, the pressure drop at the throat of the Venturi forms the basic
principle of operation of the carburettor.
00.04 The Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law
In a gas held at a constant temperature, the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure.
Where P is the absolute pressure of the gas, and V is the volume occupied when the pressure is P.
For this reason, the product of the absolute pressure and volume of a given quantity of gas is
constant when the temperature does not change.
Charles’ Law
If any gas is held at a constant pressure, its volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Gay-Lussac’s Law
If any gas is held at a constant volume, its pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
The Combined Gas Laws

The combined gas law is a combination of Boyle’s law and Charles’s law, and represents the
relationship between volume, pressure and temperature.
This e uation defines the gas constant ( )
Or it can be written as a comparison of a before and after state:
8
The Application of the Combined Gas Law

The changes in pressure, volume and temperature within the engine cylinder as the piston moves
between the top and the bottom of its stroke are illustrated in Figure 10.3.
These movements are known as the four strokes of an internal combustion engine. Although the
iston moves u and down the cylinder ( strokes ) four times there are in fact theoretically five
021.10.01 events in the cycle, as will be discussed more in the next chapter.
Figure 10.5 Four-cylinder strokes
9
00.05 Other Physical Quantities, Units and Equations
Figure 10.6 Physical quantities, units and equations table
10
01.00 General
01.01 Types of Internal-Combustion Engines: Basic Principles,
e nitions
01 efine the following terms and ex ressions r m tor ue manifold absolute ressure
( AP) ower out ut s ecific fuel consum tion com ression ratio clearance volume
swept (displaced) volume, total volume.
se ul e nitions
Stroke - Linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder.
Top dead centre (TDC) - When the piston is at the top of its range and correctly aligned, it is said
to be top dead centre (TDC).
Bottom dead centre (BDC) - When the piston is at the bottom of its range and correctly aligned,
it is said to be bottom dead centre (BDC).
Crank throw The offset distance that the crankshaft moves from the crankshaft centreline (the
journal) to the crankpins.
Figure 10.7 Piston engine definitions
Bore - the internal diameter of the cylinder. An engine which has a bore equal to the stroke is
known as over-square.
Brake horsepower - a measure of power based on the engine output. Originated from James
Watt s definition of steam engine ower by com arison to the ower of a horse.
RPM - revolutions per minute (rpm). Is used to measure how fast an engine/propeller/machine
is turning.
Torque - measure of force that acts to rotate an object about an axis.
11
Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) - MAP is a measurement made to determine the density of
the air and so the air mass ow rate. This is then used by the engine com uters to adjust the fuel
needed for the most e cient combustion.
Power output - Power to weight ratio (specific power output) is a comparison of an engine’s
power output per unit weight (kW/kg or horsepower/lb) expressed as a ratio.
Example: An engine weighing 1,000 lb (450 kg) and producing 250 hp (190 kW) would produce
a power to weight ratio of 0.42 kW/kg, or 0.25 hp/lb.
Specific fuel consumption - the weight of fuel burnt, compared to the power produced. This
is often measured in pounds for each BHP in unit time (hours) and is called the specific fuel
consumption (SFC).
Engine designers strive to get as much power as possible from the engine, for the minimum
weight of fuel burnt.
Example: uring o eration a reduction in ower for the same weight of fuel burnt is defined
as an INCREASE in SFC, and a reduction in fuel burnt for the same, or more power, a DECREASE
in SFC.
S C is affected by engine design and ilot o eration of the engine. Since the ilot has no control
over design correct o eration of the engine is essential if erformance figures are to be attained.
Compression ratio - the increase in pressure as the piston moves.
The work done on the mixture by the piston during the compression stroke depends on the
weight of mixture and the pressure that it is raised to. The pressure rise will depend on the
reduction in volume. There are three volumes that need to be considered.
The compression ratio is the ratio of the total volume enclosed in the cylinder with piston at BDC,
to the volume at the end of the compression stroke with the piston at TDC.
Total volume - the volume above the piston when the piston is at BDC.
Swept volume - the volume displaced by the piston during a single stroke.
Swept Volume = Cross Sectional Area of the Cylinder × The Stroke
Clearance volume - the volume above the piston crown when the piston is at TDC. This forms the
combustion chamber.
Total Volume = Swept Volume + Clearance Volume.
12
Figure 10.8 Piston engine volume definitions
Example: If the swept volume is equal to 1300 cc, and the clearance volume is equal to 200 cc,
the compression ratio would be equal to:
Total olume Swe t olume Clearance olume
Total olume
Com ression atio
Com ression atio .
Note: An increase in compression ratio will result in better fuel utilisation (and greater thermal
e ciency) and a higher mean effective ressure rovided the correct fuel is used. This however
will be at the expense of higher loading on the moving parts, due to an increased working
pressure.
13
01.02 Engine: Design, Operation & Components
Basic Operating Principle
01 Describe the basic operating principle of a piston engine: crankcase; crankshaft; connecting
rod; piston; piston pin; piston rings; cylinder; cylinder head; valves; valve springs; push
rod; camshaft; rocker arm; camshaft gear; bearings.
ow that the basic rinci le of o eration of the iston engine was brie y ex lained this section
will describe the operating principles in more detail.
Figure 10.9 The four-stroke cycle
14
The four strokes of the Otto cycle, in order, are:
1. Induction
2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust
In the theoretical tto cycle there are five events. They are the same as the four strokes with
the addition of the combustion event.
5. Induction
6. Compression
7. Combustion
8. Power
9. Exhaust
When the piston is at TDC at the end of the compression stroke, an electrical spark is produced at
the spark plug, which ignites the fuel air mixture. This does not result in an explosion of the mixture!
It is a controlled burning at constant volume. This event is called combustion. The combustion
process takes place with the piston at TDC. The volume in the cylinder at that moment in time is
constant, so the engine can be referred to as a constant volume combustion engine.
Piston and valve positions are related to degrees of crankshaft movement, and position in
relation to TDC and BDC. As the piston moves from TDC to BDC the crankshaft rotates 180°. The
complete cycle taking 720° (4 × 180)
The five tto cycle events can be shown gra hically by a valve timing diagram. The timing diagram
shows the relationship between the events and degrees of crankshaft rotation. Each arc between
TDC and BDC represents 180° of crankshaft rotation.
Figure 10.10 Otto cycle
15
This is the T E ETICAL diagram and modifications to this are mode for the real engine as
discussed below.
The Induction Stroke

Opening the inlet valve before TDC ensures that the valve is fully open early in the induction
stroke there is then no time lag between the iston moving down and the mixture owing into
the cylinder as would otherwise occur due to the inertia of the mixture. The in owing mixture
can thus keep up with the descending piston.
The momentum of the mixture increases as the induction stroke proceeds, and towards the end
of the stroke it is enough that the gases will continue to ow into the cylinder even though the
piston has passed BDC and is moving upwards slightly. The closing of the inlet valve is delayed
until after BDC, when the gas pressure in the cylinder is approximately equal to the gas pressure
in the induction manifold.
The Compression Stroke

As the piston moves upwards, the inlet valve closes, and the gas is compressed. By squeezing the
gas into a smaller space, the pressure that it will exert when burnt is proportionally increased.
As the gas is compressed, it becomes heated, like a bicycle pump warms up in action. It is also
heated by conduction from its hot surroundings, and the pressure consequently rises to a higher
value than that to be expected from the reduction in volume alone.
The Power Stroke

Before the piston reaches TDC on the compression stroke, the gas is ignited by a spark, the
momentum of the moving arts carries the iston ast the T C while the ame is s reading. As
the ame s reads through the combustion chamber the intense heat raises the ressure ra idly
to a peak value which is reached when combustion is complete; this coincides with the piston
being at about 10° past TDC.
As the piston descends on the power stroke, the pressure falls rapidly to half its peak value by 45°
after TDC, and most of the energy in the gases has been converted into mechanical energy by 90°
after TDC.
If the exhaust valve is not opened until BDC, the pressure of the gases remaining in the cylinder
will create a back pressure resisting the upward movement of the piston. So, the exhaust valve is
o ened before C and the residual ressure will start the first stage of exhaust scavenging so
that by BDC there will be no back pressure on the piston.
This ressure scavenging does not roduce a significant loss of mechanical energy because
• there is only a short distance left for downward movement of the piston after the
exhaust valve is opened.
• relatively little pressure is still being exerted on the piston by the cooled expanded
gases.
The Exhaust Stroke

Finally, the piston moves upward, forcing the remaining gases out of the cylinder. The exhaust
valve is left open after TDC, to permit the gases to leave the cylinder, carried by their momentum.
16
Valve Timings
This diagram shows a more accurate diagram of the four strokes with the valve timings.
Figure 10.11 Practical valve and ignition timings
Due to the circular motion of the crankshaft, the movement of the piston near TDC and BDC is
relatively small for the angle of crankshaft movement. This is called the ineffective crank angle.
Figure 10.12 Effective and ineffective crank angle
There is little change in the cylinder volume at these times. Therefore, both the weight of mixture
taken into the cylinder, and the rate of exhaust of the burnt gases can be improved by opening
the valves early and closing them late. These changes to the valve timing are named valve lead,
valve lag and valve overlap.
Valve lead is when the valve opens before the theoretical opening time. (Inlet valve opens before
TDC, exhaust valve opens before BDC.) Valve lag is when the valve remains open after the
17
theoretical closing time. (Inlet valve remains open after BDC, exhaust valve remains open after
TDC.) Valve overlap is a period when both valves are partially open together. During this period
the action of the exhaust gases owing out of the cylinder tends to reduce the gas ressure in
the cylinder below the gas ressure in the induction manifold. The mixture starts to ow into the
area of low pressure and helps to push out the remaining exhaust gases. By doing so it improves
the volumetric e ciency of the engine by inducing a greater weight of mixture into the cylinder.
The valve timing for a articular engine is normally fixed and does not vary with engine s eed.
Control of power in the piston engine is achieved by varying the quantity of air which enters the
cylinder; this in turn will vary the pressure rise during combustion. The pilot controls a valve called
the throttle, to vary the quantity of air.
Advancements in engineering now make it possible to alter the valve timing to improve
performance. Variable valve timing is now commonplace due to the socio-economic pressures
for the increased economy and reduced emissions, which can also be achieved.
Pressure and Volume Diagrams

The variations in pressure within the cylinder during the four strokes can be measured and shown
on a graph. This graph plots pressure against volume and is known as a PV diagram.
Figure 10.13 Pressure and volume graph
This diagram starts at ‘A’ when the piston is TDC. The indicator diagram is used to plot the maximum
pressures obtained; this determines the shape and the area enclosed by the graph. This area
shows the work done on the air and the power produced.
The indicator diagram can be opened out so that the pressure areas under the curve can be more
easily compared and measured.
18
Figure 10.14 Piston position vs pressure graph
The area within the power column represents work done on the piston during the power stroke.
The blue areas represent work done by the piston in compressing the charge and exhausting the
cylinder against back pressure. This results in an average reading of pressure on the piston during
the working cycle that is available and it is called indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP).
The pilot is not given a display in the cockpit of the IMEP, but what can be displayed is manifold
air pressure, which shows cylinder pressure. This is displayed on the manifold pressure gauge.
Opening the throttle increases manifold pressure and closing the throttle will reduce it. The MAP
gauge is normally calibrated to read in inches of mercury .
Having found the pressure in the cylinder, it is

now ossible to find the indicated horsepower
(IHP) by calculation, using the known constants:
area of piston, (bore), distance moved (stroke),
number of cylinders and time.
where:
P indicated mean effective ressure (lb in2)
L length of stroke (ft)
A area of cylinder (in2)
N the number of cylinders
E effective working strokes min (r m)
Figure 10.15 Inlet manifold
19
In the introduction ower was defined as the rate of doing work. Work is done when a force is
moved through a distance. If a force acts on the piston (in units of lb force) and the piston moves
through the distance of the stroke (in units of ft) and does this so many times a minute. This
gives ft-lb per minute.
The inventor of the steam engine, James Watt, calculated that the average horse could move
1lb a distance of 33,000 ft in 1 minute - (550 ft/lb/second). This is why P L A N E is divided by the
constant of 33,000 and the unit of power is referred to as horsepower.
The SI unit of power is the watt, and 750 watts is approximately equal to 1 horsepower.
IHP is only a theoretical value of power; because in real life there will be power losses due to
imperfections. In moving the piston and turning the crankshaft power is used and some energy is
lost via friction to heat and sound. This is called friction horsepower, (FHP), and must be deducted
from the IHP. The power then left to do useful work (for example driving a propeller) is called
brake horsepower (BHP).
Engine Components
Figure 10.16 Piston engine components
Cylinder Barrel or Block

Made of alloy steel, the cylinder has to be strong enough to hold the pressure of combustion and
it provides a structure for the piston. The cylinders are usually secured to the crankcase by studs
and nuts. One end of the cylinder is sealed by the cylinder head and the movable piston seals the
other end.
20
About 30% of the heat generated during combustion is transferred to the cylinders. To cool the
cylinder, there are two cooling methods used:
• Liquid cooling has jackets around the cylinders to allow for the ow of a li uid
around them and carry the heat away.
• Air-cooled engines have fins machined onto the cylinder to increase the surface
area in contact with air, which is used to dissipate the heat.
Pistons
Generally made of aluminium alloy, the piston forms a sliding plug in the cylinder and transmits
the force of the expanding gases via the connecting rod to the crankshaft.
Grooves are machined around the edge of the piston to accommodate piston rings, which prevent
pressure leaking out and oil leaking in. A small amount of gas will often pass the top ring; so a
second (and sometimes a third) iston ring is fitted.
The piston rings include oil control rings to prevent excess oil passing into the combustion chamber
and spread the oil evenly around the cylinder bore. They are designed so that the bearing face is
reduced in area and the bearing pressure is consequently increased.
The rings are generally made of a special grade of cast iron; the rings are sprung against the
cylinder walls. Cast iron has the ability to retain its elasticity when heated. It also has self-lubricating
qualities due to the graphitic content of the metal. This is desirable, because during the power
stroke the walls of the cylinder are ex osed to the hot combustion gases and the thin film of oil
is burned away. Piston rings which are worn or stuck in their grooves will cause excessive blue
smoke (burning oil) to be ejected from the exhaust pipe.
Figure 10.17 Connecting rod and gudgeon pin
21
Connecting Rods
The piston pin (also called gudgeon pin) fastens the piston to the small end of the connecting
rod. The connecting rods transmit the forces of combustion to the crankshaft; they convert the
linear movement of the pistons into rotary movement of the crankshaft. A connecting rod is
usually made of H section high tensile steel, to combine lightness with the strength necessary to
withstand the compressive and tensile loads imposed as the piston changes direction. The rod is
connected to the crank pin of the crankshaft by a large circular bearing at the big end of the rod.
Figure 10.18 Crankshaft
The crankshaft converts the reciprocating linear motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The
whole crank shaft is rotated along the journals (the centreline) and transmits torque to the
propeller and provides drive for accessories. The crank throw is the distance between the journals
and the centreline of the crankpins, and so will determine the piston stroke. The journals are
supported by the main bearings in the crankcase.
Stroke Length = 2 × Crank Throw
The crankshaft often has the same number of crank throws as there are pistons (four throws for
a four-cylinder engine). Oilways are drilled through the shaft to transfer the lubricating oil onto
the bearing surfaces.
The crankshaft is accurately balanced to minimize vibration, however, when a shaft has to transmit
a tor ue or twisting moment it must ex to some extent and s ring back again when released.
If the shaft has a lot of kinks in it to provide the crank throws, the twisting moments are hard to
resist and erce tible de ection may take lace.
The crankshaft and cylinder arrangement will also determine the order in which the cylinders fire.
This is called the firing order of the engine.
22
A ty ical four cylinder engine could have a firing order of . The cylinders do not fire
consecutively as this reduces the load and vibration on the crankshaft.
Note: Lycoming firing order is .
The repeated applications of force to the crankshaft may set up oscillations as the shaft recovers
its original shape between power impulses. At certain speeds, the impulses may match with the
natural vibration frequency of the shaft and give very rough running, even in an engine which
is in good mechanical balance. For these reasons, the shafts should be as short as possible,
ade uately su orted and counter weighted to minimi e these twisting effects. any engines
have rpm ranges which are prohibited for prolonged use (critical rpm) to prevent unnecessary
vibration. This is indicated by a red arc on the rpm indicator.
Crankcase
The crankcase is usually made in two halves,
to make installation and removal of the
crankshaft easier; it houses the main bearings
for the crankshaft, supports the cylinders and
provides mounting faces and spigots for the
attachment of the other main engine casings.
The crankcase forms a sealed chamber for the

lubricating oil and is provided with the means
of attaching the engine to its mounting frame
in the aircraft. A vent to atmosphere is normally
provided, in order that gas pressure build-up in
the crankcase is avoided. It is normally made of
a light alloy.
The Cylinder Head

The cylinder head seals one end of the
cylinder, to provide a combustion chamber
for the mixture and is generally made of
aluminium alloy to improve heat dissipation.
Figure 10.19 Crankcase The cylinder head accommodates the valves,
valve guides and spark plugs, and supports
the valve rocker arms. Valve seats are cut into
the cylinder head, which form gas tight seals with the valves. The cylinder head may be detachable
but, more commonly, it is screwed and shrunk onto the cylinder.
Inlet and exhaust valves open and close the passages for the fuel air mix to enter and the exhaust
gases to leave the combustion chamber. Exhaust valve stems are sometimes hollow and artly filled
with sodium to assist in cooling. They may be at trum et or mushroom sha e. The valve seat is
ground to form a gas tight seal with the face of the valve, cut at various angles (30° or 45°).
Valve guides keep the valve in a straight path and keep the valve cantered to its valve seat. Usually
the valve guide is pressed into the cylinder head.
23
Valve springs are made of special spring steel, to ensure that the valves remain closed, except
when operated by the cams. The springs are of the helical coil type, the usual practice being
for two s rings to be fitted to each valve one inside the other. This rovides a safety factor and
helps to eliminate valve bounce. The springs are held compressed between the cylinder head
and the valve spring cap.
Valve Operating Gear

The valve operating gear consists of a camshaft (or camshafts), driven from the crankshaft by
a pushrod and rocker arm. Some engines will have the camshafts directly over the valves, and
therefore, do not need rocker arms or pushrod, but instead, have a separate timing belt for
turning the cams from the crankshaft. Both arrangements are shown here, but an engine design
will only use one of these methods.
Figure 10.17 Connecting rod and gudgeon pin
The camshaft is designed so as to have one cam lobe to control the opening of each valve. The
camshaft is driven at half crankshaft speed because each valve is only required to open and close
once per working cycle, that is to say, once every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
The angular osition of the lobes on the camshaft of an aircraft engine is fixed causing the
amount of valve lead, valve lag and valve overlap to remain constant, irrespective of changing
engine speed. The fact that the camshaft is driven by the crankshaft means that valve opening and
closing angles are referred to with respect to crankshaft rotation, not camshaft rotation.
24
To ensure that the valves close fully, it is necessary for there to be a valve clearance. This is a
small gap measured between the rocker pad and the valve tip. The valves are continuously heated
by combustion and expand at a greater rate than the rest of the operating mechanism. As the
engine heats up, the small gap, or valve clearance allows the valve to expand at its own rate.
Figure 10.21 Rocker arm
The valve clearance is measured between the rocker pad and the valve tip by feeler gauges, and
there is provision made on the rocker arm for the clearance to be adjusted. Excessive valve
clearance will cause the valve to open late and close early. Too little clearance will have the
o osite effect of causing the valves to o en early and close late and may even revent the
valves closing at all, thereby producing an event called popping back into the carburettor. The
same effect can be caused by an inlet valve which is sticking in its guide.
Some designs of engine use hydraulic tappets. These are self-adjusting and operate with no
clearance, and thus, there is no tappet noise. A hydraulic tappet is made in two main parts, one
sliding within the other. Oil, which is supplied under pressure, causes the tappet to lengthen
and take up any clearance when the engine is running.
25
Engine Design
02 Name and identify the various types of engine design with regard to cylinder arrangement
and their advantages/disadvantages: horizontally opposed; in line; radial; and working
cycle (four-stroke: petrol and diesel).
The power of an engine can be increased by adding cylinders, producing multi-cylinder engines. This
results in more power strokes in the 720° of crankshaft rotation. This is called the firing interval.
our cylinders are generally regarded as the minimum number to give a reasonable firing interval.
The firing interval for any engine can be found by dividing by the number of cylinders of the
engine i.e. cylinders and a cylinder engine .
This is a more e cient way of increasing ower than making a single cylinder larger and also it
has the benefit of making the engine run smoother. There are various ty es of engine design with
regards to cylinder arrangement.
Figure 10.22 Engine layouts
26
The cylinder arrangement selected will depend on the type of cooling needed, the power required,
and role of the aircraft. Early aircraft used in-line engines. These have their cylinders arranged
in a straight line, one after the other; they can be liquid or air-cooled. The air-cooled variants are
limited to around six cylinders. Many in-line engines are inverted, so that the crankshaft is at the
top and pistons below. The propeller is driven from the crankshaft and this arrangement gave
greater ground clearance for the propeller.
Most modern light aircraft use four- or six-cylinder engines arranged in the flat/horizontally
opposed configuration. This arrangement makes for a short rigid engine which is easily streamlined.
The V engine arrangement was used for larger more powerful engines, of eight to twelve
cylinders. These engines powered the aircraft of World War II. Liquid-cooled, the V arrangement
of cylinders could easily be streamlined into the fuselage, so reducing drag. The liquid cooling
system however, increased weight and complexity of the engine. Like the in-line engine they
could also be inverted.
The radial engine gave a large frontal area to the aircraft but was short in length. The pistons are
arranged radially around a single-throw crank. Although drag was increased, the engines were
light, rigid and produced high power.
Radial engines always have an odd number of cylinders. By placing further rows of cylinders
behind the first roduces double and tri le bank radials. These engines although very owerful
have the disadvantages of being heavy and presenting a large frontal area as they are air-cooled.
ngine ciencies
The engine is a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Sadly, there are
losses in this transfer; engine design will try to reduce these losses. As stated previously, the IHP
developed in the engine is reduced by FHP, leaving BHP to do useful work.
The term efficiency means simply a comparison of what is got out of a system, with what is put into
the system. The e ciency of any mechanical device must be less than unity it is usual to ex ress
it as a ratio.
ec anical ciency
Thus:
A ty ical value of mechanical e ciency would be in the region of .
er al ciency
Work done in the engine is known as the thermal e ciency.
27
Engine design and the use of correct fuels increase thermal efficiency.
A good value for thermal e ciency in an internal combustion engine would be .
As reviously stated air is the working uid within the engine. Added to this is fuel so it is actually
a mixture of air and fuel that enters the cylinders. The power of the engine is determined by
the maximum weight of mixture (charge) induced, and the subsequent rise in pressure during
combustion. ue to inertia and factors affecting the density of the mixture it is not ossible to fill
the cylinder completely during the induction stroke.
olu etric ciency

The ratio of the weight of mixture induced to that which would fill the cylinder under normal
temperatures and pressures is called volumetric efficiency.
at normal temperatures and pressures.
The volumetric e ciency of the engine indicates how well the engine is breathing. This is affected
by design i.e. valve lead lag and overla . It is also affected by variables such as exhaust back
ressure resistance to ow and the force ushing the mixture into the cylinder. If the force is
the difference in ressure between atmos heric and the cylinder ressure during induction the
engine is said to be normally aspirated.
A normally as irated engine will have a volumetric e ciency between maximum. ne

way to im rove the volumetric e ciency and ower is to increase the force ushing the mixture
050.10.10.01.02 into the cylinder. This is called supercharging and is covered later in these notes.
Diesel vs Petrol
03 escribe the differences between etrol and diesel engines with res ect to means of
ignition; maximum compression ratio; regulating air or mixture supply to the cylinder;
pollution from the exhaust.
Figure 10.23 Diesel vs petrol comparison
28
There has long been a debate between which is the best type of engine, petrol or diesel. This
section aims to highlight a few im ortant differences.
Pollution
The pollution created by petrol and diesel engines is an often-confused discussion, depending
on the definition of the term ollutants . oth engine ty es combust a hydrocarbon with oxygen
and therefore create carbon dioxide and water. However, incomplete combustion and additives/
impurities within the fuel also burn to create more dangerous pollutants: cancer-causing
hydrocarbons (alkanes and alkenes), carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides and particulate matter
are also present in the exhaust gases.
Sulphur and sulphur compounds, when burnt in air, form sulphur dioxide. This combines with
the moisture content of the exhaust products to form a sulphurous acid, which is extremely
corrosive to the exhaust system. It is important that the sulphur content is kept as small as
possible; in aviation gasoline, the maximum amount of sulphur permitted is 0.001%.
These pie charts show the expected exhaust constituents for a healthy running engine:
Figure 10.24 Exhaust charts
Diesel fuel releases less carbon dioxide into the environment, and therefore, contributes less to
global warming. However, the mixture of extra pollutants from diesel are considered to be more
harmful than those from petrol.
29
02.00 Fuel
02.01 Types, Grades, Characteristics, Limitations
Fractional Distillation
The elements of hydrogen and carbon can be linked together to form many different structures.
Generally, these are called hydrocarbons. Fuels are blends of hydrocarbon chains processed from
crude oil. The different ty es of fuel have varying ro erties that originate from the lengths of the
hydrocarbon chains contained. A process called fractional distillation can separate the chain
lengths, and some shorter chains can be obtained by cracking the longer chains to break them.
Figure 10.25 Fractional distillation
The calorific value of a fuel is a measure of the amount of heat that will be released during
combustion. It varies with the chemical composition of the fuel, those with a high hydrogen
content being su erior. The calorific value is related to s ecific gravity. The higher the s ecific
gravity the higher the calorific value.
30
Figure 10.27 AVTUR grades
Jet Fuel Additives

• Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII). A certain amount of water is present in all fuel.
The water, which is normally dissolved within the fuel, gives rise to the following fuel
system problems.
• As an aircraft climbs to altitude, the fuel is cooled and the amount of dissolved water
it can hold is reduced. Water droplets form and as the temperature is further
reduced, they turn to ice crystals, which can block fuel system components.
• A microbiological fungus called Cladosporium Resinae is present in all turbine fuels.
This fungus grows ra idly in the resence of water to form long green filaments
which can block fuel system components. The waste products of the fungus are
corrosive, especially to fuel tank sealing substances. The inclusion of FSII in the fuel
will help to overcome these problems.
• Lubricity agent (HITEC) - A lubricity agent is added to the fuel to reduce wear in the
fuel system components.
• Static dissipater additives partially eliminate the hazards of static electricity generated
by the movement of fuel through modern high ow rate fuel transfer systems.
• Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines
and storage tanks, from corrosion. Certain of these corrosion inhibitors appear to
improve the lubricating qualities (lubricity) of some gas turbine fuels.
• Metal deactivators su ress the catalytic effect which some metals articularly co er
have on fuel oxidation.
Octane Rating
03 efine the term octane rating .
Octane ratings are a measure of the fuel’s ability to be compressed, WITHOUT ignition. The
higher the octane rating, the more pressure the fuel can resist before it ignites.
Better quality fuel permits:
• increased com ression ratios with an increase in thermal e ciency better fuel
consumption, and an increase in engine power.
• increased induction pressure and greatly increased power from a given engine using
a supercharger.
31
AVGAS
01 Name the type of fuel used for petrol engines including its color (AVGAS); 100 (green);
100LL (blue).
An ideal fuel for either a gas turbine engine or a piston engine would have the following features:
• Ease of ow under all o erating conditions

• Complete combustion under all conditions
• igh calorific value
• Non-corrosive
• Does not cause damage to the engine from combustion by-products
• Low fire ha ard
• Ease of engine starting
• Lubricity
In practice, the cost of satisfying all these requirements is prohibitive, and therefore, compromises
have to be made.
Aviation gasoline (AVGAS) comes in several grades:
Figure 10.26 AVGAS grades
Equipment used for the dispensing of AVGAS is colour coded red to prevent cross-contamination
with other fuels.
AVTUR
02 Name the type of fuel normally used for aviation diesel engines (JET-A1).
Gas turbine fuel, referred to as AVTUR, is a kerosene based fuel with advantages in cost calorific
value burn characteristics and lower fire ha ard than A AS. A T can be used for diesel
engines and is normally called jet A-1 in the commercial aviation industry.
32
The power output of an engine is directly proportional to the weight of mixture burned in unit time.
Increased induction pressure will increase this weight. (The quantity or ‘weight of charge‘induced
will still de end on the osition of the throttle butter y).
Remember: diesel engines do not require a spark, and the fuel will ignite due to pressurization
alone. So, AVGAS is referred to as a high-octane fuel.
021.10.08
If at any time the correct octane rating is not
available, then a higher-octane rating must be
used.
A rating above 100, e.g., 100/130 grade gasoline

is a performance number, although in practice
the fuel would still be referred to as a 100-octane
fuel.
Figure 10.28 Octane ratings

Detonation
04 efine the term detonation and describe the causes and effects of detonation for both
petrol and diesel engines.
Detonation is an unstable combustion and occurs after ignition.
021.10.01.05
uring normal combustion the ame travels smoothly and steadily through the mixture as the
advancing ame front heats the gases immediately ahead of it so that they in turn burn.
Progressively there is more and more heat concentrated in the ame front which acts on the
remaining unburnt portion of the mixture, called end gas, and its temperature is raised. In addition,
the burnt gases have expanded, so that the end gas is subjected to an increasing pressure.
ltimately there is su cient ressure and heat available to bring all the end gas to the oint of
combustion at the same instant and it ex lodes. The ame rate increases to ft er second
with a degree of violence which will depend on the amount of end gas that remains.
AVGAS 100LL is a 100-octane fuel with a performance number of the lower figure is the
weak mixture detonation oint and the higher figure the rich mixture detonation oint. It follows
021.10.02.03 that, if an engine is designed to use a certain grade of fuel, then a lower grade should never be
used, as this would cause detonation.
e ects o etonation
The explosion of the end gas can cause the piston crown to burn, and eventually to collapse, and
overheating of the combustion chamber can also occur. This may cause the valves to split and
distort, and possibly burn the sparking plug electrodes.
There is also a sudden rise in pressure as detonation occurs, which applies a shock loading to the
engine component parts, which may cause mechanical damage.
Finally, because the maximum pressure is generated before the piston is in the correct position
to utilize it, the piston must overcome a high back pressure and power is lost.
33
10 021.10 Piston Engines 2
Figure 10.29 Exhaust charts
Detonation and Diesel Engines

Detonation in a diesel engine is quite normal. The diesel is sometimes referred to as the
‘detonation-ignition’ engine. Diesels are constructed to withstand the additional pressures
generated, and therefore, are generally heavier.
The Causes of Detonation

Any condition that heats the charge before combustion will aggravate matters in the end gas,
pre-heating the air before it enters the engine (the use of ‘hot-air’ to overcome carburettor icing)
021.10.10.01 or over-compression in the supercharger may well give rise to excessive temperatures. Once
burning has started, the process should not be prolonged.
Detonation may be caused by one or a combination of the following:
• Incorrect mixture strength - The greater the amount of fuel for a given amount of air,
the greater the power obtainable without detonation. If the power output is high, then
the mixture must be rich.
• High charge temperature - Anything that raises the temperature or the pressure of
the charge unduly before burning, e.g., carburettor heating (at high power), overheated
cylinders, high boost with very low rpm.
• Incorrect ignition timing - If the spark is too far advanced the charge ignites too early,
giving higher temperatures.
• Cooling - If the combustion chamber surfaces are coated with carbon, or coke as it
is commonly called heat from the ame will not dissi ate ra idly resulting in high
cylinder head temperatures.
• Cylinder head design The greater the time taken for the ame front to travel through
the combustion chamber, and the higher the charge temperature, the greater the risk
of detonation. esign features which would directly affect these would be for exam le
the size of combustion chambers, the positions of the spark plugs and the valves, the
com ression ratio and effective cooling.
• Use of incorrect fuel
34
Pre-Ignition
05 efine the term re ignition and describe the causes and effects of re ignition for both
petrol and diesel engines.
It is sometimes possible that an over-heated spark plug, or exhaust valve and, carbon deposits can
ignite the fuel air mixture before the planned spark. This can cause uneven and unstable combustion
that is called pre-ignition. Pre-ignition results in rough running, running-on, and loss of power.
Prevention of Detonation
06 Identify the conditions and power settings that promote detonation for petrol engines.
There are several methods of controlling detonation:
• A compact combustion chamber helps prevent detonation by reducing the distance

that the ame front must travel. The time taken to burn the charge can also be
reduced by initiating ame fronts from two s arking lugs.
• If ossible the ame should be started from the vicinity of some hot s ot such as
the exhaust valve, so that the end gas is pushed away from the hotter parts of the
combustion chamber and compressed into a cooler part.
• Running conditions can also assist in delaying the onset of detonation, for example,
the same ower may be obtained at a higher engine s eed by using a finer ro eller
pitch. This enables a smaller throttle opening to be used, which helps in two ways,
the smaller throttle opening reduces the cylinder pressure and the higher running
speed cuts down the time available.
In short, anything which can reduce temperature, pressure or time will be instrumental in
reducing, or at the very best preventing its creation. Additionally, additives can be added to the
fuel to stabilize the burn rate and reduce detonation.
Fuel Quality Control

One of the easiest ways of controlling detonation is by improving the quality of the fuel. There are
two chemically pure fuels, iso-octane and normal heptane, which are employed as reference fuels
when determining the anti-detonation qualities of a fuel under laboratory conditions.
• Iso-octane has very good combustion characteristics and shows little tendency to
detonate when ignited at high temperatures. It is given a rating of 100.
• Normal heptane detonates very readily and has a rating of 0.
The combustion characteristics of any blend of fuel can be compared with those of the two reference
fuels by using each in turn, under standardized conditions, in a special single-cylinder engine.
The engine is run using the fuel under test and then compared to a blend of the two reference
fuels to produce the same degree of detonation in the engine. If the blend of the reference fuels
is 95% iso-octane and 5% normal heptane, then the fuel under test would be given an octane
rating of 95. The octane rating is, therefore, a measure of the fuel’s anti-knock value.
35
It is important to know how the fuel will behave under these varying mixture strengths, and
hence, aviation fuel has two ratings. This is sometimes referred to as the performance number
021.10.02.01.03 or performance index.
Recognition of Detonation
07 Describe how detonation in petrol engines is recognised.
Detonation is spontaneous combustion and can be recognized by its metallic knocking sound
(sometimes called pinking), which is caused by the violent vibrating pressure waves striking the walls
of the combustion chamber. Detonation can cause much damage to the piston under high power
circumstances. Noise created by the propeller can mean detonation is not noticed until it is too late.
Fuel Water Contamination
08 Describe the method and occasions for checking the fuel for water content.
Water contamination within fuel is probably the most common cause of fuel contamination. It can
allow a type of bacteria to grow called hydrocarbon utilizing microbes (or HUM bugs) and can lead
to rough running engines or engine failure. A small amount of water can be tolerated, usually 30
part per million (ppm). Check the aircraft technical and operating manuals.
efore the first ight of the day the fuel must be checked. A small sam le of fuel is taken from
each drain or sump and checked. If the fuel can be allowed to settle after replenishment, then
the water droplets, being heavier than the fuel, will fall to the bottom of the tank and can then be
drained off through the water drain valve.
isible movement of uids will a ear as bubbles in the fuel and is caused by one of two things
• Air - bubbles will clear upwards and disappear at the surface.

• Water - bubbles will clear downwards and eventually show a separation of the water
under the fuel.
If water contamination is present, the fuel must be decontaminated. Depending on the technical
manuals and severity of the contamination, this can be achieved by:
• draining the water from the base of the tanks until a clear sample is seen.
• water absorbing substances that are then filtered out.
• complete fuel drain, tank clean and refuel.
Once the fuel is in the aircraft fuel tanks, the main source of water contamination is the
atmosphere that remains within the tank. If the tanks are topped up to full, then the atmosphere
is excluded together with the moisture it contains, thus minimizing the likelihood that the fuel
will be contaminated. Caution is re uired here filling u the tanks may rove an embarrassment
the next day if the ambient temperature rises. The volume of the fuel in the tank will increase
and there is the danger that it may spill out of the vent system.
36
Density
09 State the typical value of fuel density for aviation gasoline and diesel fuel.
The s ecific gravity of a li uid varies inversely with its tem erature. The heat release from the
fuel is directly related to its s ecific gravity and so changes in fuel density can alter the ower
out ut of an engine. n modern aircraft this usually makes little difference as modern fuel
control units will automatically compensate for the change in density of the fuel. Keep in mind,
that a change in s ecific gravity of the fuel will
also change the weight of the aircraft. S ecific
gravity is also known as relative density.
Aviation fuel is sold and delivered to the aircraft

in units of volume (US gallons, imperial gallons
or litres). AVTUR is denser than AVGAS, and
so contains more energy per unit volume
than AVGAS. For a given fuel load on board an
aircraft, the range would be greater if AVTUR
was used, as instead of AVGAS.
Figure 10.30 Fuel densities

Volatility
10 Explain volatility, viscosity and vapour locking for petrol and diesel fuels.
A volatile liquid is one which readily changes from the liquid to the vapour state, by the application
of heat, or by contact with a gas into which it can evaporate.
A T ( ara n) is widely available less of a fire ha ard less volatile and therefore a safer fuel
option operationally than AVGAS.
Viscosity
Viscosity is a uantity that is used to ex ress how much internal friction a uid has. A runny thin
uid like water or air is said to have a low viscosity whereas a thick dense substance like a syru
has a high viscosity. The viscosity can be expressed in two ways:
• Dynamic viscosity a uid s resistance to ow (in any direction by an a lied force)
• Kinematic viscosity a uid s resistance to ow under gravity
In reality, the dynamic and kinematic velocity are very closely related and generally only referred
to as one.
The viscosity of a uid will lower as its tem erature is increased showing it ows more easily. As
the temperature is increased, the density is also reduced, but the relationship between viscosity
and density is not normally a linear one.
37
021.10.06.02.01
Figure 10.31 Kinematic and dynamic viscosity vs temperature graph
Vapour Locks
Burning fuel is capable of producing a lot of energy, but in practice, a considerable amount of
energy is lost in the form of heat to the cylinder walls and the piston crowns. The exhaust gases
also remove heat as their temperature is still high when they are expelled from the cylinder during
the exhaust stroke. Additional work is absorbed in overcoming the internal friction of the engine.
The net result is that, under the best conditions, less than 30% of the heat value of the fuel is
converted into useful work at the propeller shaft.
If the fuel is very volatile, not only will there be excessive losses by evaporation in the aircraft’s
fuel tanks, but the fuel will tend to boil and vaporize at the depression (inlet) side of the fuel
pump, causing cavitation (bubbles forming in the fuel around the pump impeller) and vapour
locks to form.
uel is added to the air at the carburettor and the e ciency with which the fuel mixes with the
air is largely determined by the volatility of the fuel. However, the time involved is so small that
some of the fuel remains in the form of minute droplets, the evaporation of which occurs in the
induction system.
A liquid will boil when its vapour pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure acting on
the surface of the liquid. This means that, as the atmospheric pressure reduces with altitude,
the fuel vaporizes at a lower temperature. This is generally referred to as ‘low pressure boiling’.
However, even if the fuel does not reach its boiling point, the reduced pressure will increase
the eva oration of fuel into the surrounding air. The va our locks that this effect cause will
effectively cut off the fuel su ly to the engine with the inevitable result that the engine will sto .
uel booster um s fitted inside the tanks can overcome this roblem by ushing fuel towards
the engine, rather than engine driven pumps sucking fuel from the tanks.
Some aviation authorities do allow the use of car petrol for some aircraft. This is generally
referred to as MOGAS (motor gasoline). Because of its higher volatility, carburettor icing and
vapour locking is much more likely.
38
03.00 Engine Fuel Pumps

03.01 Engine-Driven Fuel Pump
01 Explain the need for a separate engine-driven fuel pump.
Fuel is moved to the engines in several ways. Firstly, in the absence of any pumps, the fuel can
be drawn through the lines by the lower pressure inside the chamber at the point of induction.
Whilst this is possible, it is not a method to be relied upon for such an important feature as
feeding fuel to the engine, particularly at higher altitudes.
The general arrangement of pumps consists of a low pressure (LP) centrifugal pump in (or near)
the fuel tanks, and a second pump near the engine induction point that is engine driven, at a high
pressure (HP). The LP pump is electrically driven and is often referred to as a boost pump; its
only ur ose is to rovide a ositive ow of fuel to the second P stage.
The HP engine driven pump will have more power (as it is driven by the engine) and does not rely
on electrical power in the event of a generator/alternator failure. The engine driven pump is the
main source of fuel pressurization and is a very reliable pump due to the direct drive from the
engine. It will only stop if the engine stops and then, the pump is not required anyway.
An engine can sustain the loss of LP pumps at low altitudes, but if the pressure falls below a
certain point, the fuel may arrive at the HP pump with bubbles in it due to cavitation. This would
lead to further pressurization issues and a possible result is the loss of fuel feed to the HP pump
all together.
39
04.00 Carburettor and Injection System

Operation, Indications and Warnings
The Basic Carburettor
01 State the purpose of a carburettor.
The carburation system must:
• control the air-to-fuel ratio in response to the throttle setting, at all selected power
outputs, from slow-running to full-throttle and during acceleration and deceleration.
• function at all altitudes and temperatures in the operating range.
• rovide for ease of starting and may incor orate a means of shutting off the fuel
to stop the engine.
Diesel engines do not have carburettors but do have an inlet-system to allow air to be induced
towards the cylinders incor orating an air filter. The air su ly is not throttled .
The general layout of a carburettor system is shown below. The air intake filters the air and ducts
it towards a venturi. Fuel is metered by the carburettor and added to the air at the narrowing of
the venturi where the air ow is fastest. ust beyond this sits the throttle valve. The throttle is a
butter y valve which o ens or closes to let more or less mixture through to the engine inlet valve.
Figure 10.32 Carburettor layout
40
There are several different designs of carburettor depending on the complexity and needs
of the aircraft.
• A float chamber carburettor is the cheapest and simplest arrangement and is used
on many light aircraft; however, it is very prone to carburettor icing, and may be
021.10.04.03 affected by ight manoeuvres.
• An injection carburettor is a more sophisticated device and meters fuel more
precisely, thus, providing a more accurate air-to-fuel ratio. The direct injection system
provides the best fuel distribution and is reputed to be the most economical; it is
unaffected by ight manoeuvres and is relatively free from icing.
Any of these systems may be fitted with a manual mixture control by means of which the most
economical cruising mixture may be obtained. This can be achieved automatically, or to assist the
ilot in selecting the best mixture some aircraft are fitted with fuel owmeters ressure gauges or
exhaust gas temperature gauges.
The Simple Float Chamber Carburettor
02 escribe the o erating rinci le of the sim le oat chamber carburettor.
This carburettor employs two basic principles, those of the U-tube and the venturi.
• The U-Tube Principle

If a tube is bent into the sha e of a and then filled with li uid the level in either
leg will be the same, provided that the pressure acting on the tube is the same. If
the ressure difference is created across the tube it will cause the li uid to ow.
In practice, one leg of the U-tube is opened out to form a small tank, a constant level
being maintained by a oat and valve mechanism regulating the ow of fuel from a
fuel pump (or pumps) delivering a supply from the main aircraft tanks.
• The Venturi Principle
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy per unit mass along any one
streamline in a moving uid is constant. The uid ossesses energy because of its
021.10. pressure, temperature and velocity, if one of these changes, one or both of the
others must also change to maintain the same overall energy.
As the air passes through the restriction of the venturi, its velocity increases, causing a drop in
pressure and temperature. The pressure drop at the throat of the venturi is proportional to the
mass of air ow and is used to make fuel ow from the oat chamber by lacing one leg of the
U-tube in the venturi.
In a float chamber carburettor air ow to the engine is controlled by a throttle valve and fuel ow
is controlled by metering jets.
Engine suction rovides a ow of air from the air intake through a venturi in the carburettor to the
induction manifold. This air speeds up as it passes through the venturi, and pressure drops at this
point. Within the induction manifold however, pressure rises as the throttle is opened.
uel is contained in a oat chamber (su lied by gravity an electrical booster um or an engine
driven fuel um ) and a constant level is maintained in the chamber by the oat and needle valve.
41
Figure 10.33 Simple float chamber carburettor
Where fuel pumps are used, a fuel pressure gauge is included in the system to provide an indication
of um o eration. Air intake or atmos heric air ressure acts on the fuel in the oat chamber
which is connected to a fuel discharge tube, located in the throat of the venturi.
The difference in ressure between the oat chamber and the throat of the venturi rovides the
force necessary to discharge fuel into the airstream. As air ow through the venturi increases so
the ressure dro increases and a higher ressure differential acts on the fuel to increase its
ow in ro ortion to the air ow. The si e of the main jet in the discharge tube determines the
uantity of fuel which is discharged at any articular ressure differential and therefore controls
the mixture strength. The simple carburettor contains all the basic components necessary to
provide a suitable air/fuel mixture over a limited operating range.
Mixture Control Over Power Range
03 Describe the methods of obtaining mixture control over the whole operating engine power
setting range (com ensation jet diffuser).
During power changes and manoeuvring, the carburettor must be capable of maintaining the
correct ow of fuel to maintain the correct mixture ratio. There are several design ada tions that
make this possible:
• Pressure balance duct

• iffuser
• Compensation jet
• Back suction economiser
Pressure Balance Duct

To achieve a steady ow to the fuel jet the ressure at the air inlet and the oat must be e ual.
The changes in pressure localized around the air intake are not be readily transmitted to the
oat chamber. Therefore a better method to ensure ressure e uali ation is to connect the oat
chamber directly to the air intake by a pressure balance duct. This duct also supplies air to the
diffuser and is used in some carburettors to rovide altitude mixture control.
42
e i user
As engine s eed and air ow through the
venturi increase the ow characteristics
of the two uids change. This causes the
mixture to become richer. To overcome this
effect some carburettors are fitted with a
diffuser or compensation jet. As engine
speed is progressively increased above idling,
the fuel level in the diffuser well dro s and
progressively uncovers more air holes. These
holes allow more air into the discharge tube,
and by reducing the ressure differential
prevent enrichment of the mixture. The
process of drawing both air and fuel through
the discharge tube also has the effect of
vaporizing the fuel more readily, particularly
Figure 10.34 Pressure balance duct at low engine speeds.
Figure 10.35 Diffuser well
Compensation Jet
Just like sucking a drink through a straw, suction applied to a tube can pull a liquid up the tube.
Should a small hole be made in the tube, bubbles of air will enter the tube and the liquid will be
drawn up the tube in smaller drops rather than a continuous stream, weakening the mixture by
dilution with air. This jet of air into the fuel compensates for the over-richening and is called a
compensation jet.
43
Figure 10.36 Air bleed jet / compensation jet
The Back-Suction Economiser

When the throttle valve is at a high ower setting the ressure of air owing ast the valve is
only slightly below atmos heric ressure and will have little effect on air ressure in the oat
chamber thus a rich mixture will be rovided. To control this effect a back-suction economiser
is added. As the throttle is closed to the cruising osition air owing ast the throttle valve
creates a suction which is a lied to the oat chamber through the economiser channel and air
jet. The reduced oat chamber ressure reduces fuel ow through the main jet to rovide the
economical mixture required for cruising.
Figure 10.37 The back-suction economiser
44
Mixture Control Over Altitude Range
04 Describe the methods of obtaining mixture control over the whole operating altitude range.
As altitude increases, air density decreases, and so, the weight of air drawn into the cylinder
decreases. For a given intake velocity, the pressure drop in the venturi will decrease as ambient
density decreases. owever the fuel ow due to the ressure dro will not decrease by the
same amount, and so, the mixture will become richer. This progressive richness with increased
altitude is unacceptable for economic operation, and two main design features are used to
correct this:
• Needle type mixture control

• Air bleed
Needle Type Mixture Control

With a needle type mixture control a cock it lever is connected to a needle valve in the oat
chamber. ovement of the cock it lever raises or lowers the needle and varies fuel ow through
an orifice to the main jet. The osition of the needle therefore controls the mixture strength
and in the fully down osition will block fuel ow to the main jet thus roviding a means of
stopping the engine.
Figure 10.38 Needle type mixture control
The smallest orifice in the whole fuel system is the fuel jet. To revent any blockage of the jets by
dirt or debris a fuel strainer can be fitted just before them in the fuel line.
45
Air Bleed Mixture Control

The air bleed mixture control o erates by controlling the air ressure in the oat chamber
varying the ressure differential acting on the fuel.
A small air bleed between the oat chamber and the venturi tends to reduce air ressure in
the oat chamber and a valve connected to a cock it lever controls the ow of air into the oat
chamber. When this valve is fully open, the air pressure is greatest, and the mixture is fully rich,
as the valve is closed the air ressure decreases reducing the ow of fuel and weakening the
mixture.
Figure 10.39 Air bleed mixture control
In the illustrated carburettor, the valve also includes a suction line connection to the engine side
of the throttle valve. When this i e is connected to the oat chamber by moving the cock it
control to the idle cut off osition oat chamber air ressure is reduced and fuel ceases to ow
stopping the engine.
Accelerator Pump
05 Explain the purpose and the operating principle of an accelerator pump.
If the throttle valve is o ened uickly air ow res onds almost immediately and a larger volume
of air ows through the carburettor. The fuel metering system res onds slower to the changing
conditions, and a temporary weakening of the mixture will occur, known as a flat spot (or at worst,
causing a weak cut ) before fuel ow again matches air ow. This condition is overcome by fitting an
accelerator pump, which is linked directly to the throttle, and forces fuel into the venturi whenever
the throttle is opened.
46
Figure 10.40 Accelerator pump
In some pumps, a controlled bleed past the pump piston allows the throttle to be opened
slowly without passing fuel to the engine, in other pumps, an additional delayed-action plunger
is incorporated to supply an additional quantity of fuel to the engine for a few seconds after
throttle movement has ceased.
Power Enrichment
06 Explain the purpose of power enrichment.
Figure 10.41 Power enrichment or economiser jet
47
At power settings above the cruising range, a richer mixture is required to prevent detonation.
This rich mixture may be provided by an additional fuel supply, or by setting the carburettor to
rovide a rich mixture for high ower and then bleeding off oat chamber ressure to reduce
fuel ow for cruising.
Carburettors can be fitted with an additional needle valve which may be known as a ower
enrichment jet, or economiser jet. The needle valve, which is connected to the throttle control,
is fully closed at all throttle settings below maximum cruising power (at sea level). As the throttle
is opened, the needle valve opens progressively, until it is fully open at full throttle. On some
engines, the power jet is operated independently of the throttle, by means of sealed bellows
actuated by manifold pressure. In this way high-power enrichment is related to engine power
rather than to throttle position.
A real-life carburettor will contain most of the design features mentioned in this section, working
together for optimum running-across power, temperature and altitude ranges.
Figure 10.42 Real life carburettor
Carburettor Heat
07 Describe the function of the carburettor heat system.

08 Ex lain the effect of carburettor heat on mixture ratio and ower out ut.
021.10.04.03
To prevent icing in the carburettor system, a heating system is required. The exhaust gases from
the istons and the general engine cooling system can allow the ow of warmer air back towards
the air intake, to warm the incoming air. Whilst this is a good method of reducing the likelihood
of ice forming, it will also decrease the density of the air as it is heated. Less mass of air will
enrich the mixture as well as reducing the oxygen proportion for combustion and will reduce
power output.
48
Priming the Engine
09 Explain the purpose and the operating principle of a primer pump.

10 Discuss other methods for priming an engine (acceleration pumps).
Priming an engine is the process of spraying the fuel into the induction system to assist in the
initial starting of a cold engine. A priming pump supplies fuel to the induction manifold, close to
021.10.04.01.05 the inlet valve. This can be achieved by a dedicated priming pump, or form part of the accelerator
pump system for mixture control, previously discussed.
In the absence of such a device, it is permissible, on some aircraft, to prime the engine by pumping
the throttle (exercising the accelerator pump) several times. This practice is not recommended in
any other circumstance because it increases the chance of carburettor fires.
Figure 10.43 Engine priming system
A sim le light aircraft fuel system is shown here. The fuel tanks are rigid tanks fitted in the wings
and filled by gravity. The fuel is drawn from the tanks by a mechanical or electrical fuel um
through a tank selector and filter before being delivered to the carburettor. Engine riming is
achieved by use of a riming um which takes fuel from the filter housing and delivers it to the
inlet manifold. The fuel system is monitored for contents and pressure and the fuel drains allow
any water to be removed before ight.
Carburettor Fire
11 Ex lain the danger of carburettor fire including corrective measures.
There is a risk of fire wherever there is fuel the risk of fire has to be considered and managed. The
carburettor is articularly rone to the risk of fire. Problems with electrics s ark lugs ignition
49
timing valve timings or valve conditions are all ossible causes of carburettor fires. If a carburettor
fire is detected or sus ected the engine fire checklist should be carried out immediately.

Operation, Indications and Warnings
01 Ex lain the advantages and difference in o eration of an injection system com ared with
a carburettor system.
Indirect Fuel Injection

Indirect fuel injection is often employed on aircraft piston engines, but is of the low-pressure,
continuous ow ty e. In the low ressure continuous ow method fuel is s rayed continuously
into the induction pipe as close to the inlet valve as possible. In the indirect injection system,
the air throttle metering valve varies the pressure of fuel according to engine speed. Mixture
strength is varied by a manually operated mixture control valve, which adjusts the fuel pressure
for altitude or operating conditions as necessary.
Figure 10.44 Indirect fuel injection system
50
Advantages
The advantages of this method compared with a carburettor are:
• A low operating pressure

• Good fuel distribution
• Freedom from icing problems
• The ability to use a pump which does not have to be timed to the operating cycle.
Using this indirect injection method also means that, no special idling arrangements are required,
and a separate priming system for engine starting is unnecessary.
System Components and Operation

The main components in the system are:
• Fuel pumps (one electrical/one engine driven)

• Fuel/air control unit
• Fuel manifold (distribution) valve
• Discharge nozzle for each cylinder
• ormal throttle valve to control air ow to the engine
• Fuel pressure gauge to enable mixture adjustments
Figure 10.45 Fuel air control
51
Fuel Air Control Unit

This unit is mounted on the intake manifold and contains three control elements:
• Air throttle assembly (throttle valve)

• Throttle metering valve (metering fuel valve)
• Mixture control valve
The air throttle assembly contains the air throttle valve, which is connected to the pilot’s throttle
lever and controls air ow to the engine. The intake manifold has no venturi or other restrictions
to air ow. The fuel control unit is attached to the air throttle assembly and controls fuel ow to
the engine by means of two valves.
• Metering fuel valve Connected to the air throttle this valve controls fuel ow
to the fuel manifold valve according to the osition of the air throttle. uel ow is
ro ortioned to air ow roviding the correct air fuel ratio.
• Mixture control valve - Connected to the pilot’s mixture control lever, this valve
bleeds off fuel ressure a lied to the metering valve. The air fuel ratio can be varied
from the basic setting of the metering valve, as required by operating conditions.
A fuel pressure gauge in the system indicates metered fuel pressure, and, by suitable calibration,
enables the mixture to be adjusted according to altitude and power setting.
Fuel Manifold Valve

This valve is located on the engine crankcase and is the central point for distributing metered
fuel to the engine. When the engine is stopped, all the outlet ports are closed, and no fuel can
ow to the engine. As fuel ressure builds u (as a result of engine rotation or booster um
operation), all the ports to the discharge nozzles open simultaneously. A ball valve ensures that
the orts are fully o en before fuel starts to ow.
Discharge Nozzle
A fuel discharge nozzle is located in each cylinder head, with its outlet directed into the inlet port.
o les are calibrated in several ranges and are fitted to individual engines as a set each no le
in a set having the same calibration.
Fuel Pumps
The pump supplies more fuel than is required by the engine, and a recirculation path is provided.
Two pumps are provided, arranged in parallel, so that when the mechanical pump is not operating,
fuel under positive pressure from the electrical pump can bypass the mechanical pump. This allows
the electrical pump to be used for engine priming and starting, and in an emergency.
Electronic or Common Rail Injection

In a common rail system, the distributor injection pump (old-style system) is replaced by a single
extremely high-pressure pump (2,000 bar or 29,000 psi) that feeds a single storage manifold,
known as the common rail. The common rail distributes high pressure fuel to computer-
controlled injector valves. Each injector valve is activated by either a solenoid, or, more recently,
by piezoelectric actuators. This is an important feature in a diesel engine fuel injection system.
52
Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC)

In modern aircraft, both the timing and fuel quantity per injection is under the control of the
FADEC, which opens electronically operated nozzles at the appropriate time and duration,
according to demand. The FADEC receives data from various sources, such as, air temperature,
air density and throttle position. The combination of the ‘high-tech’ injector-valves and computer
control leads to greater fuel e ciency and more effective ower management.
04.03 Icing
Carburettor Icing
01 escribe the causes and effects of carburettor icing and the action to be taken if carburettor
icing is suspected.
The roblems of engine icing articularly engines fitted with carburettors have been known for
some years, but still accidents in which induction system icing has been the cause occur, despite
modern fuel metering devices.
There are three forms of icing that affect a iston engine
• Impact ice which forms on the air filters and bends in the induction system.
• Refrigeration ice (carburettor icing) which forms in oat ty e carburettors as a
result of the low temperatures caused by fuel vaporization and low pressure acting
on moisture in the atmosphere.
• Fuel icing - which is caused by moisture in the fuel coming out of suspension and
being frozen by the low temperatures in the carburettor. This tends to stick to the
inlet manifold around the corners and reduce air fuel ow into the engine.
The icing problem is caused partly by the rapid cooling in the

throat of the carburettor, as heat is absorbed from the air during
the vaporization of the fuel, and also by the low-pressure area
in the venturi tube. The result is that, the temperature in this
area of the carburettor drops as much as 22°C (70°F) below
the temperature of the incoming air. If the air contains a large
amount of moisture this cooling rocess may be su cient to
cause ice to form in the area of the throttle butter y .
This will reduce the area of the induction intake and may prevent
operation of the throttle plate, resulting in a loss of power, and,
if not corrected the ice may accumulate su ciently to block the
intake completely and stop the engine. At temperatures of -1°C Figure 10.46 Carburettor icing
(14°F) or below, any moisture in the air will be already frozen and
will pass through the carburettor, so heat should not be used.
Icing is also more likely during long eriods of ight at reduced ower such as during a glide
descent or letdown for approach and landing. Because the heat is supplied from the engine,
during long descents the engine tem eratures will gradually cool thus reducing the effectiveness
of the hot air system.
53
Action to be Taken if Engine Icing is Suspected

Where icing conditions exist select full hot air before reducing ower so that benefit is gained
from the hot engine before the engine temperature starts to reduce.
When icing is suspected, the carburettor heat control should be selected to fully hot and left in
the hot osition for a su cient length of time to clear the ice. This could take u to one minute
or longer, depending on the severity.
Partial heat should not be used unless the aircraft is equipped with a carburettor air temperature
gauge. The carburettor heat control provides heated air from around the exhaust pipe into the
induction system, which will melt the ice, and which then passes through the engine as water.
Engine roughness and further power loss may occur as the water passes into the cylinders and
pilots should not be tempted to return the heat control to OFF (cold), thinking that the situation
has become worse since applying heat.
To hel maintain engine tem eratures and rovide a su cient heat source to melt any ice it is
necessary to increase power periodically to a cruising setting at intervals of between 500 and
1,000 ft during the descent. Additionally, this action prevents lead fouling of the spark plugs.
Ground Operation
Carburettor icing can occur during taxiing at small throttle settings or when the engine is at idle
r m. In these circumstances ensure that hot air is used before takeoff to clear any ice but select
cold air before o ening the throttle to full ower and check that the correct takeoff r m manifold
pressure is obtained. Use of the heat control on the ground should be kept to a minimum, as the
air is not filtered and may feed dust and dirt into the system causing additional wear on istons
and cylinders. A function check of the heater control should be made before takeoff.
a eo
If icing is evident on the ground before takeoff use heat to clear the ice but return the control to
(cold) before a lying takeoff ower. Check that normal takeoff ower is available.
Climb
Do not use carburettor heat during the climb or at power settings above 80% (approximately
2,500 rpm).
Descents
A ly carburettor heat during glide descents or long eriods of ight at reduced ower (below
1,800 rpm), remembering to warm/clear the engine for short periods every 500 – 1,000 ft.
Approach and Landing

The carburettor heat selector should remain at cold during approach and landing, except for a
glide approach. If icing conditions are known or suspected, full heat should be applied. The control
must be returned to cold before applying power for a roller landing or carrying out an overshoot.
54
Caution: During hot/dry weather, application of hot air may cause a rich cut in the engine,
therefore, use the carburettor heat control sensibly not just as a matter of habit. Think about
what you are doing and check the prevailing conditions.
Meteorological Conditions
02 Name the meteorological conditions under which carburettor icing may occur.
Be aware of conditions likely to cause carburettor icing
• Damp
• Cloud
• Fog
• Haze
• Flying close to cloud
• Flying in rain or drizzle.
Figure 10.47 Meteorological icing conditions
55
Indications
03 escribe the indications of the resence of carburettor icing for both a fixed itch and a
constant speed propeller.
Pilots should look out for an unaccountable loss of rpm /manifold pressure, which may be
accompanied by engine rough running and vibration.
In a fixed pitch ro eller aircraft the first indications of carburettor icing will be the dro in r m
and a rough running engine. owever in aircraft fitted with a constant s eed ro eller the r m
will be governed by the constant speed unit. Instead, the carburettor icing will be indicated by a
dro in manifold ressure or reduction of airs eed in level ight.
Selection of Carburettor Heat
05 Describe the indications that will occur upon selection of carburettor heat depending on
whether ice is present or not.
All pilots operating piston engine aircraft should understand the problems associated with each
particular type of engine, but they also need to know how the engine reacts once heat is applied
to prevent induction icing.
Carburettor heat will reduce the density of the air, reducing the mass of fuel, and therefore, will
reduce the power output of the engine. Rpm should drop approximately 100 rpm when heat is
applied, and return to the selected setting when turned OFF (cold).
Make frequent checks for icing by applying heat for a period of between 15 to 30 seconds, noting
first the selected r m then the dro of r m as heat is a lied.
Should r m increase whilst heat is a lied or the r m return to a higher figure than original
when re selected to cold then ice is resent. Continue to use heat while ight in icing conditions
continues.
Alternate Air
06 Explain the reason for the use of alternate air on fuel injection systems and describe its
operating principle.
Fuel Injected Engines

The fuel injected engine does not have the problems of ice forming at the venturi, but other parts
of the system may accumulate ice with a similar loss of power. Fuel icing may gather at the bends
in the system im act icing may form at the im act sensing tubes or on the air filters articularly
when ying in cloud at low tem eratures. The alternate air system fitted to these engines should
then be selected, and the icing drill followed according to the aircraft check list.
56
Diesel Engines
iesel engines do not suffer from icing in the same way as conventional iston engines. irstly
there is no ‘carburettor’ and therefore, no venturi to attract the refrigeration icing associated
with oat chamber carburettors.
Im act icing at the air inlet filter is overcome by the use of ice guards which effectively by ass
the filter when it becomes blocked with ice.
Problems of fuel solidification known as waxing where the fuel viscosity increased due to low
temperatures is overcome by putting additives in the fuel or by using fuel-heaters in the fuel
lines or filters to re heat the fuel.
Induction Icing
07 State the meteorological conditions under which induction system icing may occur.
Atmospheric conditions, particularly of high humidity (more than 50% RH) and temperatures ranging
from C to as high as C may cause icing in the induction system of all ty es of iston engines.
This temperature range and humidity occur throughout the year, in the areas of the United
Kingdom and Europe, and therefore, pilots should be constantly aware of the possibilities of
icing. They should take the corrective action necessary before such problems arise and the
situation becomes irretrievable.
Once an engine stops due to induction icing, it is most unlikely that it may be restarted in time to
prevent an accident; therefore, recognition and correction are vital.
57
05.00 Cooling Systems

05.01 Design, Operation, Indications and Warnings
The Reasons for Cooling
01 Specify the reasons for cooling a piston engine.
The piston engine is a heat engine, and its purpose is to convert the energy released by the fuel
into mechanical energy and so do useful work. As reviously discussed the thermal e ciency
is at best only 25-28%. This means that over 70% of the heat energy released by the fuel is
wasted. The exhaust gas is responsible for around 38% loss, although some of this energy can be
recovered on some aircraft by driving a turbine driven supercharger (turbocharger).
The remaining 32% raises the temperature of the engine components, and if not controlled could
lead to the following problems:
• Structural failure of the engine components

• Over temperature of the oil, resulting in a breakdown of its lubricating properties.
• The fuel can ignite as it enters the cylinder before the s ark lug fires ( re ignition).
• The combustion process can become unstable even if the mixture has been ignited
by the spark plug (detonation).
Both pre-ignition and detonation result in a loss of engine power.
021.10.02.01.04 Problems can also occur if the engine operates at too low a temperature. A low temperature will:
021.10.02.01.05
• give low thermal e ciency.
• increase the viscosity of lubricants, which will increase friction horsepower and so,
reduce brake horsepower.
• reduce the ability of the li uid fuel to change its state to a gas which affects the fuel
mixture and combustion.
To o erate e ciently the engine must o erate at the highest tem eratures ossible within safe
operational limits. Allowances for changes in the ambient and internal temperatures require a
cooling system to control and maintain these temperatures.
The cylinder arrangements of different engines will re uire different methods of cooling systems.
The two types are liquid cooling and air cooling.
Air Cooling
02 Describe the design features to enhance cylinder air cooling for aeroplanes.
58
The air-cooled engine uses the cooling air from the propeller slipstream and the aircraft’s forward
speed to transfer the heat generated in the engine directly to the air. The air-cooled engine has
few moving parts, and its simplicity makes it virtually maintenance free. It is lighter in weight than
a similar powered liquid-cooled engine, and for these reasons, it is the preferred choice for piston
engines.
There are several considerations design features and factors affecting the cooling of an engine by
air alone. These are:
• Air temperature
• S eed of the air ow
• Cooling fins
• a es
• Engine construction
Air Temperature
The ambient air temperature can vary widely with changes in
climatic conditions and altitude. Dissipation of the heat will be
more rapid as the air temperature decreases.
peed o t e irflo
The s eed of the air ow assing over the cylinders is governed
by the slipstream and will vary with the speed of the aircraft.
Consequently, care must be taken when ground running to
revent overheating. n some installations a fan is fitted behind
the ro eller to obtain a more uniform s eed of air ow.
Cooling Fins
The walls of the cylinder are finned to increase the cooling area.
The itch of the fins must be s aced to maximise fin area while
minimising ressure built u due to air ow resistance causing
drag. An average itch for fins is about er inch. The fins are
Figure 10.48 Cooling fins
thin in section and may be extended to increase fin area at local
hot spots, to try to produce an even temperature throughout
the component, e.g., around the exhaust ports on cylinders.
a es
a es are directional air
guides to direct the air ow
completely around the
cylinder. They must always be
close fitting and rovide a seal
with the cowlings, so that all
the cooling air ow is over the
Figure 10.49
Inter-cylinder baffles
59
cylinders. Care is taken to ensure that an even cross-sectional area is maintained, so that the
air ow does not slow down and cause drag.
Engine Construction
Where possible, engine components are made of materials with a high heat conductivity.
Aluminium alloys are commonly used. Cylinder heads are sometimes made of steel, and to
obtain a better heat ow there is a heavy de osit of co er on the combustion chamber face.
Problems with Air Cooling
04 Com are the differences between li uid and air cooling systems.
The cooling system is designed to ensure satisfactory cooling during ight when the forward
s eed of the aircraft should give an ade uate ow of cool air. Sometimes this is not the case.
032.01.04.01.02 During a climb, more power is used, which generates high temperature in the engine. Forward
s eed is reduced which reduces the cooling air ow to the engine. The ilot should be aware of
the possibility of overheating. Climbing at best rate of climb speed (VY) is preferable to prolonged
use of best angle of climb speed (VX).
High power settings should normally be limited on the ground, as only the propeller slipstream is
available to give a cooling ow. This is not always su cient and overheating can occur. Cylinder
021.10.06 head and oil temperatures should be closely monitored during ground running. The internal parts
of the engine, like the pistons, valves, etc., are cooled by the lubricating system.
Descending can also cause problems. Engine power is reduced, and there is less heat generated in
the engine. If the aircraft is laced into a dive this will increase the ow of air over the engine and
it will be overcooled. The sudden change in temperature could cause, what is known as, thermal
shock. This can cause components to fracture and is a common problem on the cylinders of engines.
Liquid Cooled Systems

The liquid cooling system dissipates the heat from the engine by pumping a mixture of water and
glycol (anti-freeze) through passages built into the cylinders and cylinder heads. The liquid is then
passed through an air-cooled radiator mounted in the slipstream of the propeller. This ensures
that there is air ow through the radiator even with the aircraft stationary on the ground.
The coolant is stored in a reservoir called a header tank. An engine driven pump circulates the
coolant through the engine, and temperature is controlled by a thermostat. The heat of the engine
is transferred to the coolant, which cools the engine. The hot coolant is taken to the radiator. Air
owing through the radiator dissi ates the heat from the coolant to the air and the coolant is then
returned to the header tank.
Modern aero-diesels tend to be liquid-cooled or utilize a combined liquid/air cooling system. It

is well known that li uid cooling is more effective as it rovides a more uniform and controlled
cooling of the engine, allowing tighter tolerances in the construction of the moving parts. The liquid
system has the disadvantages of possible leakage and extra weight, but these are outweighed by
the advantages.
60
Figure 10.50 Liquid cooling system
Cowling
06 escribe the function and the o eration of cowl a s.
The engine is cowled to reduce drag and control the ow of air around the engine. This ensures
e ual cooling and revents overcooling at the front of the engine. The rate of ow can be altered
on some aircraft by a variable cowl flap or gills at the rear of the engine cowling, but generally,
these are only fitted to more com lex aircraft.
Figure 10.51 Cowl flap
61
Cowlings cowl a s and gills must be close fitting without dents or rojections to disturb the
air ow. Any disturbance to the designed ow will not only increase drag but also decrease
cooling. With the cowl a s or gills o en the air ow over the engine nacelle causes a ressure
dro at the cooling air outlet thus making it easier for the heated air to ow and maintain a high
s eed over the engine. As the air ows over the cylinders it absorbs heat and ex ands and
given a suitable gill opening, increases its speed. Any increase in speed through the engine will
create a reactive force, tending to reduce the total engine drag.
The heat from the engine is not always transferred straight to the atmosphere. It can be used
for heating the cabin of the aircraft and directed to supply hot air to remove ice from the
carburettor, as needed.
At high ower settings such as takeoff when the engine is generating a lot of heat and at low
airs eeds when the cooling ow is minimal the cowl a s should be o ened to increase ow
rate of air and increase cooling. This means that at takeoff the cowl a s would increase drag.
During descent, the engine is at lower power, so, creating less heat, and there is still a good
cooling air ow. So the cowl a s are closed to revent over cooling the engine. In cruise at
altitude the cowl a s could be artially closed to maintain the engine tem erature.
The Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge
05 Identify the cylinder head temperature indication to monitor engine cooling.
On some aircraft, the pilot can monitor the temperature of the engine by the use of a cylinder head
temperature gauge. The gauge uses sensors which are fitted to the engine s cylinder heads but if
022.01.02.01 only one sensor is fitted it will be fitted to the hottest cylinder (usually one of the rearmost cylinders).
The sensor is a thermocouple that produces a voltage, which is directly proportional to its
temperature. The cockpit indication is displayed by a sensitive moving coil meter called a
galvanometer. The scale reads temperature and not voltage.
Cylinder head tem erature is also affected by mixture strength. The highest cylinder head
temperatures are when lean mixture is selected.
021.10.08
62
06.00 Lubrication Systems

06.01 Lubricants: Characteristics, Limitations
Viscosity
01 escribe the term viscosity including the effect of tem erature.
The varying load, power, and outside air temperatures that aircraft engines operate at, require
oils with differing ro erties. Thickness of the oil is a very im ortant factor and is known as the
oil’s viscosity or grade.
Viscosity is defined as the measure of a uid s internal friction or its resistance to ow.
A li uid that ows freely has a low viscosity and one which is thick and sluggish has a high viscosity.
The viscosity of an oil will change with changes in temperature; an increase in temperature will
reduce viscosity and vice versa.
The engine’s operating temperature will vary considerably from when it is started from cold, to
running at high power for long periods of time. The oil’s viscosity must stay within required limits
to do its job, and this range of temperature is called its viscosity index.
Viscosity Grade Numbering
02 Describe the viscosity grade numbering system used in aviation.
There are various standards that determine the viscosity or thickness of oils. They all provide a
datum by which differing oils can be com ared. These methods measure the time taken for a
fixed uantity of oil at a given tem erature to ow through a hole or jet of a given si e.
There are two standards that are generally employed in aviation to indicate the viscosity of oils.
These are the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the Saybolt universal systems. Both
systems use numbers to indicate the viscosity.
The lower the viscosity number, the thinner the oil.
Figure 10.52 Viscosity grade numbering
63
It can be seen that the SAE number is half that of the Saybolt universal system. Lighter loaded
engines use a low viscosity or thin oil, whereas higher powered engines, with higher loading,
would require a high viscosity or thick oil.
As reviously stated the tem erature in which the engine o erates also has an in uence on
the viscosity. For example, a light aircraft operating within the UK, during winter, may use an
80-grade oil, and in summer it would use a 100-grade. The choice being dependent on the
average ambient temperature.
The use of too high a viscosity oil at too low a temperature can cause problems during starting.
There are oils in use that have two viscosity values: SAE 15W/50. These oils are called
multi-grade oils. They would give the characteristics of low viscosity at low temperatures and
high viscosity at higher temperatures.
Types of Oil
The type of oil used in aircraft piston engines is normally mineral based. If the oil contains no
additives, it is called a straight oil. To meet certain requirements of engine operation, additives
can be added to the oil. These take the form of antioxidants, detergents, and oiliness agents.
These oils are called compound oils.
The two oils are identified by the viscosity numbering system and if a com ound oil the addition
of letters or lettering. A bottle or can containing a straight oil with a viscosity of 80 would have
only the number 80 marked on it. A compound oil of the same viscosity may be marked AD 80 or
W 80. The actual lettering varies with manufacturer. The letters AD stand for ashless dispersant
and it is oil with s ecific ualities for cleaning.
enerally straight oil is only used when running in new engines or for s ecific engine installations.
As previously stated, piston engines normally use mineral-based oils. However, some engine
manufacturers have trialled and approved the use of semi-synthetic oils. A synthetic oil is one
that is man made by a chemical process, rather than coming from the distillation of crude oil.
Figure 10.53 Types of oil
64
06.02 Design, Operation, Indications and Warnings

The components that make up a piston engine are subjected to high loads, high temperatures,
and high speeds. The component parts are generally made of metals, and as the moving parts of
the engine slide against each other, there is a resistance to their movement. This is called friction.
The friction will increase as the load, temperature, and speed increase. The movement of the
components also produces wear, which is the loss or destruction of the metal components.
Both friction and wear can be reduced by preventing the moving surfaces coming into contact
by separating them with a material/substance, which has lower frictional properties than the
component parts. This is referred to as a lubricant.
A lubricant can come in many forms: greases, powders, and some solid materials This chapter
concentrates on lubricants in the form of oils. The oil can be forced between the moving parts,
called pressure lubrication, or the components can be splash lubricated.
On radial and inverted engines, the pilot’s knowledge of the lubrication system is required even
before starting the engines. These engines can suffer from a roblem called hydraulicing, where
oil accumulates in the lower cylinders between piston and cylinder head. As oil is incompressible,
damage to the engine could occur as the piston moves on the compression stroke. Prior to
starting, these engines should be pulled through the cycle by use of the propeller, to ensure no
hydraulic lock has occurred (confirm magnetos are off before turning engine).
Functions
01 State the functions of a piston-engine lubrication system.
The lubrication system has many tasks.
Its primary tasks are to reduce friction and component wear.
The lubrication also performs many secondary tasks, such as:
• Cooling and heating

• Cleaning and chip detection
• Hydraulics
• Sealing components
• Protecting against corrosion
• Giving engine status information from its temperature and pressure
f these erha s the most im ortant is the task of cooling. The ow of oil through the engine
helps to dissipate the heat away from the internal components of the engine.
As the oil ows through the engine it also carries away the by roducts of the combustion
process and cleans the engine. The internal metal components are protected against corrosion
by the oil, which also acts as a hydraulic medium, reducing the shock loads between crankshaft
and bearing, and so, reducing vibration. The oil can provide the power source for the operation
of a hydraulic variable pitch propeller.
The oil system can be used to give an indication of the power being developed by the engine and
its condition. The oil system’s use as an indicating medium is of great importance to the pilot, as
it can give an early warning of mechanical failure or loss of power.
65
It should be remembered that an increase in friction will cause an increase in friction horsepower,
and therefore a reduction in the horsepower developed by the engine.
The reduction in friction and wear by the lubricant is of prime importance, but the secondary
functions of cooling, cleaning, protection, hydraulic, and indicating mediums should not be ignored.
Oil Sumps
There are two lubrication systems in common use: wet sump and dry sump. The system used
is normally dependant on the power output of the engine and role of the aircraft. The principle
of lubrication of the engine is the same whichever system is used and the rinci le difference
between the two systems is the method used to store the supply of oil.
The arrangement of the oil systems in different aircraft engines varies widely but the functions
of all such systems are the same. A study of one system will clarify the general operation and
maintenance requirements of other systems.
The Dry Sumps
02 Describe the working principle of a dry sump lubrication system and describe the functions
of the following components: oil tank (reservoir) and its internal components: hot well,
de-aerator, vent, expansion space; check valve (non-return valve); pressure pump and
ressure relief valve scavenge um filters (suction ressure and scavenge) oil cooler
oil cooler bypass valve (anti-surge and thermostatic); pressure and temperature sensors; lines.
Figure 10.54 Dry sump system
66
The dry sump system stores the oil in a remotely mounted reservoir. The sump of the engine
does not contain oil and is therefore dry. The reservoirs are made of sheet metal suitably ba ed
and strengthened internally to prevent damage due to the oil surging during manoeuvres.
Oil Reservoir
The tank is placed wherever possible at a higher level than the engine to give a gravity feed to the
pressure pump and forms a reservoir of oil large enough for the engine’s requirements, plus an air
expansion space. The air space allows for:
• the increased oil return when starting the engine. When the engine is stopped after
a previous run, the walls of the crankcase are saturated with oil, which will drain into
the sump. The oil will remain there until the engine is started, when the scavenge
pump will return it to the tank.
• the expansion of the oil, and therefore its greater volume as the oil absorbs heat
from the bearings.
• ‘frothing’ due to aeration of the oil.
• the displacement of oil from the variable pitch propeller and other automatic
controlling devices.
The hot well forms a separate compartment within the tank. Its purpose is to reduce the time
taken to raise the temperature of the oil when starting the engine from cold, by restricting the
quantity of oil in circulation when the oil is cold and viscous.
The hot well consists of a cylinder of metal fitted above the oil outlet to the engine thus the oil
must be inside the hot well to be able to reach the pressure pump. When starting, the level of oil in
the hot well dro s uncovering a ring of small diameter orts. These orts offer a great resistance
to the ow of cold thick oil so that very little asses to the inside of the hot well. The oil is returned
from the engine to the inside of the hot well and is recirculated.
As the hot oil is returned to the tank, some of its heat raises the temperature of the walls of the hot
well. The oil in the immediate vicinity is heated and thins so that the orts offer less resistance to
the ow of the thinner oil and rogressively more and more oil is brought into circulation.
When feathering ro ellers are fitted the lower ring of feed orts to the hot well are laced
above the bottom of the tank. This provides a feathering reserve of oil even if the main tank
has been emptied through the normal outlet, as would occur if the main feed pipeline were to
develop a leak or completely fail.
The scavenge oil returning to the tank is passed by an internal pipeline over a de-aerator plate to
the inside of the hot well. The plate separates the air from the oil to reduce frothing. The tank is
vented through the crankcase breather to prevent oil losses during excessive frothing conditions.
A vent is required to ensure the balance of pressures, as oil is pumped around the system.
The Check Valve

(Non-return valves, or one-way valves)
The oil tank may be at a higher level than the pressure pump to provide a gravity feed. When the
engine is sto ed and the oil is hot and thin there is su cient ressure from the gravity feed
to force the oil through the clearances in the pressure pump, so that the oil tank would drain
67
into the crankcase and the engine would be ooded with oil. This feature of dry sum o eration
is sometimes referred to as over-oiling. To prevent this, a check valve is fitted. This consists of
either a lightly s rung loaded valve or electrically o erated shut off valve (S ) which will hold
back the oil until the engine is started.
The Suction Filter

A coarse wire mesh filter is fitted between the tank and ressure um . It is designed to remove
large solid particles from the oil before it enters the pressure pump, and so prevent damage.
Pressure Pump
The pressure pump consists of two dee toothed s ur gears rotating in a close fitting um casing
driven via the accessory housing. Oil is carried either side of the casing in the space between the
gear teeth and is made to ow. The outlet side of the um is enclosed and restriction to ow is
given from the engine components to be lubricated. This gives a rise in system pressure.
Figure 10.55 Spur gear pump
The actual oil pressure obtained will depend on the speed of the pump, the temperature of the
oil and the resistance offered by the com onents.
The capacity of the pump must be such that it will supply a minimum oil pressure under its
most adverse running conditions of low turning speed and high inlet oil temperature. As a
conse uence of this under normal running conditions the increased ow would tend to cause
a dangerously high oil pressure.
Very high pressures are prevented by a pressure relief valve (PRV) across the inlet and outlet
connections, which limits maximum pressure in the system. When the pressure reaches a
redetermined figure the valve o ens and su cient oil is returned to the inlet side of the um
to limit the maximum oil pressure.
In operation, the engine will have a range of operating pressure related to engine speed, from
idle to maximum rpm.
68
The Pressure Filter

The ressure filter is fitted downstream of the ressure um before the oil enters the engine
and is designed to remove very small, solid particles before the oil passes to the bearing surfaces.
A s ring loaded relief valve is fitted to by ass the filter element when the oil is cold or if the
element becomes blocked. It will also protect the engine, if the pressure pump breaks up.
The Scavenge Filter

As the oil circulates around the engine, it performs several functions including cleaning. Therefore,
there is the possibility that it picks up pieces of debris and dirt. This could cause damage to the
system and is certainly not wanted back in the engine so it is filtered out at the bottom of the
sump in the scavenge filter.
The Scavenge Pump

The scavenge pump returns the oil by pumping it from the sump back to the tank. When the
engine is stopped, the oil in the crankcase will drain into the sump. As the engine is started,
there will be a quantity of oil, which, if the pumps were the same size, would not be removed.
Therefore, to maintain a dry sump, it is necessary for the scavenge pump to be of a larger capacity
than the pressure pump. In practice, the scavenge pump capacity is 25% - 50% larger than that
of the pressure pump.
Oil Cooler
If the oil itself gets too hot, it could fail as a lubricant. To prevent its temperature rising too high, a
cooler is fitted in the system. The oil cooler consists of a matrix or tube block, which spreads the
oil in a thin film and subjects it to cooling air. A thermostatic valve senses the oil temperature
and will divert the oil to pass through the cooler, if it above a certain threshold, but bypasses the
cooler, if it does not need cooling.
When starting the engine from cold, the cooler matrix will be full of cold thick oil and forcing
the oil through the small oilways of the cooler would require a very high pressure. To prevent
damage to the cooler, an anti-surge valve is fitted to by ass the matrix when the oil is cold.
The tem erature of the oil is affected by three factors
• The amount of heat generated in the engine (power)

• The temperature of the cooling air
• The rate at which air ows through the cooler
In some light aircraft the ow of air through the cooler is sim ly de endent on the forward
s eed of the aircraft in ight and the air ow from the ro eller whilst the aircraft is on the
ground. In certain conditions of ight where high ower is used with low forward s eed e.g.
a climb care must be taken to revent overheating the oil. The ight manual will recommend
climb speeds that should ensure adequate cooling.
igher owered aircraft will be fitted with shutters behind the cooler to control the ow of air
through the cooler. These would be closed at start up to allow the engine oil temperature to rise
quickly (cold oil increases internal friction), and then be opened to maintain the temperature. In
ight the shutters will close off again as the tem erature of the air reduces at altitude. Control of
the shutters can be manual or automatic.
69
A problem that can occur during starting in very cold weather is coring. It is caused by the fact that
the cold viscous oil does not ow correctly through the engine. The reduction in ow rate will not
dissipate the heat being generated in the engine. The result is that the oil temperature rapidly
rises, but this is only locally at the point of sensing. The problem is that the majority of the oil is
cold. To overcome coring oil cooler a s should be closed. This will initially increase tem erature
but should im rove ow articularly through the cooler and then bring tem eratures down.
Lubrication Monitoring Instruments

The importance of maintaining the correct oil temperature has been explained in the paragraphs
above. The other parameters of the oil system monitored are pressure and quantity.
The temperature of the oil in a piston engine is measured at the inlet to the engine pressure
um . ost aircraft use an electrical sensor to indicate the tem erature to a ight deck gauge.
Temperatures in the region of 85°C would be considered normal.
BOil pressure i sensed at the outlet side of the engine driven pressure pump. The pressure will
depend on the size and loading of the engine, 50-100 psi being a typical value. The sensor can be
021.01.02.01.04 electrical or a direct reading mechanical system. Both temperature and pressure sensing systems
021.01.01.01.05 are covered in the Engine Instruments section.
It is mandatory that oil tem erature and ressure are indicated on the ight deck. il uantity
may be dis layed. If not dis layed there will be a facility for checking the uantity rior to ight
either by the use of a dip stick or sight glass.
Correct oil temperature and pressure during engine operation are perhaps the most important
indicators the pilot has of engine condition. Indications outside of operating limits could be
indicative of impending engine failure.
The Wet Sump
03 Describe a wet-sump lubrication system.
Figure 10.56 Wet sump system
70
Most light, non-aerobatic aircraft engines use the wet sump system. In this system, the oil is
stored in the bottom or sump of the engine rather than in a separate reservoir.
iesel engine lubrication systems are ty ically wet sum and would definitely include a se arate
oil cooler because of the need to dissipate the additional heat generated by the diesel engine.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry and Wet Sumps
04 State the differences between a wet and a dry sum lubrication system and their
advantages and disadvantages.
Figure 10.57 Dry sump, wet sump comparison
Oil Consumption
05 List the following factors that in uence oil consum tion oil grade cylinder and iston
wear;condition of piston rings.
The volume of oil used by the engine can be accounted for by several factors:
• Oil grade
• Cylinder and piston wear
• Condition of piston rings
As the oil is used to lubricate the moving parts of the engine, the oil will come in contact with the
combustion gases. Sealing of the valves and pistons is not 100% and, as a result, some oil will be
burnt, and the engine will, therefore, have an oil consumption rate. Ignoring external leakage,
oil consumption varies between engines. A light aircraft would use around 1 pint per hour. A
consumption rate greater than this would indicate wear in the engine.
71
Oil Pressure, Temperature and Quantity
06 Describe the interaction between oil pressure, oil temperature, and oil quantity.
Indications of oil pressure and temperature give the pilot a good idea of the mechanical integrity
of the engine. Of course, the pilot must then interpret these indications correctly.
Fluctuations in pressure could be the result of low oil levels or system faults.
Low oil pressure and high oil temperature often indicate an oil leak, and the quantity gauge (if
fitted) should be checked. Without oil the engine is sure to fail and shutting it down uickly can
avoid catastrophic failures that could have wider implications.
Low pressure at normal temperature could result from blockages in the system or failures of
pumps. It also indicates imminent engine failure, and a landing should be made as soon as possible.
The oil contents should always be checked rior to ight. If the engine has a dry sum system the
contents should be checked immediately after the engine has stopped (realistically within a few
minutes of shutdown). This ensures that the tank contents are recorded accurately before the oil
migrates under gravity down into the engine sum . Large iston engines have oil tanks fitted with
a check valve, which is underneath the oil tank and closes under spring pressure or by an electrically
operated actuator on engine shutdown. The closing of the check valve prevents oil migration into
the sump. The wet sump system is the opposite. A period of a least 15-20 minutes should have
elapsed before the contents are checked in a similar fashion to motor cars. In any event, the oil
level is checked after a period of time.
n starting ositive engine oil ressure should be indicated within a s ecified time (Pi er Warrior
30 seconds). If the engine is started from cold, the oil pressure could be excessively high. This
would be normal as long as it drops to within its normal range as the engine warms up. Correct
engine operating pressure and temperatures are dependent on each other. High oil temperature
could give low pressure. The oil pressure should be within its operating range at the correct
operating temperature.
72
7 021.10 Power Plant - Piston Engines
07.00 Ignition Circuits

07.01 Design, Operation
Magneto-Ignition System
01 Describe the working principle of a magneto-ignition system and the functions of the
following components: magneto; contact-breaker points; capacitor (condenser); coils or
windings; ignition switches; distributor; spark plug; high-tension (HT) cable.
Magnetos are self-contained engine-driven electrical generators. They produce a series of

extra high tension (EHT) electrical sparks at the spark plugs in the correct firing se uence
for ignition of the petrol and air mixture. The term tension cable simply refers to a thick wire
carrying a high voltage.
The magneto combines the principles of electromagnetic induction and step-up transformers
to generate the EHT voltage necessary to spark across the air gap between the spark plug
electrodes. A permanent magnet (hence the name magneto) is rotated within a primary coil of a
few hundred turns of thick wire to produce a low voltage electric current in the primary circuit.
Figure 10.58 Magneto ignition system
A cam operates the contact breaker oints which allow the rimary field to earth at regular
intervals thereby colla sing the induced field ( ux) in the rimary circuit. As the rimary
magnetic field colla ses the magnetic field lines cross thousands of turns of very thin wire in the
secondary coil, which induces an EHT voltage in the secondary coil.
The prime function of the capacitor (condenser) is to prevent burning or arcing across the
contact breaker points and to assist in creating the EHT voltage in the secondary coil by allowing
a ra id discharge of the rimary coil. This increases the e ciency of the magneto.
The ca acitor is fitted in arallel with the contact breaker oints and the magneto control switch.
The capacitor, therefore, stops arcing at the contact breaker points and allows a rapid collapse
of rimary ux.
73
The induced EHT voltage is taken to a rotary switch, called the distributor, which distributes it
to the s ark lugs in the correct firing se uence. The contact breaker oints and the distributor
rotor are geared together so that the spark will appear at the spark plug as the contact breaker
points just open. The contact breaker cam and distributor rotor rotate at half-engine speed.
The ignition switch rovides com lete control of the engine s magneto circuit and is turned off
by earthing the primary circuit. In the ‘OFF’ position, the switch is closed, and this short-circuits
the contact breaker points, which prevents them from making and breaking the primary circuit.
In the ‘ON’ position, the switch is open, and the primary circuit is controlled by the action of the
contact breaker.
The Grounding Wire

In addition to the diagram above a grounding wire is used to switch off the magneto. If the
021.10.07.01.05
grounding wire breaks when the engine is running, there will be no apparent changes in the
engine’s performance. If the grounding wire breaks and touches the engine-body or airframe,
then this is the e uivalent of grounding the rimary circuit and the magneto is switched off.
Hence, the requirement for magneto checks listed below.
The Dual Ignition System
02 State why piston engines are equipped with two electrically independent ignition systems.
All aero iston engines are fitted with dual ignition that is to say two electrically inde endent
ignition systems. Each engine cylinder has two spark plugs fed by two separate magnetos. This
reduces the risk of engine failure caused by faulty ignition and increases the power output of the
engine by igniting the cylinder charge at two points (reducing combustion time).
Spark Augmentation
03 State the function and operating principle of the following methods of spark augmentation:
starter vibrator (booster coil); impulse-start coupling.
During starting, most aero engines are turned at about 25 rpm, and at this speed, the magneto will
not produce a spark with adequate energy for ignition of the mixture. Therefore, it is necessary
to ease starting, in order to employ auxiliary methods of spark augmentation.
These take the form of:
• mechanical impulse coupling

• electrical high-tension or low-tension booster coils.
74
Starter Vibrator Coils

When the engine is starting, there is no
rotational input for the contact breakers,
permanent magnet, or the distributor to use.
Therefore, another system is needed to provide
this. A DC current from the battery is fed into a
low-tension (LT) booster coil.
The process starts with the relay switches both

o en and the battery current cannot ow
through the vibrator coil so instead it ows
through the normally open (NO) relay coil to
earth. This creates a magnetic field in the
relay coil, which pulls the relays switch above
it into the closed position. Now the current can
more easily ow through to the magneto ast
the vibrator coil. This now forms a magnetic
Figure 10.59 Starter vibrator coil
field which ulls o en the relay above it. The
current is again sto ed from owing to the
magneto. This sequence repeats, creating a
pulsing DC current to the magneto, providing
the on off voltage for the rimary coil which is
boosted through the secondary coil, as in the
normal operation of the magneto. To adjust
this current to the correct timing for the engine,
a capacitor system is used in parallel with the
vibrator coil relay to regulate the pulses to the
required sequence.
Alternatively, a high-tension (HT) booster coil

can directly supply the HT cables with the
succession of high voltage electrical impulses to
the distributor rotor. This requires a much larger
voltage, and therefore, a bigger power source.
Impulse Coupling
Another method of spark augmentation at
start-up is to use an impulse coupling. This
is a mechanical device which uses a spring to
temporarily increase the speed of rotation
of the magneto, giving a large retarded spark
during the starting cycle. No action by the pilot
is necessary.
75
Both Magnetos Live
04 State the function and operating principle of the following methods of spark augmentation:
starter vibrator (booster coil); both magnetos live.
Two magnetos are fitted for redundancy and to revent engine cut out but there is an added
bonus of having two s arks. The two s arks hel the ame front move more evenly through
the mixture in the cylinder and so burns and roduces ower with better e ciency. This give
approximately an extra 100 rpm with 2 magnetos than with just one.
Figure 10.61 Dual magnetos
Magneto Checks
05 Explain the function of the magneto check.
Since magneto and distributor assemblies are subjected to sudden changes in temperature, the
problems of condensation and moisture are considered in the design of these units. Magnetos
cannot be hermetically sealed to prevent moisture from entering a unit because the magneto is
subject to pressure and temperature changes in altitude.
Moisture in any form is a good conductor of electricity, and if absorbed by the nonconducting
material in the magneto, such as distributor blocks, rotor arms, or coil cases, it can create a stray
electrical conducting path.
The high voltage current that normally arcs across the air ga s of the distributor can ash across
a wet insulating surface to ground, or the high-voltage current can be misdirected to some
spark plug other than the one that should be firing. This condition is called flashover and usually
results in cylinder misfiring. or this reason coils, condensers, distributors, and distributor rotors
are waxed so that moisture on such units will stand in separate beads and not form a complete
circuit for ashover.
76
lashover can lead to carbon tracking which a ears as a fine encil like line on the unit across
which ashover occurs. The carbon trail results from the electric s ark burning dirt articles
which contain hydrocarbon materials. The water in the hydrocarbon material is evaporated
during ashover leaving carbon to form a conducting ath for current. When moisture is no
longer present, the spark will continue to follow the track to the ground.
These roblems can easily cause engine di culties if not identified. Therefore a series of
magneto checks are carried out before ight.
Dead Cut Check

The dead cut check is carried out at slow running. This check ensures that the pilot has control
of the ignition before carrying out further ignition checks at higher engine speeds. The rpm must
dro but the engine must not sto while switching one magneto off at a time.
Consider the situation which would exist with an engine running with the pilot unaware that only
one magneto was working. If that live magneto was switched ‘OFF’ during a high rpm magneto
check, the engine would die.
The automatic reaction of the pilot would be to switch the ignition switch quickly back to ‘BOTH’.
The engine, suddenly bursting into life with the throttle still at the check position, would set up a
high torque reaction between the airframe and engine, possibly causing extensive damage.
Live Magneto Check

The live magneto check is not normally required, as evidence of a live magneto is usually found
at the dead cut check simply by observing a change in rpm as the switch is operated.
Magneto RPM Drop Check

The magneto rpm drop check is carried out at approximately 75% of the maximum engine
speed. This checks that the magneto and spark plugs are functioning correctly.
As each magneto is switched off in turn a check for a dro in r m is made and this dro must
be within the limits laid down by the manufacturers. The fall in rpm is due to the increased time
taken for the mixture to burn in the cylinders, as a magneto and, consequently, a plug in each
cylinder is switched off.
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Diesel Engine Combustion
06 Explain how combustion is initiated in diesel engines.
Unlike the conventional spark-ignition engine, the diesel does not require an ignition system
at all thus saving on com lexity and weight. The diesel is classified as a com ression ignition
engine where ignition of the fuel/air mixture is a function of the rise of temperature of the air
due to compression.
Much higher compression-ratios occur in the diesel. Ratios of 25:1 are not uncommon. At
these compression-ratios, the fuel self-ignites, thereby eliminating the need for a spark-
generating system.
For cold starting, diesel engines usually employ a system of glow-plugs or pre-heaters, which
provide initial localized heating to the combustion-chamber area. Once started, the fuel is
injected into a one where the tem eratures are higher than the ash oint of the fuel due to
high com ression ratios and ignition effectively by detonation becomes continuous.
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08.00 Mixture
. e nition aracteristic i tures ontrol nstru ents
Associated Control Levers, Indications
e nitions
01 efine the following terms mixture chemically correct ratio (stoichiometric) best ower
ratio; lean (weak) mixture (lean or rich side of the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) top);
rich mixture.
02 State the typical fuel-to-air ratio values or range of values for the above mixtures.
Mixture The mixture of fuel and air is defined as the ro ortion of air to the ro ortion of fuel.
So, a mixture of 15:1 means 15 parts by mass of air, to 1 part by mass of fuel.
Chemically correct ratio - Although air and fuel vapour will burn when mixed in proportions
ranging between 8:1 and 20:1, complete combustion only occurs with an air/fuel ratio of 15:1 by
weight. This is the chemically correct ratio, where all of the oxygen in the air combines with all of
the hydrogen and carbon in the fuel and can be referred to as stoichiometric.
Best power ratio - The chemically correct mixture does not give the best results in terms of engine
e ciency because the tem erature of combustion is so high that ower can be lost through
detonation. A different mixture de ending on engine design will give the best ower ratio.
Lean (weak) mixture – Is a mixture that has only a small proportion of fuel in the air, i.e., 20:1.
Rich mixture – Is a mixture that has a high proportion of fuel with the air, i.e., 8:1.
Lean vs Rich Mixtures
03 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of weak and rich mixtures.
Although the chemically correct mixture strength would theoretically produce the highest
temperature and, therefore, power, in practice mixing and distribution are less than perfect, and
this results in some regions being richer and others being weaker than the optimum strength.
This variation may exist between one cylinder and another.
A slightly rich mixture does not have much effect on ower since all the oxygen is still consumed
and the excess of fuel sim ly serves to slightly reduce the effective volumetric e ciency. In fact
its cooling effect can be beneficial.
Weak mixtures, however, rapidly reduce power, since some of the inspired oxygen is not being
utilized, and this power reduction is much greater than that resulting from slight richness.
Therefore, when maximum power is the objective (rather than best fuel economy), it is quite
common to run engines slightly richer than stoichiometric to ensure that no cylinder is left
running at severely reduced power from being unduly weak.
arying mixtures are re uired for the different stages of a ight to gain the best from the engine
at every stage.
79
021.10.08.01.04
Figure 10.62 Air consumption and mixture
Slow Running and Starting
A rich mixture is required for starting and slow running because:
• fuel will only burn when it has vaporized and is mixed with air. When starting a cold
engine, there is little heat to assist the vaporizing process. Therefore, only the lightest
fractions of the fuel will vaporize. This may show as white smoke at the exhaust. White
smoke may be apparent, as water is a product of combustion, leaving condensation
inside the exhaust, and the engine is breathing in cold, moist air. The white smoke
will gradually disappear as the engine reaches normal running temperature. To make
sure that there is su cient fuel va our in the cylinders to su ort combustion a rich
mixture is required.
• the exhaust valve is given a certain amount of lag so that full advantage can be
taken of the considerable inertia of the gases at normal engine speeds, to obtain
e cient scavenging of the burnt gases and to give im etus to the incoming charge.
As engine speed reduces, the gas velocity falls, and more of the burnt gases remain
in the cylinder, whilst at still lower speeds, there is the tendency for exhaust gases
to be sucked back into the cylinder by the descending piston before the exhaust
valve closes. The consequent dilution of the induction gases is such that, to maintain
smooth running, a rich mixture is required.
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a eo o er
When full ower is selected for takeoff the mixture must be further enriched to about 10:1.
A art from the cooling effect the excess fuel is wasted because there is insu cient oxygen
available for it to burn completely. The higher power results from a greater weight of charge
induced in a given time, and not because of mixture enrichment. In practice, excess fuel vapour
is not scavenged as vapour; the oxygen is shared out to some extent, so that carbon monoxide
(CO) as well as carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced during combustion. With very rich mixtures,
some of the carbon fails to combine with oxygen at all and is exhausted as black smoke.
Climbing Power
The engine ower out ut is a roduct of engine s eed and the mean effective ressure in the
cylinders during the working cycle. Higher power outputs involve increases in both of these
factors. As the speed and the pressure increase, there is also an increase in the temperature
of the gases and, therefore, their tendency to detonate. When higher power is required for
climbing, the mixture is enriched to about 11:1. The extra fuel, in vaporizing, cools the mixture
and reduces the tendency to detonate.
Cruise Power
During cruising conditions only moderate power is required from the engine; the mixture can be
leaned to around 18:1, allowing the minimum expenditure of fuel to achieve economy.
i ture and peci c uel onsu ption
04 escribe the relation between engine s ecific fuel consum tion and mixture ratio.
A mixture which is weaker than stoichiometric

burns at lower temperatures and also burns
at a slower rate (because of the greater
proportion of nitrogen in the cylinder).
Power output thus decreases as the mixture
is weakened, but because of the increase
in e ciency resulting from cooler burning
the fall in power is proportionally less than
the decrease in fuel consumption. Thus, the
specific fuel consumption (SFC), decreases as
the mixture strength is weakened below 15:1.
For economical cruising at moderate power,

air/fuel ratios of 18:1 may be used, an advance
in the ignition timing being necessary to allow
Figure 10.63 Mixture range for max power for the slower rate of combustion.
and best fuel economy
81
With extremely weak mixtures, the gases may still be burning when the exhaust valve opens,
exposing the valve to high temperatures, which may cause the valve to crack or distort. As the
inlet valve opens, the heat of the exhaust gases is still so high that it may ignite the mixture in the
induction system and popping back occurs through the induction manifold.
This slow burning also causes overheating, as a certain amount of the heat is not converted into
work by expansion and has to be dissipated by the cooling system. The mixture requirement is,
therefore, dependent upon engine speed and power output.
Exhaust Gas Temperature
05 Describe the use of the exhaust gas temperature as an aid to mixture-setting.
A mixture that is at the chemically correct ratio will give the highest temperature of combustion.
This can be measured by the Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) gauge. The EGT gauge consists of
a thermocouple fitted into the exhaust i e of the hottest cylinder. A thermocou le roduces
a voltage directly proportional to its temperature, which is then indicated on a calibrated gauge
to show temperature. The mixture control should always be moved slowly to reduce the risk
of rough running in the engine. If moved toward lean, the temperature will peak at the ratio of
15:1. On reaching the peak EGT, the mixture control would then be moved towards rich, and the
tem erature would dro . A tem erature dro would be s ecified in the aircraft s ight manual
which would give the rich cruise setting.
Figure 10.64 EGT changes with mixture leaning
82
Cylinder Head Temperature
06 Explain the relation between mixture ratio, cylinder head temperature, detonation,
and pre-ignition.
It should be remembered that the stoichiometric ratio is not used, as detonation and/or pre-
ignition can occur. Weakening the mixture beyond the chemically correct value will lower EGT and
raise the cylinder head temperature (CHT), while excessive weakening will lower both EGT and
C T. Again the ight manual will s ecify the tem erature dro re uired to set the economy
cruise ratios. Mixture is normally only adjusted at cruise power settings. It should be returned to
‘fully rich’ whenever the power is changed.
Diesel Engines
07 Explain the absence of mixture control in diesel engines.
Diesel engines generally run lean. This is because the air supply is not throttled and is fed
unrestricted into the cylinder as a function of fuel delivery. Problems such as detonation do
not feature as with conventional piston engines, although running temperatures are generally
higher re uiring a reliable and effective cooling system. There is also no mixture lever as aero
diesels operate with a ‘single-lever’ concept, similar to some turboprops.
83
09.00 Aeroplane: Propellers

. e nitions and eneral
01 emark efinitions and aerodynamic conce ts are detailed in subject to ic
(Propellers) but need to be appreciated for this subject also
081.07
Purpose of a Propeller
The purpose of a propeller is to convert the power delivered by an engine into propulsive thrust
in order to propel an aircraft. This is achieved by the acceleration of a comparatively large mass of
air rearwards, thereby producing forward thrust (remember Newton’s third law). The acceleration
applied is not large when compared with other reaction systems. The aerodynamic considerations
of the propeller are fully discussed in the Principles of Flight book. It is recommended that the
relevant chapters are read together with this chapter.
Blade Geometry
A propeller consists of two or more aerodynamically shaped blades attached to a central hub.
This hub is mounted onto a propeller shaft driven by the engine. The whole assembly is rotated
by the propeller shaft, rather like rotating wings.
Like a wing, a propeller blade has a root and a tip, a leading and trailing edge and a cambered
cross-section whose chord line passes from the centre of the leading-edge radius to the trailing
edge. The forward cambered side is called the back of the blade while the at rearward facing
side is termed the pressure or thrust ‘face’. At the root area, where the section of the blade
becomes round, this is termed the blade ‘shank’, while the base of the blade, where any pitch
change mechanism would have to be attached, is called the blade ‘butt’.
Figure 10.65 Blade part names
84
Blade Terminology
All the terms in this diagram should be understood from 081 - Principles of Flight:
Pitch or Blade Angle

The propeller blade is set into its hub so that
its chord line forms an angle with the plane of
rotation of the whole propeller. This is called
pitch, or blade angle.
Angle of Attack
The path of the propeller blade through the air,
a helix, determines the direction from which
it will receive its relative air ow. This ath is
the resultant of blade rotational velocity and
aircraft forward velocity. The blade angle is
chosen so that the leading edge is pointing into Figure 10.66 Propeller blade vector diagram
the relative air ow at a small angle of attack.
(Ideally 2-4 degrees).
Figure 10.67 Helix angle
Figure 10.68 Blade angle
85

Figure 10.70 Blade twist
Blade Twist or Wash-out

As the rotational speed of any point on a propeller blade increases with its radius from the centre
of the hub, then the magnitude of the total reaction generated along the blade will also increase
with increase of radius.
This would lead to a marked increase in thrust developed at the outer part of the blade when
compared with the root area, which would exaggerate the bending forces along the blade.
To even out the thrust developed along the blade, the angle of attack is maintained by reducing
the blade angle from root to tip.
Figure 10.71 Increasing TAS
86
Fixed Pitch Propellers

A fixed itch ro eller receives its relative air ow from a direction governed by the aircraft s true
airs eed (TAS) in the direction of ight and its own r m in the lane of rotation. The o erating
angle of attack will be the angle between the relative air ow and the chord line of the ro eller
blade. This chord line will be set at an angle to the plane of rotation; the “blade angle” or propeller
“pitch angle”.
An increase in TAS will reduce the angle of attack, whereas an increase in rpm will increase it.
ropeller ciency
At high forward s eed low r m ( ower off dive) it is ossible to reduce the angle of attack to
zero, while at low TAS/high rpm (climb) it is possible to stall the propeller blade. Both extremes
are obviously ine cient and therefore undesirable. The conclusion that must be drawn is that
for a given fixed itch a ro eller will only work e ciently at one combination of TAS and r m.
The e ciency achieved will usually be in the range and is ro erly rendered as
With a fixed itch ro eller being driven by a iston engine the r m is de endent on the ower
setting (throttle position) selected by the pilot and the TAS of the aircraft. It would be possible to
overs eed the engine in a dive if the throttle were not backed off (closed). Conversely with the
aircraft stationary on the ground it may not be possible to achieve rated rpm with the throttle
fully open.
Figure 10.72 Propellers efficiency
09.02 Constant-Speed Propeller: Design, Operation and

System Components
Variable Pitch Introduction
The ower setting of a iston engine is defined by a combination of manifold ressure (boost)
and rpm. Where separate power lever and rpm lever control is provided, it is possible to vary one
while leaving the other constant, so optimising the operation of the engine/propeller combination
to give best e ciency fuel economy and least engine wear and tear.
87
In order to achieve this a variable pitch propeller must be used; enabling the pilot to select
a propeller pitch and thus to vary rpm independently of manifold pressure, provided that the
ro eller is o erating between its internal fine and coarse itch sto s.
Once an rpm has been selected, a constant speed unit (CSU) or propeller control unit (PCU) will
automatically vary the propeller pitch angle, and therefore its angle of attack to the prevailing
relative air ow. The increase or decrease on ro eller drag will change the s eed of rotation and
therefore maintain the selected rpm, irrelevant of airspeed and manifold pressure variations.
Variable pitch propellers can also incorporate

a feathering feature, the advantages of which
will be discussed later in this chapter.
It is possible to provide a range of propeller

blade angles ranging from feathered, as coarse
as it is possible to go, all the way to reverse
pitch, as fine as it is possible to go in normal
propeller control. The alpha ( ight) range of
pitch angles ranges from feathered to flight-
fine pitch, while the beta (ground) range of
angles is from flight fine pitch to reverse pitch.
Figure 10.73 Variable pitch angles

Principle of Operation
01 escribe the o erating rinci le of a constant s eed ro eller system under normal ight
operations with the aid of a schematic.
The basic problem with varying pitch is twofold; one of actuation and one of control. The
preferred method of pitch change actuation is hydraulic, using the engine’s lubrication system as
021.10.09.02.05 the source of hydraulic power. The pressure is boosted where necessary by a small, additional oil
pump mounted in the CSU or PCU. Pitch change mechanisms will be further discussed later in
this chapter.
Theoretically it is possible to design either pneumatic or electrical actuation of a propeller’s pitch

change mechanism, the former is unknown and the latter quite rare and will not be covered
within this syllabus.
A constant speed propeller must be capable of all the pitch change operations, as selected by
operation of the rpm lever in the aircraft cockpit. It must also be capable of maintaining a selected
rpm, within its own operational limits, through changes in airspeed, altitude and power setting.
On-Speed, Overspeed and Underspeed

When the CSU senses that rpm is at the selected speed, it is said to be on-speed and no action is
required. However, changes in any external conditions will result in a tendency to either increase
rpm above or decrease rpm below that selected.
88
A tendency for rpm to increase in known as an overspeed condition, and the propeller must be
slowed down. The pitch of the propeller blades will coarsen, creating more drag and the torque
will rise. Propeller torque now exceeds engine torque, and so the rpm will decrease back to the
selected setting.
A tendency for the propeller to underspeed

is corrected with the opposite reaction. Pitch
angle is fined less rotational drag is created
by the propeller and the propeller torque
will decrease. Engine torque now exceeds
propeller torque, so rpm will tend to rise to
regain the pilot’s selection.
The Simple Constant Speed Unit

Propeller pitch and thus rpm are controlled by
the constant speed unit (CSU). In the simplest
terms, the CSU compares the rpm required
to the actual rpm, to move a shuttle valve to
allow hydraulic oil to or from the pitch change
mechanism where the blade angle will be
changed.
A CSU is engine driven from a convenient gear,

usually at the front of the engine, just behind
the propeller itself. The drive shaft usually
also drives a small oil pressure boosting
pump to raise the pressure of the engine’s
own lubrication supply to 120-200 psi.
Figure 10.74 Fine and coarse pitch
Actual rpm: The drive rotates a centrifugal yweight assembly in which the weights are L
shaped and arranged to provide the upward movement of a double-landed hydraulic control
valve.
Required rpm - The pilot selects the rpm required on the cockpit lever which is arranged such
that it changes the compressive downward force in the speeder spring. Pushing the rpm lever
forward will rotate the pinion so that the rack is pushed down, compressing the spring and
tending to push down the control valve. Pulling the rpm lever to the rear will result in spring
compressive force being reduced.
The “On-Speed” Condition
The selected s ring ressure acting downwards is exactly balanced by the yweight force
upwards. The control valve receives pressure oil from the engine and the CSU booster pump but
the position at on speed prevents oil from passing to the pitch change cylinder.
89
Figure 10.75 Constant speed unit
The “Overspeed” Condition

Should the engine s tor ue exceed the tor ue generated by the ro eller during ight r m would
tend to rise. This will mean the yweights are rotating faster and the weights will s in outwards.
The outward s in of the yweights ulls the control valve u over owering the s eeder s ring
set by the pilot. The raise of the control valve will expose the coarse pitch line to the pitch change
cylinder so that ressure oil may ow to the coarse itch side of the iston. At the same time the
fine itch line is ex osed and connected to drain.
The propeller blades will move towards coarse pitch, increasing their angle of attack to the
relative air ow generating more total reaction and thrust and raising the ro eller s tor ue.
When the propeller’s higher torque matches the engine’s torque, the rise in rpm will be arrested,
the r m returning to the selected setting. When this is achieved the yweights will fall back to
their revious balanced osition the coarse and fine oil orts will close and the CS resumes
the “on-speed” condition.
90
Figure 10.76 Overspeed and underspeed conditions
The “Underspeed” Condition

In this condition the propeller’s torque exceeds the engine’s torque, causing rpm to decrease.
Centrifugal yweight force will decline and the CS s s eeder s ring force will now exceed that
roduced by the yweight assembly. The yweights will colla se inwards. This will cause the
control valve to be ushed down by the s ring force ex osing the fine itch oil ort to ressure
while connecting the coarse pitch oil port to drain.
Pressure oil will now ow to the fine itch side of the itch change iston moving the ro eller
blades to a smaller angle of attack to the relative air ow. This will in turn cause a decrease in
total reaction, thrust and propeller torque.
The engine’s torque will now exceed that produced by the propeller and rpm will tend to rise. This
will produce a rise in propeller torque until it once again matches that of the engine. Flyweight
force will also increase with the rise in rpm until it once again exactly balances the selected spring
force. The control valve will be returned to the neutral osition with both fine and coarse itch
orts closed off. The CS and ro eller are now back on s eed . The movement of the control
valve during normal operation is very small and the change in propeller rpm is smooth and
progressive.
91
Propeller Control Unit - PCU

This unit is generally similar to the basic CSU and controls a propeller in the same way. It is used
021.10.09.02.07 with turbo ro engines articularly those controlled by a single ight deck lever instead of the
more usual double presentation of separate power and rpm levers. The single lever is connected
to both the PC and engine fuel control unit ( C ) so that r m and fuel ow are altered together.
This enables the engine to overcome the combined inertia of propeller and compressor/turbine
assembly together in a coordinated fashion, allowing rapid acceleration without the danger of
over-stressing the turbine and other “hot-end” components.
Manifold Absolute Pressure Indicator
02 Explain the need for a MAP indicator to control the power setting with a
constant-speed propeller.
n a fixed itch ro eller the r m gives a good indication of how much ower the engine is
producing. More engine power will give a higher rpm; and in this case, the added information of
021.10.10 manifold pressure cannot give any more information not already known. However, on a constant
speed propeller, the rpm will be governed by the CSU/PCU, and so does not give the pilot the
required information regarding power settings. As the power output of an engine is proportional
to the mass of air delivered to the engine, a manifold absolute pressure (MAP) indicator is used
to show how much power is being produced. The MAP indicator also forms a useful comparison
when boosting the engine.
Figure 10.77 Manifold absolute pressure gauge
92
Torque Meter
03 State the purpose of a torque-meter.
022.01.07.00
The torque meter is provided to give the pilot information about the amount of power he is
de loying from his engines to the ro ellers during any hase of ight. It may be calibrated in
torque units such as pounds feet (lb/ft) or newton-metres (Nm), percentage (%) or pounds per
square inch (psi), or any other suitable unit of power.
There are two main varieties of torque signalling systems:
• Electronic - where the twist of an intermediate drive shaft, being proportional to the
transmitted power, is measured electronically and the angle signal used to drive the
torque meter. This is inherently lighter and more reliable than other types.
• Oil pressure - where the end thrust of a helically cut planet wheel or the torque
reaction of a ring gear is used to alter the oil pressure of the torque transmission
system. This ressure is then read off on the tor ue meter gauge. igure . shows
the ring gear system.
Figure 10.78 Torque meter
When the engine is running, the pinions (planet gears) are being driven around the stationary
gear by the central input shaft from the engine. The thrust reaction to the pinion’s movement will
try to rotate the stationary gear backwards.
The stationary gear is allowed to oat its movement being o osed by oil ressure generated
by the torque meter pump. Within cylinders, exposed to torque meter pump output, two pistons
are operated by lever arms attached to the stationary gear.
ne of the istons artially covers a bleed ort. nder low ower conditions the bleed orifice is
at maximum area so that torque meter oil pressure is balancing the thrust on the stationary gear.
Increased power tends to try to rotate the stationary gear, forcing the pistons further into the
cylinders. This reduces the bleed orifice area as well as hysically ressuri ing the oil. The effect being
93
to raise oil pressure as a function of propeller torque to balance the thrust on the stationary gear.
Low Pitch Stop/Centrifugal Latch
04 State the purpose and describe the operation of a low-pitch stop (centrifugal latch).
When an aircraft with a single acting propeller is sto ed on the ground after ight the ro eller
will be in fully fine itch.
021.10.09.02.05
There is a considerable uantity of ressure oil tra ed in the fine itch side of the itch change
cylinder holding the ro eller in the fully fine osition but o osed by the force of the feathering
s ring. After shutdown the tra ed ressure will gradually leak away through the fine clearances
of the CSU control valve. The feathering springs will gradually push the propeller blades towards
the fully feathered position overnight.
While this condition would be acceptable on a free turbine turboprop, this would result in an
unacceptably high loading on the engine starter motor for a piston engine. To prevent this,
centrifugal latches, disengaged with the engine running, will be engaged at an rpm below the
manufacturer’s chosen setting, typically 700 rpm. This latch assembly engages latch pins attached
to the rear of the pitch change piston after forward movement equivalent to about 5° of blade
angle, preventing it from being pushed further forward and into the feathered position by the
feathering spring.
When the engine is started, oil pressure will quickly build up and re-position the propeller pitch-
change iston onto the fine itch sto moving the blades to fully fine itch. Centrifugal force will
disengage the latch system as rpm is risen through 700, up to warm-up setting – 1,100 – 1,200 rpm.
When centrifugal latches are fitted it is not ossible to feather a failing engine once r m has fallen
below the latch setting. It is thus important to complete the feathering drill before this occurs.
Pitch Change Mechanisms
05 Describe the operating principle of a single-acting and a double-acting variable pitch

propeller for single- and multi-engine aeroplanes.
Single Acting Propeller

A single acting propeller is constructed basically like any other, in that the blades are arranged
around a central, engine-driven hub, with the cylindrical hydraulic pitch change mechanism
mounted to the front.
The pitch change cylinder contains a moveable piston, which is pushed rearwards by boosted
engine oil pressure. As the piston moves rearward, it also pulls the peg on the butt of the blade,
and so twists the blades from coarse to fine.
sually this rearward movement of the iston will turn the ro eller blades towards fine itch.
Blade rotation towards coarse pitch is provided by either a spring, or centrifugally actuated
counterweights. Most propellers of this type however, will contain both. Some propellers replace
the spring with compressed gas, requiring a reversal of the hydraulic direction.
94
The springs have a dual function, they assist the centrifugal counterweights in operating the
propeller blades to coarse pitch and, where this facility is provided, actuate the blades into the
feathered position when rpm is low, with consequent loss of centrifugal action.
In a single acting design, the CSU has three modes of function:
• il su ly to fine itch (r m increases)
Figure 1.79 Single acting pitch change mechanism
• il shut off hydraulic lock (r m steady)

• rain of fine itch oil back to scavenge (r m decreases)
Double Acting Propeller

The double acting propeller is similar in mechanical operation to the single acting unit but uses
Figure 10.80 Double acting pitch change mechanism
95
oil ressure to actuate the blades to coarse as well as to fine.
This type of propeller has a similar, if rather larger pitch change cylinder mounted to the front
of the hub. It also contains a hydraulic piston, but this is now isolated from the centre of the hub
and the fore-and-aft links provided with pressure seals. This allows hydraulic pressure to be
directed to either side of the piston. Fine-pitch oil to one side and coarse-pitch oil to the other.
Assistance from springs or centrifugal counterweights is not required.
As with the single acting propeller’s controller, there are three control modes for the CSU/PCU:
Figure 10.80 Double acting pitch change mechanism
• eliver fine itch oil (increase r m). Allow drain of coarse itch oil.
• il shut off hydraulic lock (constant r m).
• eliver coarse itch oil (decrease r m). Allow drain of fine itch oil.
Synchronising and Synchrophasing
06 Describe the function and the basic operating principle of synchronising and
synchro-phasing systems.
In multi engine propeller aircraft, the sound waves created by each engine will rarely naturally be
in perfect time with each other; we say they are out of phase. Imagining the sound waves from
each ro eller of a twin engine aircraft. Although they have slightly different fre uencies there
will be times when the waves both peaks together and times when the totally cancel each other
out. This makes an audibly distinguishable beat frequency sound that is not only tiring to the
crew, but also causes vibration that increases wear on components. A synchronisation system
will reduce the annoying beat fre uency and lower noise levels significantly.
96
Figure 10.81 Combining the sound from two propellers
The aircraft will have a designated master engine whose PCU can generate an rpm signal to a
control unit, also receiving rpm signals from the other slave engines. When the synchronising
system is engaged any r m differences between the master and slave engines will be sensed
by the control unit. This generates proportional, positive or negative current output to torque
motors mounted on the slave PCUs; such that lower rpm will cause the torque motor to turn one
way, while higher rpm will cause a rotation of the torque motor in the opposite direction.
Figure 10.82 Synchrophasing
The torque motor rotation will reset the speeder spring to ensure a correction to bring the
r m in line with the master. When no difference in r m exists between master and slave no
output is sent to the slave torque motors. Many aircraft are provided with a visual indication
(synchrosco e) of slave engine r m differences in the form of miniature ro ellers which only
rotate when an r m difference exists.
A further significant im rovement in noise levels can be obtained by ensuring that adjacent
propeller tips are separated by some optimum angle to prevent noisy interference. Some aircraft
rovide the ilot with a means of fine tuning this angle to obtain the uietest result. This is
normally a on off switch that activates the synchrophasing system to speed up the slower
propellers to match the optimum positions.
97
Figure 10.83 A synchrophase system
Feathering and Unfeathering
07 Explain the purpose and the basic operating principle of an auto-feathering system
and unfeathering.
Figure 10.84 Syncrophasing positions
Should one of the engines on a multi-engine aircraft fail, its CSU would sense a drop in engine
tor ue and r m and o erating normally would drive the ro eller on that engine towards fine
itch in an effort to kee the r m u to the selected level.
This would result in the propeller being put into a windmilling situation; with its pitch change
iston sitting on the ight fine itch sto . The first result would be a very large asymmetric drag
leading to a violent yaw towards the failed engine. Secondly, if the engine was to continue to
turn, driven by the propeller, it would be in serious danger of complete mechanical breakdown
and ossibly fire.
To minimize drag and prevent further damage, the propeller is provided with a means to turn the
blades into an edge-on, null position, where no aerodynamic force is generated either forwards
or backwards. This is called feathering the propeller.
98
Mechanical Feathering
Located above the standard CSU components in a PCU, the manual feather lever is a means of
mechanically lifting the control valve upward into the fully coarse (feather) position when the
engine high ressure ( P) cock is closed in ight.
In normal circumstances there would be no requirement to unfeather a failed engine. However,

aircraft manufacturers, mindful of the large market for training aircraft worldwide, will usually
rovide an unfeathering facility in order that asymmetric ight may be ractised during training.
This can be achieved by simply returning the feather lever to the normal/unfeathered position.
Figure 10.85 Mechanical feather
Autofeathering
In the event of a low engine torque and a high power selected, a turboprop’s propeller is usually
fitted with the means to feather itself. Autofeather features are beneficial in engine failure
scenarios as they leave the pilot free to concentrate on controlling the aircraft, which may be
close to the ground during takeoff or go around.
The valve lift solenoid is energized at the same time as a separate feathering pump’s electric
motor is energized. The separate feathering oil supply is now able to go to the valve lift piston,
raising the control valve into fully coarse pitch (feather) position. The feathering oil supply can
now go to the coarse pitch side of the pitch change piston, pushing it onto the feathering stop
as the fine itch oil drains away. The feathering sto is an internal sto within the itch change
mechanism which coincides with that blade osition edge on to the aircraft s air ow which
will generate zero aerodynamic force in either direction. The propeller will stop, unless some
drive force is applied.
99
09.03 Reduction Gearing: Design
Reduction Gearing
01 State the purpose of reduction gearing.
Powerful aero engines need a large propeller to convert power into thrust, but as propeller sizes
increase so does the risk of sonic com ressibility and blade utter if the ro eller were rotated
too fast.
If the engine turns at its maximum rpm, it would be too fast for a large propeller; so, the engine
cannot be directly connected to the propeller. Therefore, reduction gearing must be designed so
the drive speed can be reduced to a more suitable level. There are a couple of common reduction
gearing systems:
Parallel Spur Gear

This type of reduction gear has two parallel shafts, hence the name parallel spur. While mechanically
simple and relatively cheap to produce, it takes up a lot of room at the front of the engine. It has
been used mostly on ty e in line water cooled engines. e.g. olls oyce erlin and riffon.
Figure 10.86 Parallel spur gear
Epicyclic Reduction Gear

An epicyclic, or planetary gear layout is quite compact and has the advantage of concentric
layout. Everything rotating about the same centre line. The gears may be straight cut,
bevelled, or helically cut to impart a degree of end-thrust proportional to the torque passing
through to the propeller. This may be used to provide a torque indication system in the
engine’s instrumentation.
100
Figure 10.88 Planetary gears
Figure 10.87 Gears
101
09.04 Propeller Handling: Associated Control Levers, Degraded

Modes of Operation, Indications and Warnings
After Start Checks
01 Describe the checks to be carried out on a constant-speed propeller system after engine start.
The checks to be carried out and the methods used will vary from aircraft type to aircraft type
and from propeller type to propeller type. In addition to the checks described here, it should
be remembered that there are many other checks carried out on propellers. Most of them are
maintenance orientated but a ilot is res onsible for a thorough re ight visual ins ection of
the propeller before engine start-up.
Single Acting Propeller

PA34-200T SENECA Aircraft
After start-up, the engine oil must be warmed up to the level prescribed in the operating
manual, before any checks are commenced. The checks form part of the normal “after start”
and before takeoff checks.
The first check is part of the “Power Check”:
Throttle .................................................................................................. 1900 rmp
Propeller (rmp lever) ............................................................................ EXERCISE

Check - rmp drops when min rpm selected.
rmp returns to 1900 when max rpm selected.
Repeat.
Throttle .................................................................................................. 150 rpm
Propeller Feathering ............................................................................ CHECK
Throttle .................................................................................................. CLOSE/SET 1200 rpm
“Before Take-off ”:
Propeller ................................................................................................ MAX rpm
Propeller De-Icing ................................................................................. AS REQUIERED
If icing condition expected during or immediately after take-off:
Select - ON
Check - Propeller de-icing ammetter.
- Both alternator ammeters.
102
Double Acting Propeller

The checks to be carried out for a double acting propeller are much the same. There will, of
course be detail differences in basic r m settings etc. but the object will be the same to ensure
rapid response to rpm control lever signals.
nce the lubricating oil in the main engine has warmed su ciently it is necessary to exercise the
pitch change mechanism. This will remove the cold, sluggish oil from the pitch change cylinder
and purge it from the CSU and oil passages.
As with the Seneca, once the oil has warmed, there will be an engine test procedure, which will
involve causing the itch change iston to traverse from the fine itch sto to the feathering sto
more than once. With a double acting propeller, there is not only double the amount of actuating
oil in circulation, but also an extra system to check. The correct functioning of the feathering
pump may have to be ascertained, along with the functioning of the pressure operated cut-out
switch.
Varying TAS
02 escribe the o eration of a constant s eed ro eller system during ight at different
true airspeeds (TAS) and rpm including an overspeeding propeller.
Recalling the basic vector diagram from PoF, it can easily be seen that an increasing true air
s eed (TAS) will reduce the effective angle of attack onto the ro eller blade.
081.07.01.02.01
Figure 10.89 Varying TAS
The reduction of angle of attack will reduce the resultant force and the thrust produced, but
importantly here, it will also reduce the propeller torque. Therefore, at increasing TAS, the
propeller tends to increase rpm.
103
An increase in rpm will be sensed by the CSU and corrected by coarsening the propeller pitch,
which in turn increases the angle of attack, and re-balances the rpm to an on-speed condition.
021.10.09.02.01 There is a limit to how far the blade can be coarsened within its design and aerodynamical
Varying rpm & reactions, hence there will be a limiting TAS that the propeller cannot operate above.
Overspeed
If the aircraft is operated above its maximum speed, the propeller will overspeed, the CSU will run
out of control authority and severe damage to components will occur. AN overspeed governor is
often fitted to revent the r m ever exceeding a re set value. This will also be checked before
takeoff.
Operation: Feathering
03 Describe the operating principle of a variable pitch propeller when feathering and
unfeathering, including the operation of cockpit controls.
Feathering - Single Acting Propeller

To feather a single acting propeller, the propeller (rpm) control lever is moved fully to the rear
and then doglegged to one side or pushed inward (according to the particular linkage) to allow a
further rearward movement into the feathered position.
Figure 10.90 Feather selection on propeller lever
This raises the rack in the CSU as far as it will go, simulating an exaggerated overspeed condition
by removing all loading from the s eeder s ring and allowing the yweights to y right out if the
engine is running and lifting the control valve right up. Most CSUs cater for the engine stopped
situation ( ero yweight force) by arranging that a full feather selection will by ass the s eeder
spring to physically lift the control valve upwards.
Any oil in the pitch change cylinder can now drain away allowing the counterweights, if the engine
is turning, or, the spring if not, to push the piston onto the feathering stop.
104
Unfeathering - Single Acting Propeller

As any aero engine if free to rotate, will unfeather itself by windmilling action, all that is required
is that the blades are moved a few degrees away from the feathered position. However, it must
first overcome the force of the feathering s ring and any ressure from the valve lift iston.
To unfeather the ro eller the valve must be ushed back down to allow oil to ow back towards
the PC to force the mechanism back to a fine itch. It is common ractice where single acting
propellers are used, to provide a reserve of pressurised oil in an accumulator; trapped by a non-
return valve and released by a solenoid operated valve.
The oil is released into the CSU by energizing the solenoid via a cockpit mounted button. The
oil will force the iston off the feather sto towards fine itch. As soon as the ro eller blades
reaches a itch giving and angle of attack to the aircraft s relative air ow aerodynamic reaction
will cause the propeller and engine to turn. Ignition and fuel, in accordance with the operating
manual, are all that are required to achieve restart.
To prevent a violent over-swing in yaw as the engine power is restored, the rpm must be
increased gradually.
Figure 10.91 Unfeathering
105
Loss of Hydraulic Pressure

There is a risk of hydraulic uid leaks within the PC and therefore backu s must be designed
to prevent an uncontrollable blade pitch occurring. A pitch lock solenoid locks the hydraulic uid
at any point int time. Therefore, if oil loss is sensed, then the pitch of the blades can be ‘frozen’ at
the time of failure. Alternatively, a separate oil reservoir and auxiliary pump can be used to force
the propeller blades to a known setting in the event of pressure loss.
Figure 10.92 Realistic CSU
Feathering - Double Acting Propeller

As a double acting propeller has no mechanical assistance from counterweights, springs etc.,
all actuation must be hydraulic, and so a protected source of feathering oil is provided; usually,
as an isolated part of the main oil tank in a dry-sump lubrication system. This oil is sent to the
propeller by an electrically driven feathering pump.
106
Figure 10.93 Typical feather system
The pilot’s basic control selection for feathering the propeller remains the same. The rpm lever
is brought back to fully coarse, then the feathering stop/gate is negotiated, and the lever taken
further back into the feather position. This lifts the CSU/PCU control valve fully upwards, ensuring
oil feed to the coarse itch side of the itch change iston and drain from the fine itch side. The
feather button in the cockpit is pushed in, energising a button hold-on relay and, in turn, the
feathering pump relay to drive the pump.
Feathering oil now passes through the CSU/PCU, pushing the pitch change piston onto the
feathering sto . il ressure will now build u o erating a ressure o erated cut off switch
(often called the POCOS), which will interrupt supply to the button hold-on coil. The feathering
button releases, de-energising the feathering pump relay and the pump stops.
Unfeathering - Double Acting Propeller

The rpm lever is taken out of the feathering gate and placed alongside the lever of the other, live
engine(s). This ressurises the s eeder s ring and ushes the control valve down to arrange fine
pitch supply and coarse pitch drain. The feathering button is now pressed to run the feathering
pump. Once windmilling has started, the button needs to be physically pulled out, overcoming
the hold-on coil, and thus stopping the pump. The rest of the restart drill is accomplished in
accordance with the aircraft operating manual.
Operation: Reverse Pitch
04 Describe the operating principle of a variable pitch propeller when reverse pitch is
selected, including the operation of cockpit controls.
Many turboprop aircraft, and a few high-powered piston engine aircraft, are provided with a
means to aerodynamically reverse the itch of their ro ellers or to select a su er fine itch
(ground fine) several degrees finer than the finest itch available in ight ( ight fine). This allows
them to use the propeller to create reverse thrust to aid is stopping on the runway.
107
Beta Range Operation
05 escribe the o eration of the ro eller levers during different hases of ight.
021.10.09.02.03
Some turbo ro engines are rovided with a system of control defined by alpha and beta ranges
of ro eller o eration. The al ha range is used at high s eed during the takeoff run in ight and
during the initial, high speed part of the landing roll-out. The beta range, however, is used only
on the ground. It is selected during the landing roll out by removal of the ight fine itch sto
inside the propeller’s pitch change cylinder.
Figure 10.94 Propeller lever
Most propellers make this selection via a lever on the central control console, sometimes the
throttle lever. Warning lights then illuminate to indicate that all propellers have carried out the
selection which is merely to move to a much finer itch setting termed ground fine pitch. There
will be a significant aerodynamic braking effect as the ro eller goes into ground fine itch. Power
control is normal while taxiing and during the initial art of the takeoff run. Later in the takeoff run
however, the normal process of pitch coarsening with increasing TAS will cause the flight fine pitch
stop (inside the pitch control unit) to re-engage automatically.
Later, propellers may be equipped with a much greater range of blade movement in the beta range.
Extending from around to itch (full reverse) it is similarly selected at the same time as the
older system, i.e., during the high-speed, initial part of the landing roll-out. In this case however, the
braking effect from reverse itch is much better than would result from merely ground fine.
When the ight fine itch sto is withdrawn the ower lever can be moved rearward through
the gate into the beta range. Weight-on-wheels switches ensure that this can only happen on the
ground. With the ro eller (r m) lever left at fully fine (max. r m) the beta range is controlled
by rearward movement of the power lever. Pitch is increasingly made more negative as power
is increased rpm varies with PCU governor control being over-ridden as the power levers are
so arranged as to raise and lower the PCU control valve to obtain the pitch changes required. A
mechanical feed-back system resets the control valve to neutral once the required pitch angle
has been obtained.
108
While the propeller blades are transiting into the reverse position, the PCU speeder spring
is pushed downwards to give a downward selection of the control valve. This simulates an
unders eed ensuring that any ressure oil will be sent to the fine itch side of the itch change
piston. The follow-up cam on the blade root via a yoke, cam and beam linkage will remove the
control valve selection when the desired blade angle has been achieved.
Diesel Engines
The diesel engine generally runs at a lower rpm and higher torque than a conventional engine.
The good torque outputs translate into greater static-thrust values, allowing the aircraft greater
takeoff erformance levels. These features also allow the use of constant speed propellers
with typically more blades than a conventional gasoline powered unit.
Gearboxes may be used to ‘step-down’ the engines output rpm to match engine/propeller
performances. Propeller-control in the modern diesel is coordinated with the fuel delivery by
means of a ‘single-lever’ concept, similar in principle to the turbo-prop.
Fuel scheduling, propeller pitch, torque-monitoring and other parameters are controlled
electronically by the FADEC unit.
109
10.00 Performance and Engine Handling

10.01 Performance
Power Output
01 escribe the effect on ower out ut of a etrol and diesel engine taking into consideration
the following parameters: ambient pressure, exhaust back pressure; temperature; density
altitude; humidity.
The power output of an engine depends basically

on the weight of mixture which can be burnt in
the cylinders in a given time, and the weight of
mixture which is drawn into each cylinder on the
induction stroke depends on the temperature
and pressure of the mixture in the induction
manifold.
Ambient pressure - the pressure surrounding

the engine. A high air pressure will increase the
mass of air within the mixture, and therefore,
give a better power output than operating at a
lower ambient pressure.
Boost pressure - the pressure in the induction

system relative to sea level standard pressure.
Boost pressure is indicated by a gauge in the
Figure 10.95 Boost pressure
cockpit and calibrated in pounds per square
inch above or below standard sea level
atmospheric pressure (which is marked zero).
Example: If the boost gauge is indicating -3 psi of boost, the absolute pressure in the induction
system would be 14.7 psi minus 3 psi, which is equal to 11.7 psi.
Similarly if there is si of boost indicated then the absolute ressure would e ual . si.
Temperature - Air with a higher temperature will be less dense, and therefore, high temperature
air will have less mass in the mixture, reducing the power output.
Humidity - Water vapor in the air reduces the volume available for the oxygen content of the air.
While the mass of the water will increase the charge mass, it does not help with the combustion
process, and therefore, a high humidity will reduce the power output of an engine.
Exhaust back pressure - As the exhaust gases exit the engine, they are slowed by friction with
the system before they exit to the atmosphere. This creates a small amount of back pressure
onto the engine and into the cylinder. Exhaust back ressure affects the burn characteristics of
an engine, resulting in higher emissions, higher fuel consumption, and lower power output.
The density of the air, the pressure, and temperature are greatest at sea level, decreasing in
varying degrees with altitude increase.
110
Density altitude can be defined as the altitude in the standard atmos here at which the
prevailing pressure and temperature would occur. It is a convenient parameter in respect of
engine erformance figures. A high density altitude will lower the erformance of an engine.
Density altitude can be obtained by use of an airspeed correction chart or by navigational

computer. As an approximation:
ensity Altitude Pressure Altitude (ISA deviation )

Sea Level ISA C a ressure of . hPa ( . in g) and a density of gm .
Example:
The elevation of an aerodrome is ft with a tem erature of ISA and a of hPa.
032.01.02.03 Higher temperature means lower density, and this lower density would be found at a level
higher than 5,500 ft in the standard atmosphere.
Therefore:
ensity Alt Pressure Alt ( )
ft
Standard tem erature at this altitude would be about C so the actual tem erature is C.
The answer can be checked on the computer by setting pressure altitude (5,500 ft) against tem-
erature ( C) in the airs eed window and reading off density altitude (about feet) in
its own window.
In order that engine power output can be checked in any part of the world, regardless of ambient
conditions manufacturers s ecify a set of standard maximum ower (r m) figures which are
obtained on a “standard” day according to sea level ISA conditions. For convenience, the
ro erties of a uid are always assumed to be at a standard (termed normal tem erature and
pressure “NTP”), unless otherwise stated.
Normally Aspirated Engine
02 Explain the term ‘normally aspirated engine’.
A normally aspirated engine is one that relies entirely on air intake from atmospheric pressure.
Figure 10.96 Normally aspirated engine
111
On a normally aspirated engine, the pressure in the induction manifold at full throttle is slightly
less than atmospheric pressure because of intake duct losses, and the manifold pressure
decreases with any increase in altitude. Power output therefore, decreases with altitude,
although some of the loss is recovered in better scavenging of the cylinders, as a result of
reduced back pressure on the exhaust.
Power Augmentation
03 Power-augmentation devices: explain the requirement for power augmentation

(turbocharging) of a piston engine.
In order to increase engine ower for takeoff and initial climb and or to maintain engine
ower at high altitude the manifold ressure must be raised artificially and this is done by
turbocharging the engine.
Turbochargers (Externally Driven)
04 Describe the function and the principle of operation of the following main components of
a turbocharger: turbine; compressor; waste gate; waste-gate actuator.
Turbochargers are designed to give added com ression to the air ow into the manifold as a method
of increasing the mixture mass. A turbocharger consists of a turbine wheel and compressor fitted
on a common rotor shaft. The turbine is connected to the exhaust system, and the compressor is
connected to the intake system. As the com ressor is fitted externally to the rest of the engine this
type of power augmentation is called an externally driven turbo charger.
Figure 10.97 Turbocharger
112
Exhaust gases are guided onto vanes on the turbine wheel, causing it to rotate. The gases then
pass between the vanes and are exhausted overboard. The more exhaust gases that are diverted
over the turbine, the faster the turbine will spin. This will cause the impeller to speed up, and so
increase the pressure ratio of the compressor.
Centrifugal compressors are used because they are comparatively light, they are able to run at
high speed, they will handle large quantities of air, and are robust and reliable. A centrifugal
compressor is made up of two components: the impeller, which is rotated and accelerates the
air and the diffuser which collects and directs the air into the manifold.
At a particular speed of rotation, a centrifugal turbocharger increases the pressure of air passing
through the im eller in a definite ratio. Physical constraints limit the s eed of rotation and si e
of an impeller, and so limit the pressure rise or pressure ratio and consequently, the power
out ut or maximum o erating altitude of the engine to which it is fitted. Pressure ratios u to
are generally obtainable, and any further compression necessary would have to be obtained by
fitting two com ressors in series.
The turbocharger must deliver a constant mass of air to the engine in a given time for a given
power setting, and since the density of air decreases with altitude, the impeller rotates faster
as the aircraft climbs to compensate for the reduction in density and maintain a selected
manifold pressure.
The sim lest form of control is to have a fixed orifice exhaust by ass so that a ro ortion of the
exhaust gases will always drive the turbocharger, and the manifold pressure is controlled strictly
by the throttle valve, remembering that as the throttle is opened to gain more manifold absolute
pressure or boost, the turbine speed will increase, and the throttle input pressure and MAP will
also respond to the chain reaction. Rapid movement of the throttle will probably cause over-
boosting with this type of system.
In a more advanced system a turbine by ass in the form of an alternative exhaust duct is fitted
with a wastegate valve, which regulates the degree of opening through the bypass.
Figure 10.98 Turbocharger exhaust bypass
113
Figure 10.99 Wastegate
When the wastegate is fully open, nearly all the exhaust gases pass directly to atmosphere, but
as the wastegate closes, gases are directed to the turbine, and the maximum rotor speed is
achieved when the wastegate is fully closed.
The wastegate may be controlled manually by the pilot, but in most turbocharger systems,
automatic controls are fitted to revent over boosting the engine. In an automatic control system
the wastegate is mechanically connected to a single acting wastegate actuator, the position of
which depends on the opposing forces of spring and engine oil pressure.
Spring force tends to open the wastegate and oil pressure tends to close it. Thus, oil pressure in
the actuator regulates the position of the wastegate according to engine requirements.
Figure 10.100 Automatic boost control unit
114
Automatic Boost Control

The turbocharger is designed to maintain a given pressure at altitude. To do this, the impeller
must be driven at a high speed because of the considerable reduction in atmospheric pressure
at altitude. Therefore, at low altitudes, where the air is denser, the turbocharger produces too
much pressure. Consequently, to avoid severe detonation and mechanical stresses due to
excessively high combustion pressure, the delivery pressure must be restricted by only partially
opening the throttle valve.
As the aircraft climbs, the throttle valve must be progressively opened further to maintain a
constant boost pressure. To reduce the pilot workload during climb or descent, the boost
pressure is kept constant automatically by the automatic boost control (ABC) unit which is
generally attached to the carburettor.
Altitude Boost vs Ground Boost
05 Ex lain the difference between an altitude boosted turbocharger and a ground boosted
turbocharger.
Where a turbocharger is used to increase sea level power, rather than to maintain normal
power up to a high altitude, the engine will need to be strengthened in order to resist the higher
combustion pressure. This is called a ground boosted turbocharger.
For turbochargers capable of maintaining sea level values of power up to high altitude, a control
system is necessary to prevent excessive pressure being generated within the engine at low
altitude. These are called altitude boosted turbochargers.
Diesel Engines
iesel engines also suffer from a loss of volumetric e ciency with altitude high elevation
takeoffs and on hotter than standard days. or this reason turbochargers may be fitted to
diesel engines so as to improve performance in a similar way to the conventional piston engine.
Intercoolers are also employed to restore density after compression.
Turbo Lag
06 Explain turbo lag.
All turbo engines suffer from turbo lag. It is the result of the time it takes to speed up the
turbine and compressor after the signal of low compressor output has been sent to the absolute
pressure controller (APC), and the wastegate actuator has reacted by closing the wastegate. It is
seen in a short delay between demanding power and the engine responding.
115
Critical Altitude
07 efine the term critical altitude .
Figure 10.101 Wastegate position
Maintaining a constant pressure at the outlet of the turbocharger depends on being able to keep
increasing the speed of the turbine as the aircraft climbs. This is done by progressively closing the
wastegate and diverting an increasing amount of exhaust gas through the turbine. The position
of the wastegate is therefore an important factor governing the performance of the engine.
The position of the wastegate throughout the running of an engine from start to critical altitude
including engine power output, turbine speed, and the manifold pressure.
• efore start The wastegate must be o en to allow the free ow of exhaust gases to
atmos here. therwise the engine would be very di cult if not im ossible to start. This
opening is achieved by the spring in the wastegate actuator which forces it fully open.
• Immediately after start - There is probably not enough exhaust gas to spin the turbine
fast enough to create the required pressure at the outlet of the compressor. Oil is
trapped within the wastegate actuator causing its piston to close the wastegate fully.
• When opening the throttle - Enough exhaust gas will be produced to turn the turbine
at a speed that will enable the compressor to achieve more than the required
pressure at its outlet. This increased pressure is sensed, and oil is released through
the bleed valve from within the wastegate actuator, thus, allowing its internal spring
to start opening the wastegate. The wastegate will continue to open as the throttle
is opened. It will be almost fully open, at full throttle, and at sea level ISA pressure.
The extra wastegate opening is required to cater for those days when the ambient
pressure is greater than ISA. Without the opening there would be no way to reduce
the turbine speed to maintain the compressor outlet pressure within limits.
• Takeoff and throughout the climb The ressure at the com ressor inlet falls causing
its outlet pressure to fall also. This drop in outlet pressure closes the bleed valve,
trapping oil in the wastegate actuator, causing it to progressively close the wastegate.
• Critical Altitude - Eventually the wastegate will be fully shut and no more increase in
turbine speed is possible. This is termed the critical altitude.
116
Now the outlet pressure of the compressor will fall, and the inlet manifold pressure and engine
power output will also fall. The engine power output will decrease with every foot of the climb
from the moment of takeoff. This is ty ical of a turbocharged engine but after critical altitude,
the decrease gets greater, approximating that of a normally aspirated engine.
Figure 10.102 Critical altitude
Intercooler
08 Explain the function of an intercooler.
Due to the gas laws, any compression of a gas in a turbocharger, will also result in an increase
in its temperature. This in turn will decrease the density and act against the aim of increasing
the mass of air inducted into the engine. For this reason, an intercooler is required to cool the
compressed air. An intercooler is a form of heat exchanger and can either use ram air or a liquid
to cool the air.
117
Figure 10.103 Intercooler
It is important not to confuse the terms intercooler and radiator. An intercooler has the function
of cooling an air ow whereas a radiator has a function to cool a li uid. A li uid intercooler may
be used to cool the com ressed air and then a radiator used to cool the coolant in an air ow.
118
Supercharged Engines
09 efine the terms full throttle height and rated altitude .

10 Ex lain the ur ose of a su ercharger and the basic differences from a turbocharger
A sim le differentiation between turbocharged and supercharged is that turbo charging uses
the exhaust gases from the engine to drive the boost compression required, whereas a super
charged engine uses an engine driven pump to compress inducted air and does not rely on
compression by exhaust gas energy.
Figure 10.104 Supercharger
A shaft attached to the rear of the crankshaft provides the initial drive to the supercharger
impeller. Such a shaft may incorporate a spring drive unit, which transmits the drive through
intermediate gears to the impeller pinion and is used to limit the torque transmitted to the
supercharger impeller during high rates of propeller/engine acceleration or deceleration. It may
also include a centrifugal clutch.
Internally driven superchargers are generally used on medium and high-powered piston engines,
approximately 250 BHP and above. Their position in the engine, downstream of the throttle valve,
and the use of the engine for the drive power, means that superchargers are often referred to as
internally driven chargers.
119
In the past, the superchargers of high-powered engines have often been driven at two speeds in
order to save power at low altitudes, the low-speed gearing being used at low altitudes, and the
high s eed gearing at high altitudes. Some high owered su erchargers have also been fitted
with two impellers working in series in order to raise the overall compression ratio, but current
engines generally em loy a single im eller driven at a fixed s eed ratio to the crankshaft (usually
between 6:1 and 12:1). This type of supercharger is usually capable of maintaining sea level
manifold pressure up to an altitude of 5,000 ft to 10,000 ft.
Full Throttle Height and Rated Altitude

The power developed by a supercharged engine, at the same speed and manifold pressure, is
less than that of the normally aspirated engine at sea level, and this power loss represents the
power required to drive the supercharger. However, as height is increased, the power developed
by the supercharged engine at constant throttle settings increases as a result of the decreased
temperature of the atmosphere.
The effect of altitude change on turbocharged and su ercharged engines is vastly different. The
power output of a turbocharged engine decreases with increase of altitude, while the output of
the engine fitted with an internal su ercharger increases with increase of altitude. This is due to
the variation of exhaust back pressure with each type.
The decreased temperature increases the density of the air, and thus a greater weight of air is
pumped into the cylinders for the same manifold pressure. Decreased air pressure also causes
less back pressure on the exhaust, thus improving scavenging of the cylinders.
At sea level, the throttle valve in a supercharged engine must be partially open to restrict manifold
pressure and prevent excessive cylinder pressure. However, as the aircraft climbs, the throttle
valve must be progressively opened to maintain this manifold pressure. Eventually, a height is
reached where the throttle is fully open; known as full throttle height (FTH). Above FTH power
will fall off as with the normally as irated engine.
Figure 10.105 Full throttle height
At rated rpm and at rated boost (manifold pressure), the height achieved is known as rated
altitude, which is an FTH, but only when rated rpm and rated boost are set (rated power).
120
Since the effect of the su ercharger de ends on the s eed of rotation of the im eller each ower
setting will have a different T according to the engine speed and manifold pressure used.
Figure 10.106 Rated power
The effect of climbing at less than rated power by maintaining rated rpm with less than rated
boost selected is to increase the FTH.
The effect of climbing at less than rated power by maintaining rated boost with less than rated
rpm selected is to decrease the FTH.
This is because it is necessary to increase the throttle opening to make up for reduced compressor
output (remember it is the size and rotational speed of a centrifugal compressor that determines
its output). The throttle-valve will open more quickly in the climb to compensate for the slower
rpm, or more slowly when the rpm is maintained, and the boost selection is low.
The propeller control lever can be said to be an engine speed control and, as the impeller is
geared to the crankshaft, any change in engine speed will result in a corresponding change in the
speed of rotation of the impeller.
Since a supercharger is designed to compress air and provide sea level pressure, or greater, in
the induction manifold when atmospheric pressure is low, excessive manifold pressures could
be produced when atmospheric pressure is high. It is necessary, therefore, to restrict throttle
opening below FTH, and, to relieve the workload on the pilot, this is often done automatically.
There are two controls that affect the ressure develo ed by the su ercharger.
• Throttle lever - The throttle lever position, within the limits imposed by full throttle
height, determines the boost pressure that is delivered by the supercharger. The
throttle is in effect a boost selection lever and together with the ro eller control
lever, determines the power output of the engine.
• The rpm lever - Current practice is to install a variable pitch propeller to aircraft
engines where the blade angles can be adjusted in ight between fine and coarse
021.10.09 limits, resulting in the rotational speed of the engine increasing or decreasing.
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Figure 10.107 Superchargers vs Turbochargers
When making comparisons between turbochargers and superchargers, it is inevitable that the
question of “which is best?” is asked. If it was just a matter of added performance at ground level
021.10.10.01.06 for a given cost, then the turbocharger would probably win. However, aircraft will require the
increased performance at a range of altitudes, and a turbocharger cannot provide this. Therefore,
the internal supercharger, with its ability to increase engine power with aircraft altitude, must be
favoured Another issue is with the turbo lag suffered by turbochargers. If an immediate throttle
response is required, then a supercharger is needed over a turbocharger.
Figure 10.108 Power augmentation comparison
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10.02 Engine Handling
Procedures
01 State the correct procedures for setting the engine controls when increasing or
decreasing power.
Manifold Pressure
Any engine with a supercharger will also be equipped with a variable pitch propeller controlled
by a constant speed unit. The rpm of the engine is therefore controlled by the propeller pitch
lever. To properly set the power and prevent the engine being over boosted, the pilot must have
an indication of the amount of pressure that is allowed into the cylinder with the throttle. This is
known as manifold pressure (between the throttle valve and the inlet valve) and is indicated to
the pilot on one of two gauges:
Manifold Absolute Pressure

American practice is to use the term manifold absolute pressure (MAP) for measuring the
pressure in the induction system. The manifold gauge indicates the absolute pressure in inches
of mercury (Hg). When the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lb, it will support a column of Hg 29.92
inches high. Therefore, a boost pressure of 0 lb is the equivalent of manifold pressure of 29.92
inches Hg.
To make a comparison between boost pressure and manifold absolute pressure, it may be
assumed that 2 inches of Hg is approximately equal to 1 lb of boost.
Engine Power Checks, Reference rpm

When an engine is first installed in an aircraft a check of its erformance is made and a reference
rpm is established. This rpm is an indication of the engine’s power output with the propeller on
the fine itch sto and it is almost constant regardless of the airfield altitude or tem erature.
A note of the reference rpm would be made, and it would be written on a placard, somewhere
convenient, in the cockpit, e.g., on the relevant rpm gauge. Once the reference rpm has been
established, it should not change appreciably. Any change would indicate some form of malfunction.
A new reference rpm will have to be established every time a major engine component, such as
a carburettor or a magneto, is changed.
Engine Power Checks - Static Boost

Before the engine is started, the Boost Pressure Gauge or the Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
Gauge (depending on whether the system is British or American), will show approximately
ambient atmospheric pressure.
At exactly sea level pressure on an ISA day, this will mean that a reading of 29.92 inches of
mercury ( AP gauge) or ero boost ( oost Pressure auge). With an increase of airfield altitude
the gauge reading will of course fall and conversely if the airfield ambient ressure is above ISA
sea level pressure, then the gauge reading will rise.
The gauge reading at this point, i.e., before engine start, is known as static boost, and note
should be taken of it, in order that a check of engine power output can be made.
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Checking the Engine Power Output

When the engine is first started the ressure in the inlet manifold will decrease below the static
boost figure and will robably not begin to rise until about r m is established. With
maximum rpm selected, i.e., the propeller on the fine pitch stop, as the throttle is progressively
o ened the inlet manifold ressure should regain the static boost figure at the reference r m
plus or minus a small tolerance of, say 50 rpm.
The reference r m will vary with different models of engine but this would on average be
approximately 2,000 rpm. Any result outside tolerance may be the result of a cylinder down on
power, the ignition system malfunctioning, a carburettor maladjustment, or even an improperly
set propeller low pitch stop.
e nitions
02 efine the following terms take off ower maximum continuous ower.
Maximum continuous power (MCP) is the maximum power at which continuous operation is
permitted and occurs at a particular rated rpm setting and a rated boost setting.
In small piston aircraft, takeoff power is often MCP. However, it may be increased above MCP
and have a time limitation imposed upon its use. This can be referred to as max power, but it is
important to remain within the time constraints for using this extra power.
educed thrust takeoffs are also ossible if the erformance calculations show there is su cient
power to achieve the departure within the safety margins.
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Extreme Cold Weather Starts
03 Describe the start problems associated with extreme cold weather.
Starting a piston engine in extreme cold can place a strain on components, and ultimately can
mean an engine will fail to start.
• Oil - Cold oil will be much more viscous than at a warmer temperature. This will make
it harder to push around the lubrication system and make it harder for engine parts
to move. This will place extra force and wear on both the parts within the engine, as
well as extra drain on the battery that is driving the start. It can require as much as
twice the normal current to start a cold engine.
• Battery - The battery produces electricity from a chemical reaction releasing charged
articles to ow around a circuit. In extreme cold weather the chemical reaction will
slow down, resulting in fewer charged particles being created and therefore lowering
the power available from the battery. A battery at 0°C (32 F) normally looses around
35% of its power, and by -17°C (0 F) it can be drained by as much as 60%. This problem
is therefore two-fold. Not only will the cold weather drain the battery, but the engine
will need more power than normal to start! Voltage checks of the battery before engine
start are therefore a necessity.
• Fuel - Below 4°C (40 F), some carbon chains in diesel fuel can become thickened, and
therefore create roblems for start. low lugs must be allowed time to su ciently
warm before a start is attempted. Any condensation in fuel tanks will have frozen in
extreme cold conditions, and therefore may not show up in the fuel contamination
check. Ice crystals in fuel will cause severe blockages in the fuel system and will result
in engine failure if not remedied. Even once airborne, cases of ice crystals in fuel
lines have been well documented in some aircraft crashes. In addition to the airborne
risk of ice crystals, the increased friction from cold thick oil will mean the engine is
working harder, and therefore will have a higher fuel burn rate than at a warmer
temperature.
To solve these issues, there are a few methods that can be employed. Firstly, multi grade/
viscosity oils can be used to increase the lubrication effectiveness at the lower tem eratures.
Similarly, a wide cut fuel can be used.
Secondly, a pre heat may be necessary not only to help the engine start, but also to warm up any
gyro-based instruments. Some form of pre heat is recommended if the temperature had been
at or below free ing in the few hours receding the ight. This can be done in a warmed hangar
with electrical heat pads placed around the engine or can be achieved by portable hot air blower
(essentially a large hair drier) that can be wheeled up to the aircraft and provides hot air into the
intakes to warm the engine before start.
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04 escribe the rinci al difference between a full authority digital engine control ( A EC)
system-controlled engine, and traditional manual engine controls.
05 escribe the engine controls available on the ight deck for a A EC controlled engine.
FADEC Introduction
A full authority digital engine control (FADEC) is a computerised system that takes multiple inputs
from the current ight condition and combines all the data in an electronic engine controller
(EEC) or engine control unit (ECU). The ECU/EEC is the computerized brain of the FADEC and
assesses all the inputs in relation to what the pilot is demanding of the system.
Figure 10.109 FADEC
The ECU/EEC will decide what to do with all the inputs and will control the engine and present
relevant information on the displays accordingly.
In increasingly com lex aircraft design a A EC removes some cumbersome tasks from the ight
deck crew, allowing them more time to manage the system as a whole. In emergency situations,
the FADEC is particularly useful in linking often apparently unrelated symptoms to help diagnose
a complex problem. In many cases it will even solve those problems without pilot intervention,
simply informing the crew of the actions it has taken. An important point to remember is, that if
the pilot puts in a parameter that the EEC/ECU disagrees with, the pilot will be overruled.
In combination with a ight management com uter ( C) the ilot can enter relevant
meteorological information for the FMC to calculate the required power settings. The FADEC can
then implement those settings with a greater degree of accuracy than the pilot could do manually.
126
FADEC Controls
Recall the standard three lever arrangement of engine controls for a piston engine.
The FADEC control quadrant will be much simpler than this three-lever arrangement, as the
FADEC will automatically control the rpm and mixture in relation to whatever power setting is
selected. Therefore, the cockpit lever is often a single lever (per engine) labelled power. The fuel
cut off often found on the mixture lever is then combined with a fuel selector lever which aids
with any cross-feed requirements in twin engine aircraft.
Figure 10.110 Three lever controls compared to FADEC controls
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Engine Failure Protection
06 Explain that the FADEC has full authority of the control of all engine parameters ensuring
e cient and correct running of the engine including rotection in the event of failure.
There are several benefits of a A EC system over a manually controlled engine. The A EC
• ensures engines work at maximum e ciency at all stages of ight.

• controls start, ignition, and shut down whilst maintaining thermodynamic sympathy
and therefore extend component life.
• always maintains engine parameters within limits.
• coordinates engine reverse thrust and aerodynamic braking for maximum e ciency.
• provides excellent system integration between avionics and engines.
• provides automatic switching in the event of failures of individual components, EEC/
ECUs, or the whole FADEC.
With all these advantages working together, the FADEC safeguards the correct running of the
engine. If any inputs are deemed to be abnormal, the FADEC can rapidly assess and carry out
necessary action, which can often prevent a more catastrophic event from occurring. The
monitoring functions ensure abnormalities are fully checked out by the engineers and any
deterioration can be easily noted. Then, if the worst does happen, and an engine fails, the FADEC
can automatically control ro ellers fuel and even ight controls to assist the ilots in a safe
engine shut down.
FADEC Redundancy
07 Explain the need for FADEC redundancy with regard to power supply and data input
and output.
Full authority, whist extremely useful, does have some downsides. In its truest form, a FADEC will
not have any reversionary capabilities. It will have full control over all the engine parameters, and
if it fails, the engine will also fail. For this reason, it is vital to have a solid redundancy backup with
regard to its power supply, data input, and output.
There will be two channels to the FADEC (often termed A & B or Left & Right), which will take in
data from the captain’s and co-pilot’s air data computer into the separate ECU/EECs. Each of the
EC EECs will be owered from a different generator to ensure one remains online in the event
of a single generator failure. This highlights the often-mistaken term full authority dual engine
control. Whilst it has dual channels for redundancy, the correct term is full authority digital
engine control.
The FADEC will continually monitor all the parameters, comparing both the input and
calculated outputs for errors or deviations from the norm or between channels. In the event
of a discrepancy, the FADEC will assess which is the correct reading and will automatically
disregard a bad input. Aircraft still require dual readings – i.e., two pitot tubes, two temperature
sensors, two EEC/ECUs, two pilots…. Again, it will inform the crew of its actions but will make
the changes without need for pilot input.
128
021.11 Gas Turbines Engines
0 Section 11 Table of contents
11
Gas Turbine Engines
01.00 Basic Principles ..................................................... 131

01.01 Basic Generation of Thrust and the Thrust Formula ............ 131
01.02 Design, Types and Components of Turbine Engines ............. 136
02.00 Main-Engine Components ................................... 151

02.01 Aeroplane: Air Intake ................................................................ 151
02.02 Compressor and Diffuser ......................................................... 156
02.03 Combustion Chamber ............................................................... 170
02.04 Turbine........................................................................................ 180
02.05 Aeroplane: Exhaust ................................................................... 190
03.00 Additional Components and Systems ................ 197

03.01 Engine Fuel System ................................................................... 197
03.02 Engine Control System .............................................................. 204
03.03 Engine Lubrication .................................................................... 211
03.04 Engine Auxiliary Gearbox ......................................................... 220
03.05 Engine Ignition ........................................................................... 224
03.06 Engine Starter ............................................................................ 227
03.07 Reverse Thrust ........................................................................... 233
04.00 Engine Operation and Monitoring ...................... 239

04.01 General ....................................................................................... 239
04.02 Starting Malfunctions ............................................................... 248
04.03 Relight Envelope ........................................................................ 251
05.00 Performance Aspects ........................................... 252

05.01 Thrust, Performance Aspects and Limitations ...................... 252
06.00 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).................................. 259

06.01 Design, Operation, Functions, Operational Limitations ....... 259
129
1 021.11 Gas Turbines Engines
The history of the gas turbine engine

Jet propulsion can be described as a force which is generated in the opposite direction to the
ow of gas or li uid esca ing under ressure through an o ening. It is the force that makes a
lawn s rinkler rotate when water ows through and the thrust that sends firework rockets into
the night sky.
Whatever the form of the device, jet propulsion it is a reaction engine which operates on the
principle of the Third Law of Motion as stated by the English physicist, Sir Isaac Newton, in
. The first known use of a reaction engine was by ero of Alexandria in C. ero s
engine consisted of a sphere, into which steam was introduced under pressure. The steam was
introduced through apertures, which also formed the bearings upon which the sphere was
allowed to rotate. When the steam was allowed to escape through two bent tubes mounted
opposite one another on the surface of the sphere, it created a thrust, which caused the
sphere to rotate around its axis.
Figure 11.1 Reaction engine
The idea to use a jet reaction engine for aircraft is not new. In 1913, a design for an aerodynamic
thermal duct (athodyd) was suggested by a French engineer named Lorin, but it was not until
that Sir rank Whittle s jet engine owered an aircraft in ight.
Figure 11.2 Thermal duct
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01.00 Basic Principles

01.01 Basic Generation of Thrust and the Thrust Formula
Principle of a Gas Turbine Engine
01 Describe how thrust is produced by a basic gas turbine engine.
The principle of the gas turbine engine is to propel a mass of air backwards. It is the same principle
as a piston engine/propeller combination. The propeller drives a relatively large mass backwards,
fairly slowly, while the gas turbine throws a small mass of air backwards, relatively quickly.
A gas turbine engine is simply a device which manufactures potential (pressure) energy and then
converts it into kinetic (velocity) energy. Thrust is derived as a reaction to accelerating a mass of
air backwards, thereby achieving forward thrust.
Some of the energy performs work at the turbine and the remainder is used to create thrust. A
unit of air has been increased in size by combustion with fuel and heat expansion, so that it will
Figure 11.3 Exchange of energy in a gas turbine engine
have to accelerate greatly in order to leave the exhaust nozzle.
Newton’s third law of motion states: For every force acting on a body, there is an equal and op-
posite reaction.
In the two cases, the propeller and the gas turbine engine, the force created by the mass of air
and its velocity generates a reaction in the opposite direction, driving the aircraft forwards. It
must be remembered that the jet reaction does not result from the pressure of the jet on the
atmosphere, in all cases, the resultant reaction or thrust exerted on the engine is proportional to
the mass (or weight) of air expelled by the engine and the velocity change imparted to it.
The working cycles of both the four-stroke piston engine (the Otto cycle) and the gas turbine
engine (the Brayton cycle) are very similar.
The induction, compression, combustion, power and exhaust of the Otto cycle is matched by
induction, compression, combustion and exhaust in the Brayton cycle.
131
Figure 11.4 Comparison of the working cycle of the piston engine and the gas turbine engine
In the gas turbine engine, combustion theoretically occurs at a constant pressure, whereas in the
piston engine it occurs at a constant volume. Power is developed in the turbine of the engine.
Another main difference is the continuous manner in which these rocesses occur in the gas
turbine engine, instead of the intermittent procedure occurring in the piston engine. In the piston
engine only one of the strokes is used to roducing ower the other three effectively absorbing
power; but in the gas turbine engine the three ‘idle’ strokes have been eliminated, thus allowing
more time for the burning of fuel. This is one of the reasons why the gas turbine engine has a
greater power/weight ratio than the piston engine.
Calculating Thrust
02 Describe the simple form of the thrust formula for a basic, straight jet engine and perform
simple calculations (including pressure thrust).
In a similar way to piston engines (which produce power), a gas turbine engine’s thrust output can
be compared to its weight. This is known as the thrust to weight ratio and is used to compare
one engine against another.
Example:
A gas turbine engine producing 53,000 lbf (static thrust) with a weight of 10,400 lb, would have
a thrust weight ratio of
Momentum Thrust
Momentum thrust depends on the relationship between inlet and exit velocity of the air passing
through the engine; it is dependent on the aircraft’s speed through the air. It will be greatest
when the aircraft is stationary on the ground before takeoff and will reduce as the airs eed and
so the inlet speed, increases. It is considered to be maximum when the aircraft is stationary at
sea level (high pressure), under conditions of low temperature (high density) and low humidity.
132
In accordance with Newton’s second law:
orce ass Acceleration
In a gas turbine engine:
• mass is the air delivered by the compressor, Wa.

• acceleration is the difference in the outlet velocity o
of the air, to that of its inlet
velocity Vi, due to the addition of heat energy.
So:
omentum Thrust Wa(Vo - Vi)
Pressure Thrust
Although the velocity change (momentum) of the gas stream produces most of the thrust,
additional thrust is produced when, under high thrust conditions, the gas velocity reaches the
speed of sound and cannot be accelerated any further. Under these conditions, the nozzle is
choked and the pressure of the gases in the nozzle increases above atmospheric.
The ressure difference across the no le roduces pressure thrust, which is effective over the
nozzle area and is additional to momentum thrust.
Most turbojet engines operate a choked nozzle during high power conditions. On these engines,
pressure thrust is added to the calculated momentum thrust. Engines operating with a non-
choked nozzle would use calculated momentum thrust only.
The choked no le thrust is caused by the difference in the ressure at the no le which is that of the
atmos here and the ressure within the engine which has increased because of su ersonic air ow.
Thrust = Wa(Vo - Vi) + Pressure Thrust
For instance, at 32,000 feet, atmospheric pressure is about 4 lb/in² (psi). This is called ambient
pressure, which we will label as Po. If the pressure inside the engine were 10 psi (which we will
label as P) then the differential is si.
The general expression for force is:
Force = Pressure × Area
Pressure Force Pf = (P – Po) × A
Suppose that:
Area of nozzle (A) = 332 in2
P = 10 psi
Po = 4 psi
Pressure Thrust = Pf = (P – Po) × A
= (10 – 4) × 332
Figure 11.5 Pressure thrust
= 1,992 lb (8.86 kN)
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Thrust = Momentum Thrust + Pressure Thrust

Thrust = Wa(Vo - Vi) + A(P – Po)
Gross Thrust (Fg)

Gross thrust (Fg) is the thrust produced when the engine is not moving through the air. The
acceleration given to the gas is the difference in velocity of the unit of air entering the intake ( i),
and the unit of air exiting the nozzle (Vo). Substituting into ma
Fg = Wa(Vo - Vi)
____________
g
Wa weight of air er second
Vo exit velocity of air in ft sec
Vi inlet velocity of air in ft sec
g gravitational force . ft sec2
Most gas turbine engine manufacturers express their engine outputs in lb with a kN equivalent
(in brackets) alongside.
Example:
A small business jet is at rest before takeoff and is at takeoff ower. ass air ow is lb sec
and the exhaust velocity (Vo) is 1,600 ft/sec. If the aircraft at rest, inlet velocity (Vi) is zero. We can
now substitute into the momentum thrust equation.
Wa(Vo - Vi)
Fg = __________
g
60 (1,600- 0)
Fg = __________
32,2
= 2,981 lb
If the mass ow and velocities are given in im erial units (i.e. lb sec and ft sec) it is necessary to
convert from force to mass by dividing by g, as above. If they are given in SI units (kg/sec and
metres/sec), the conversion is already factored into the units, and it is incorrect to divide by g.
Carrying out the same calculation in SI units:

60 lb =27.211 kg
1,600 ft = 487.68 metres =
Fg = Wa(Vo - Vi) = 27.211 (487.68 – 0) = 13.27 kN
[1 pound force (lbf) = 4.448 newtons (N)]
134
Net Thrust Calculation (Fn)

Thrust reduces as aircraft speed increases, which results in a reduction in the acceleration of the
mass ow through the engine. This is net thrust (Fn).
Vo remains constant and Vi increases so the acceleration in ma decreases.
Example:
ow assume that the same aircraft is ying at knots TAS ( ft sec).
= 2,038 lb (9.07 kN)
Constant Thrust
03 State that thrust can be considered to remain approximately constant over the whole
aeroplane subsonic speed range.
021.11.05
The thrust e uation shows as the aircraft s eed increases the velocity difference will reduce
so the thrust will dro . ut due to the ram effect increasing airs eed will increase the mass of
air being inducted to the engine as more air is pushed into the engine. So, increasing aircraft
speed tends to increase the thrust produced. When both of these variables are considered, they
roughly balance each other out – giving a jet engine constant thrust with increasing air speed.
Figure 11.6 Thrust produced vs airspeed
135
01.02 Design, Types and Components of Turbine Engines
Main Components
01 List the main components of a basic gas turbine engine: inlet; compressor; combustion
chamber; turbine; outlet.
The gas turbine engine can be split into several main components. Each will be discussed in
more detail throughout the following chapters.
Figure 11.7 Gas turbine components
Working Cycle
02 Describe the variation of static pressure, temperature and axial velocity in a gas turbine
engine under normal operating conditions and with the aid of a working cycle diagram.
Pressure and Volume Diagrams

A pressure volume diagram can be used to show the Brayton working cycle, of the gas turbine
engine in its simplest form.
• Air at atmospheric pressure enters the engine at point A and is compressed along the
line A-B.
• Fuel is added in the combustion chambers signified by point B and burnt at a
constant pressure.
• Between points C and D, the gas generated through combustion expands in the tur-
bine and the jet pipe, theoretically attaining a value equal to atmospheric pressure
before being exhausted.
136
Figure 11.8 Working cycle of a gas turbine engine
Constant Pressure Combustion

The design of constant ressure combustion is to ensure that there are no uctuations of
pressure in the engine as there are in the piston engine, where peak pressures greater than
1,000 lb per square inch have to be resisted by the engine construction. These pressures need
extremely strong and heavy construction in the piston engine, and if detonation is to be avoided,
the use of high-octane fuels. In contrast, in the gas turbine engine, the use of low octane fuels
and so relatively light construction methods can be used.
So theoretically, combustion occurs at a constant pressure in the gas turbine engine. But, in
reality, the pressure drops slightly due to unavoidable energy losses in swirl and turbulence. This
causes a pressure drop of 3-6% between B and C. Still, there is a considerable increase in the
volume of the air is generated within the combustion chamber.
Temperature Limit of the Engine
021.10.02
The turbojet is a heat engine. So, the higher the temperature from combustion, the greater the
ex ansion of the gases and hence the greater e ciency of the engine. ut there is a limit to the
amount of heat that can be released into the turbine from combustion. This limit is due to the
materials the nozzle guide vanes and the turbine blades are made from.
The use of modern materials and extremely e cient cooling methods in the no le guide vanes
and the turbine blades have enabled the use of much higher gas temperatures in the latest
engines with the conse uence that they have a higher thermal e ciency than their redecessors.
Application of the Gas Laws in the Gas Turbine Engine

The air which is the working uid of the gas turbine engine ex eriences various changes in its
pressure, temperature and volume due to its receiving and giving up heat during the working
cycle of the engine.
137
These changes conform to principles inherent in a combination of Boyle’s law and Charles’s law.
Boyle’s law states that: If a given mass of gas is compressed at a constant temperature, the
absolute pressure is inversely proportional to its volume.
P
In isolation, this law is not of much use to us, because in practice we cannot compress a gas at a
constant temperature, but, if we use it in conjunction with Charles’s law it becomes more useful.
Charles’s law states that: If a gas is heated at a constant pressure, the change in volume will
vary directly with the change in the absolute temperature, the change being the same for all
perfect gases.
V
__
T
Thus, the volume of a given mass of gas which remains at a constant pressure is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of that gas.
This law on its own is a little better, at least in theory, we have combustion occurring at a constant
pressure in the gas turbine engine, but as we have seen, it does not happen in practice.
Combined gas law states that:

The product of the pressure and the volume of a quantity of gas divided by its absolute
temperature is a constant.
P V
___ =K
T
This means that the product of the pressure and volume of the air throughout each stage of the
working cycle is proportional to the absolute temperature of the air at that stage.
The three main stages when these conditions change are during compression, combustion
and expansion.
• During compression - Work is done to increase the pressure and decrease the volume
of the air. There is a corresponding rise in its temperature. Higher compression
ratios give higher thermal e ciency and low s ecific fuel consum tion. Changes in
outside air tem erature will affect the density of the air. A decrease in tem erature
will increase air density and the compressor will have to work harder on the air; this
will be indicated by a drop in engine rpm, if not compensated by the fuel control unit.
• During combustion - The addition of fuel to burn with the air increases the
temperature and there is a corresponding rise in its volume at an almost constant
pressure.
138
Figure 11.9 Gas parameters throughout the gas turbine engine
• During expansion - When some of the energy in the gas stream is being converted
to mechanical energy by the turbine, there is a decrease in the pressure and
temperature of the gas with a corresponding increase in its volume.
Tangential Velocity
03 escribe the differences between absolute circumferential (tangential) and axial velocity.
Circumferential (tangential) velocity is the

velocity of any point performing a circular
motion. It is often given the symbol, u and
measured in meters/second.
Axial velocity is the speed that the object is

moving in the circular motion given in radians
per second. It is normally given the symbol ω
(lower case Greek letter omega).
A sim le way to imagine the difference is if a ball

is spun around on the end of a rope, it will have
a certain axial velocity (in radians per second).
If the ball suddenly breaks from the rope, it will
continue in a straight line with circumferential
velocity at the point of disconnect.
Figure 11.10 Axial and tangential velocity
139
Straight Jet
04 List the different ty es of gas turbine engines straight jet turbofan turbo ro .
Gas turbine engines can be designed in various ways so that the required performance is achieved.
Some gas turbine engines are made in the purest from. All the air in inducted, compressed,
passes through the combustion chamber and is exhausted. Straight jet engines include the
Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593 in the Concorde.
When a compressor and turbine are joined on one

shaft, the unit is called a spool. This type was for a
long time considered to be the most useful, where
an engine with a small frontal area was required,
such as in fighter aircraft where a high forward
speed was the main need. There were problems
with the control of the smooth ow of air through
the engine throughout its rotational speed range.
Figure 11.11 Straight jet on the Concorde
The ow follows conventional atterns from the com ressor the air is fed into the combustion
chambers and fuel is now added to give the substantial increase in volume required. The energy
required to drive the compressor is now extracted from the gases as they pass through the
turbine; the remaining energy is extracted to act as thrust as the gases pass to atmosphere via
the end of the jet pipe.
Figure 10.4 Venturi effect
More modern engines are the turbofan and turboprop engines.
140
Spools
05 State that a gas turbine engine can have one or more spools.
To help with the compression of the air, it is sometimes needed that sections of the compressor
s in at different s eeds. So two s ools are used a low ressure (LP) shaft is able to run the
fan and a LP turbine which a concentrically fitted a high ressure ( P) s ool can run the P
compressor and turbine.
A third spool can be used for an intermediate pressure spool like the Garrett ATF3 engine in the
Dassault Falcon 20 business jet (although this has an unusual non-concentric layout). The triple
spool front fan turbojet engine Rolls Royce RB 211 represents probably the most successful
example of this type of engine.
Figure 11.13 Triple spool gas turbine
The air enters the intake and passes immediately into the low-pressure compressor, more
commonly called the fan. Here, its pressure is raised before it splits, to go either through the bypass
duct or into the intermediate pressure compressor, the amount depending upon the bypass ratio.
Turbofan
06 Describe how thrust is produced by turbojet and turbofan engines.
071.01.02.04.06
A turbofan is very similar to the turbojet, but the engine allows some air to bypass the combustion
021.11.01.02.10
chamber and turbines. The jet part of the engine is used to produce thrust, just as the straight jet,
but it also drives a large ducted fan at the front of the engine, which also produced thrust. Whilst
maintaining the large mass ow of air through the engine the turbofan reduces the mass of air in
the combustion chamber, reducing the fuel required to make the correct mixture. This is highly
desirable in commercial aviation for the economic savings but the by ass air had the extra benefit
of mu ing engine noise and so it is referred for noise abatement considerations.
141
Figure 11.14 Turbofan
Fan Engine Thrust

A fan engine produces both a core engine (or hot) stream at a high velocity and a fan (or cold)
stream at a lower velocity. In this case, the hot and cold streams are dealt with separately and
added together.
Figure 11.15 Fan thrust
Thrust Fan Fg = Wa (Vo - Vi ) Fg = 1200 x 800 = 29,814 lb

__________ __________
g 32.2
Thrust Core Fg = Wa (Vo - Vi ) Fg = 3000 x 1000 = 9,317 lb

__________ __________
g 32.2
Total an Core 39,131 lb (175 kN)
Note: The fan accounts for 75% to 90% of the total thrust
Modular Construction Methods

The use of larger and larger aircraft has meant that air travel has become less and less
expensive. This concept works well as long as the aircraft themselves work well. If one restricting
component on a large aircraft, such as an engine, becomes unserviceable, then the expense
involved in keeping three or four hundred passengers fed, accommodated and happy becomes
unreasonable.
Engine manufacturers in an attem t to minimi e the financial burden im osed u on the users
of their equipment in the event of failure, have started to use modular construction methods,
which facilitate changing sections of an engine rather than the whole engine.
142
Turboprop Engine
07 Describe how power is produced by turboprop engines.
The major difference between the turbo ro and the turbojet is that in the turbo ro almost all
the energy in the gas stream is converted into mechanical power.
In the turbojet a high proportion of the gas stream energy is used to drive the compressor as it
is in the turboprop. In the turbojet, the energy that remains is used as thrust, but the energy that
remains in a turboprop engine is used to drive the propeller. Only a small amount of jet thrust is
available from the exhaust system of a turbo ro with an e cient turbine it can be described as
residual thrust only.
Figure 11.16 Turboprop engine
A art from this difference the air ow through the engine is virtually the same in either case. The
compressor passes the air to the combustion chamber, where the fuel is added and a substantial
increase in the volume of the air is obtained at a nominal constant pressure.
The gas is now expanded in the turbine, where a drop in the temperature, pressure and velocity
is exchanged for the mechanical energy to drive the compressor/s and the propeller through its
reduction gear.
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower (ESHP)
08 escribe the term e uivalent horse ower ( thrust horse ower shaft horse ower).
The output from a turbo-propeller engine is the sum of the shaft power developed at the turbine
and the residual jet thrust. This is called equivalent shaft horsepower (ESHP).
ES P S P P from jet thrust
143
Under static conditions one shaft horsepower equals approximately 2.5 pounds of thrust.
The gas turbine engine can give a small mass of air a large acceleration (low bypass ratio turbojet)
or a large mass of air a small acceleration (high bypass ratio turbofan, or turboprop). The merits
of each relative to ro ulsive e ciency were discussed in cha ter one.
The thrust or shaft horsepower developed must then be dependent on the mass of air entering
the engine and the acceleration given to that mass as it passes through the engine, it will be
affected by changes in altitude tem erature and airs eed which all have a bearing on the
e ciency of the engine and the gas energy available for conversion into thrust or S P.
Free Power Turbine
09 Explain the principle of a free turbine or free-power turbine.
The free turbine engine can be thought of as a turboprop engine, but with the propeller
re laced by just a drive shaft. This shaft is free to rotate at a different s eed to the turbine and
compressor, so that in the event of an engine failure, the shaft will not stop rotating. Free power
turbine engines can be used to drive helicopter rotors.
They can also be used in applications where a compact supply of electrical power is required,
their output shaft being attached to an alternator. This is the type of engine normally used as the
auxiliary power unit (APU) on most modern transport aircraft.
Figure 11.17 Turboshaft engine with a free power turbine
Most, if not all, turboshaft engines incorporate a free power turbine.
021.11.06
A free power turbine is one that is not connected to any of the compressors. This frees it from
the constraint of having to rotate at a speed that suits the compressor, and this gives it a much
wider operating speed range.
144
or com act designs a single s ool turboshaft engine can have a reverse ow combustion
chamber system. This allows the engine to be much shorter stiffer and lighter than it otherwise
would, but does add the requirement for a centrifugal compressor to be used in the high-
pressure stage. This allows for the air to be thrown out radially, in order that it can enter the
combustion chamber in the correct direction.
ther than this deviation the air ow follows that reviously described for the turbojet engine
u to the oint where it leaves the high and low ressure turbines. aving converted su cient
energy to drive the two compressors, the gas now passes through the free power turbine, where
all of the remaining energy can be used to drive whatever is attached to it.
Bypass Ratio
10 efine the term by ass ratio and erform sim le calculations to determine it.
The by ass ratio is the ratio of the mass air ow which ows through the fan duct (by ass duct)
to the mass of air which is directed through the hot core.
Fan Mass Flow

____________
y ass atio
Core Mass Flow
A low ratio is considered to be in the region of about 1 or 2:1, whereas a high ratio would be around 5:1.
Example:
If a fan mass ow is lb with a by ass ratio of what is the core mass ow
Bypass 1200: 300 is the same as 4:1
So
Core mass ow lb
The air ow as far as the end of the low ressure com ressor is identical to that of a ure turbojet
but then the air ow s lits into two. An amount de ending on the by ass ratio will ow down the
bypass duct and the remainder continues into the high-pressure (HP) compressor.
Figure 11.18 Rolls Royce engine parts
145
Each symbol is accom anied by a number which identifies its osition from the front to rear
of the engine. Rolls Royce have historically used the designations listed below and shown in
Figure 13.10.
P 0T 0 Ambient P 6T 6 LP Turbine Exit
P 1T 1 Inlet P 7T 7 Exhaust
P 2T 2 LP Com ressor elivery P 8T 8 Pro elling o le
P 3T 3 P Com ressor elivery 1

LP Com ressor Turbine
P 4T 4 Turbine Entry 2
P Com ressor Turbine
P 5T 5 P Turbine Exit
From the HP compressor, the air follows the now familiar path through the combustion chambers
and into the turbine before it re-joins the bypass air in the mixer unit of the exhaust system.
The ro ulsive e ciency of both the low and high ratio by ass engines is much greater than that
of the pure turbojet at the speeds normally associated with jet transport aircraft.
This also follows for the s ecific fuel consum tion which is a reciably lower for the high ratio
bypass engine.
021.11.01.02.11
High Bypass
The experience gained through manufacturing and operating the low bypass ratio type of engine
roved that engines dealing with larger com arative air ows and lower jet velocities could give
ro ulsive e ciencies com arable to those of turbo ro s and greater than turbojets at normal
cruising speeds.
The thrust of this ty e of engine is almost com letely de endent on the by ass air ow which has
a high mass and relatively low velocity hence its good ro ulsive e ciency. The air which asses
through the intermediate and high-pressure compressors has a great deal of energy added in
the combustion chambers, but this energy is required to drive the compressors.
The rearmost, or the low-pressure turbine, is responsible for extracting virtually all of the energy
that remains in the gas stream to drive the front fan.
If it is e cient in doing its job then there should be only residual thrust remaining when the hot
gases emerge from the turbine.
ciencies
11 efine the terms ro ulsive ower ro ulsive e ciency thermal e ciency and total e ciency.
Propulsive Power
A measure of the engine output that is expended on forcing the aircraft forward through the air.
It can be sometimes referred to as thrust power.
146
Pro ulsive Power Thrust x Airspeed
er al ciency
Thermal efficiency can be looked at, in simple terms, as of how well the engine is performing its
task. It is the e ciency at which the heat energy released by the fuel combustion is converted to
work done in the engine. It can be visualised by use of a Sankey diagram, showing how much fuel
energy is converted into useful kinetic energy.
Figure 11.19 Thermal efficiency
As rate of energy change is the same as ower it can be defined by the e uation
Rate of production of kinetic energy

_________________________________
Thermal energy η thermal
Fuel power
ropulsive ciency
The e ciency of conversion of kinetic energy to ro ulsive work is termed ro ulsive e ciency.
This is affected by the amount of kinetic energy wasted by the ro elling mechanism and
021.11.01.02.13 considers the airspeed.
Propulsive power
_________________________________________
Pro ulsive e ciency η propulsive
Rate of production of propulsive kinetic energy
147
Pro ulsive e ciency formula is written as
2V
___________
η propulsive
V+Vj
V aircraft velocity VJ jet velocity
Example 1
A low bypass turbojet engine has a forward velocity (V) of 200 mph and a jet velocity (VJ) of 1,000 mph.
2V 2 X 200 400 1 100

______ = ___________ = ______ = __ X
_____ = 33%
V+Vj 200 + 1000 1200 3 1
Example 2
A low bypass turbojet engine has a forward velocity (V) of 600 mph and a jet velocity (VJ) of 1,000 mph.
2V 2 X 600 1200 3 100

______ = ___________ = ______ = __ X _____ = 75%
V+Vj 600 + 1000 1600 4 1
otal ciency
Total e ciency is the roduct of thermal and ro ulsive e ciency.
η total = η thermal × η propulsive
Compressor Pressure Ratio
12 escribe the in uence of com ressor ressure ratio on thermal e ciency.
Depending on the arrangements and design of the compressor, it may have a higher or lower
pressure ratio. A high-pressure ratio will give a higher pressure at the combustion chamber and
so will have a larger mass of air to be burnt increasing the thermal e ciency of the combustion.
This increases the overall thermal e ciency. Low com ressor ressure ratios (below ) do not
give good thermal e ciency but above this there is a marked increase. or this reason engines
must be designed with significant com ressor ressure ratios to ensure the most e cient engine.
Figure 11.20 Compressor pressure ratio
148
o paring ropulsive ciency
13 Ex lain the variations of ro ulsive e ciency with forward s eed for turbojet turbofan
and turboprop engines.
Thrust is the product of mass times acceleration. It can be demonstrated that the same amount
of thrust can be provided either by imparting a low acceleration to a large mass of air, or by giving
a small mass of air a large acceleration. In practice the former is preferred, since it has been
found that the losses due to turbulence are much lower and the ro ulsive e ciency is higher.
It can be seen, from previous examples, that the closer the aircraft speed comes to the speed of
the jet e ux the more e cient the ro ulsion unit becomes.
Figure 11.21 The propulsive efficiencies of gas turbine engines
The highest ro ulsive e ciency at low airs eeds is offered by the turbo ro eller engine
combination. Above about miles er hour the ro eller s e ciency does dro off uite
ra idly due to the disturbance of the air ow at the ti s of the blades.
In com arison with the turbo ro the ro ulsive e ciency of the ure turbojet a ears uite
poor at the lower airspeeds.
As the airs eed increases in excess of miles er hour the ro ulsive e ciency starts to
improve beyond the capability of the turboprop engine to match it, and from then on there is no
com arison the eventual outcome being a ro ulsive e ciency close to .
Cruising speeds in the order of 800 miles per hour are at present out of the reach of most
transport aircraft, and this fact means that in the mid-speed range, where most of the world’s
transport aircraft operate, there is a niche for the bypass type of engine.
149
This ty e which includes the ducted fan or turbofan engine has a ro ulsive e ciency which fits
neatly between that of the turboprop and the pure turbojet. By dealing with comparatively larger
mass air ows at lower jet velocities the by ass ty e engine attains a ro ulsive e ciency which
exceeds that of both the turboprop and the pure turbojet at the speeds normally associated with
jet transport aircraft.
To summarize:
The closer the aircraft s eed comes to the s eed of the jet e ux exiting the engine the higher
the ro ulsive e ciency of the engine ro eller combination.
peci c uel onsu ption
14 efine the term s ecific fuel consum tion for turbojets and turbo ro s.
To maintain an economical engine, the ratio of fuel consumption to thrust or SHP must be as low
as possible. This is the specific fuel consumption (SFC) and is measured in pounds of fuel used
per hour per pound of thrust for a turbojet, or in a turboprop, per SHP.
S C for a turbojet Fuel Flow (lb/hr)

_________________
Pound Thrust
S C for a turbo ro Fuel Flow (lb/hr)

_________________
021.11.05 SHP
150
02.00 Main-Engine Components

02.01 Aeroplane: Air Intake
Figure 11.22 Intake
Functions
01 State the functions of the engine air inlet/air intake.
The engine air inlet is built into the airframe or the forward part of the nacelle installation. It is
so designed to provide a relatively turbulent free supply of air to the face of the low-pressure
compressor or fan. The design of the intake duct is vital to the performance of the engine under
all airspeeds or angles of attack to avoid compressor stall.
Pitot Type Air Inlet
02 Describe the geometry of a subsonic (pitot type) air inlet.
The simplest form of intake is a single entrance circular cross-section ‘pitot’ type. The pitot type
of intake maximi es the use of ram effect and suffers the minimum loss of ram ressure as
altitude increases. E ciency of this ty e of intake reduces as the aircraft a roaches sonic s eed
due to the formation of a shock wave at the intake lip.
At low airspeed, the intake will pull in air from a wider area than the area of the intake itself. This
can lead to dangers of foreign object damage (FOD) by debris ingestion. The intake forms a
021.11.02.02.04 convergent dut increasing the velocity of the air ow in and decreasing its ressure.
There will be an optimum aircraft speed at which the air intake operates. Here the velocity and
pressure of the air are undisturbed by any duct shape, and the forward speed of the aircraft only
acts to increase the ram ressure of the air ow assisting the com ressor stages.
inally at a high subsonic aircraft s eed the air ow cannot all be taken into the com ressor due
to an overpressure at the intake. This forces some air outwards, called intake spilling, and will
increase the drag of the engines.
151
Figure 11.23 Air intake
The air inlet is usually divergent in a subsonic intake, and this divergence allows a reduction of
velocity and an increase of pressure at the compressor face as the airspeed increases.
Pitot intakes are normal for straight in wing mounted engines, but the intake can be shaped to
form an S sha ed duct for tail cone mounted engines. nstable air ow in an S duct can be a
common occurrence articularly during crosswind takeoffs.
Figure 11.24 Pitot type intakes
152
Gas Parameters
03 Ex lain the gas arameter changes in a subsonic air inlet at different ight s eeds.
Pressure
On a stationary running engine, the intake pressure will be lower than ambient due to the high
velocity air ow through the intake. As the aircraft begins to move the ressure within the inlet
starts to rise. The point when inlet pressure returns to ambient is known as ram pressure recovery.
Figure 11.25 Ram pressure
Figure 11.26 Ram pressure graph
153
This point is usually reached at about Mach 0.1 to Mach 0.2. As the aircraft speed increases even
further, the inlet produces more and more ram compression which allows the engine compression
021.11.01.02.12 ratio to increase. This in turn generates more thrust without costing any increase in fuel ow.
Velocity
The Bernoulli and Venturi principles remain valid for all stages of the engine, including the intake.
The changes in ressure and velocity are accom lished by the different sha ed assages or ducts
through which the air must pass before it exits the engine. The design of these ducts is extremely
im ortant because the e ciency with which the changes from velocity (kinetic) energy to ressure
( otential) energy and vice versa occur are re ected in the overall e ciency of the engine.
Figure 11.27 Divergent and convergent ducts
Temperature
The inlet has very little effect aerodynamically on the air tem erature but it can be heated to aid
in de icing the air ow in ight.
Dangers
04 Describe the reasons for, and the dangers of, the following operational problems concerning
the engine air inlet air ow se aration inlet icing inlet damage foreign object damage ( )
heavy in ight turbulence.
Inlet Icing
Inlet icing can occur if conditions are conducive; typically this would be if the ambient tempera-
ture is below C there is visible moisture standing water on the a ron taxiway or runway or
050.09.01 the RVR is less than 1,000 metres. If these conditions exist, the pilot should activate the engine
anti-icing system.
Inlet Damage
Damage to the intake or any roughness internally in the intake may cause the incoming air to be
turbulent and may disru t the air ow into the com ressor causing stall or surge. e articular
during intake inspection to notice damage, uneven skin panels, surface roughness, etc.
154
Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
The vast majority of compressor damage is caused by foreign object damage (FOD). Damage
to the compressor blades leads to changes in the geometry of the system which can cause
performance deterioration, compressor stall and even engine surge. To prevent such damage
being caused, it is essential that the operators of gas turbine engines should take precautions
which preclude the entry of debris into the area of the ramp. Further to this the pilot should
ensure during his external re ight checks that the engine intakes are free from any such debris.
This is particularly important for wing mounted engines whose intake is close to the ground. It
is no coincidence that aft body mounted engines, whose intake is above the aircraft fuselage,
suffer much less with foreign object ingestion.
The res onsibility does not end there after ight intake and exhaust covers should be fitted to
prevent ingress of contaminants and windmilling.
During start up, taxi and reverse thrust operation, debris can be sucked into the intake and
power should be kept to a minimum to avoid potential damage.
Several deaths and many serious injuries have been caused through personnel being sucked into
the intakes of gas turbine engines while they have been operating. Great care must be exercised
whenever it is necessary to function in close proximity to running engines.
Figure 11.28 Dangers of FOD
155
irflo eparation
Air ow se aration can occur in two ways at the inlet
• Inlet spillage drag - As shown reviously the itot inlet design can suffer from too
much air ow that cannot all be taken by the com ressor. This creates a s illage and
air ow se aration around the engine cowling roducing more drag than at a lower
speed.
• ransonic airflo disruption - As speed is continually increased towards the
transonic range any controlling of air ow through convergent ducts will force the
air into a su ersonic ow. This creates sonic shock waves and air ow se aration
throughout the intake. This is very damaging to the fan and compressor, with
uneven and unpredictable pressure distributions. The forces can be so extreme that
components can fail, creating FOD and catastrophic engine failures.
Supersonic intakes are shaped with external cones or square cross section intakes to control
the air ow kee ing shock waves outside the inlet and slowing the air to a subsonic ow before
it reaches the compressor.
In-Flight Turbulence
eavy in ight turbulence can not only s ill the coffee but can seriously disru t the air ow into
the engines. Using the operating handbook turbulence penetration speed and the correct rpm
or engine pressure ratio (EPR) will reduce the possibility of compressor malfunction. It may also
be prudent, or a requirement, to activate the continuous ignition to reduce the probability of
engine ame out .
Figure 11.29 Compressor
. o pressor and i user

Purpose
01 State the purpose of the compressor.
Compression of air before combustion allows the engine to squash as much oxygen as possible
into the mixture. ore oxygen in the combustion means more ower and better fuel e ciency.
156
Basic Working Principle
02 escribe the working rinci le of a centrifugal and an axial ow com ressor.
There are two ty es of com ressors in use in engines resently available one allows axial air ow
through the engine while the other creates centrifugal ow. In both cases the com ressors are
driven by a turbine which is cou led to it by a shaft. Each work slightly differently with the centrifugal
compressor pressurising the air mechanically, and the axial compressing it aerodynamically.
Centrifugal Compressor
03 Name the following main components of a single stage and describe their function for a
centrifugal com ressor im eller diffuser.
The turbine rotates the impeller of the compressor at high speed. Air is introduced continuously
into the eye (centre) of the impeller by rotating guide vanes and centrifugal force causes it to
ow outwards towards the ti . The divergent sha e of the vanes causes the ressure of the air
to increase as it ows outwards and because the im eller is adding energy to the gas the air s
velocity also increases. The centrifugal compressor is a mechanical form of gas compression.
The air leaves the tip of the impeller and passes into the diffuser section, a system of stationary
divergent ducts designed to convert the kinetic energy (velocity) into potential energy (pressure).
In practice approximately 50% of the pressure rise across the compressor occurs in the impeller
and the other in the diffuser section.
At the elbows of the com ressor outlet casing cascade vanes are fitted. These enable the air to be
turned through large angles with the minimum of loss and they are also used to com lete diffusion.
Figure 11.30 Centrifugal compressor
157
Axial Compressor
04 Name the following main components of a single stage and describe their function for an
axial compressor: rotor vanes; stator vanes.
The rinci le of the axial ow com ressor is basically the same as that of the centrifugal ow
com ressor it converts kinetic energy into ressure energy. It achieves this via a different
process; instead of being a simple mechanical compression, the axial compressor uses aerofoil
shapes to aerodynamically compress the air.
The axial ow com ressor consists of several rows of circulating aerofoil sections. These can be
either rotating rotor blades or stationary diffuser stator blades.
The rotor blades are of aerofoil section and are normally made from drop forged stainless steel,
machined to a close tolerance before being attached to the rotor disc. The blades reduce in size from
the front to the rear of the compressor, to accommodate the convergent shape of the air annulus.
A stage consists of one row of rotor blades, fastened to discs on a rotor drum, followed by a row
of stator blades, which are fastened to the compressor outer casing. On both the rotor and the
021.11.02.02.09 stator, the spaces between the blades form divergent passages.
The rotor is turned continuously at high speed by the turbine, adding mechanical energy and
converting it into both kinetic energy and potential energy.
Within the stator, the pressure is increased by the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy. Simply stated, the rotor stages can be seen as doing the same job as the impeller in a centrifugal
com ressor while the stator stages can be com ared to the diffuser in a centrifugal com ressor.
Gas Parameters
05 Describe the gas-parameter changes in a compressor stage.
As the primary purpose of a compressor is to pressurize the air, the main gas parameter change
is that it increases in pressure. This is achieved by repeatedly speeding and slowing the velocity
of the air ow. This is accom anied by a tem erature rise which can reach u to C.
Figure 11.31 Compressor gas parameters
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Pressure Ratio
06 efine the term ressure ratio and state a ty ical value for one stage of a centrifugal
and an axial ow com ressor and for the com lete com ressor.
The pressure ratio of a single stage centrifugal compressor would be in the region of 4:1. That
means that the outlet pressure of the compressor stage would be approximately four times
greater than the inlet pressure.
In an axial compressor, the pressure rise across each stage is only quite small, the ratio being
about . or . . In the first stage the ressure might only increase by about si. So in order
to gain the compression ratios demanded by modern engines, many stages may be used on
the same spool, and an engine may have up to three spools. This method of compression is so
effective that some com ression ratios as great as can be attained.
Advantages and Disadvantages
07 State the advantages and disadvantages of increasing the number of stages in a

centrifugal compressor.
Although centrifugal com ressors are more robust easy and chea to manufacture it is di cult
to manage air through multiple stages. In practice, it has not been found feasible to use more than
two centrifugal compressor stages together; excessive impeller tip speeds and extreme centrifugal
loading rohibit e cient o eration of a third stage. As a result of this engine com ression ratios of
greater than 15:1 are not considered possible using centrifugal compressors.
Since the amount of thrust generated by an engine de ends artly u on the mass of air owing
through it the centrifugal com ressor engine will have less thrust than an axial ow com ressor
with the same frontal area.
Even if the frontal area is increased to match the mass air ow this would increase drag on the
engine, and so, is not an option.
The ease of adding stages to an axial compressor means the overall compression ratio of an axial
compressor is higher than in centrifugal compressors.
To balance these advantages and disadvantages, some engines now use a combination of
centrifugal and axial compressors.
FOD Dangers
08 Ex lain the difference in sensitivity for of a centrifugal com ressor com ared with
an axial ow ty e.
The robustness of a centrifugal compressor means it is not as sensitive to FOD as an axial

compressor. If FOD is ingested into an axial compressor, it can easily damage either the rotor
or stator vanes which can fail and cause significant further within the engine. ost small
particles are able to pass through a centrifugal compressor and are eliminated at the combustion
stage, but larger objects will of course still result in damage.
159
Early engines used aluminium alloys in the manufacture of stator vanes, but it did not
withstand foreign object ingestion damage at all well. Steel or nickel-based alloys have a high
fatigue strength and are less easily cracked or eroded by impact. Titanium is sometimes used
for the vanes in the early stages, but it is not suitable further down the engine where the high
tem eratures can affect it.
Other contamination
Accumulation of contaminants in both the compressor and the turbine section of the engine
reduces the e ciency of the unit and can seriously affect its erformance. The contaminants
on the compressor, which are mostly salt and pollution from industrial areas, reduce the
aerodynamic e ciency of the blades.
If the major cause of contamination is salt ingestion, then a timely rinsing of the compressor
with fresh water can avoid the harsher treatment which otherwise will be required. This can be
carried out either while motoring the engine over on the starter, or while running the engine at
idle speed. This procedure is known as a desalination wash.
If the contamination has reached the stage where a desalination wash is not su cient then
the application of an emulsion type surface cleaner may be necessary; this is sprayed into the
engine intake under the same conditions as the desalination wash. The procedure is known as
a performance recovery wash.
A more vigorous treatment applicable to centrifugal compressor engines, is the injection of an
abrasive grit into the engine intake while it is running at an idle power setting. The grit takes
the form of broken walnut shells or broken stones from apricots. Unfortunately, because the
grit is mostly burnt in the combustion chambers, this method does not clean the turbine
com onents as well as the uid cleaning method.
In the turbine, the contamination takes the form of sulphidation, a build-up of sulphur deposits
from the burning fuel which destroys the aerodynamic shape of the turbine blades and the
no le guide vanes and which will over a eriod of time erode their surface finish. The turbine
also benefits from desalination washes with fre uent a lications allowing an extension of
service life for some engines.
Convergent Air Annulus
09 Ex lain the convergent air annulus through an axial ow com ressor.
The space between the rotor drum and the compressor outer casing is called the air annulus.
To maintain the axial velocity of the air as it is compressed into a smaller and smaller volume,
the air annulus must be reduced. This gradual convergence is achieved by either tapering the
compressor outer casing or the rotor drum, or in some cases a combination of both.
160
Figure 11.32 Convergent air annulus
Compressor Blades
10 Describe the reason for twisting the compressor blades.
The compressor blades will be twisted for the same reason that propellers have a twist to their blade.
Consider 3 cross-section parts of the blade, at A (close to the rotor disk), B and C (on the outside of the
com ressor). All sections of each blade are subjected to the same air ow s eed.
• At A - Close to the rotor disk, the aerofoil

section is subjected to a lower rotational air
ow. To maintain a nominated total reaction
the aerofoil section must maintain a certain
angle of attack.
• At B - The mid section of the blade aerofoil
is further from the centre of rotation and
so ex eriences a larger rotational air ow
than at section A. Section B must give
approximately the same total reaction as at
A to prevent undue stress on the compressor
blade, and so, needs a similar angle of attack.
ut the increased rotational air ow means
the relative air ow angle has changed and
so, the angle of attack required occurs at a
different itch angle.
• At C - Again, further from the rotor disk,
section C has increased rotational air ow
moving the relative air ow angle and
hence changing the pitch angle required on
Figure 11.33 Compressor blades angles
the blade.
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Each compressor blade is twisted from root to tip to maintain the angle of attack at varying
rotational air ow velocities. In addition to this the cross section chord and camber can be
altered for optimum conditions.
Fan Blades
The high bypass ratio engine’s low-pressure
compressor blades, more commonly known
as the fan blades, were initially manufactured
from solid titanium, this material having the
properties of strength with lightness. A low
blade weight is essential if the fan is to be able
to withstand the out of balance forces which
would occur if a blade failed.
Figure 11.34 Compressor blade
Inlet Guide Vanes
11 State the tasks of inlet guide vanes (IGVs).
In addition to the rotor and stator blades the air must be controlled before the first stage and in
between the stages. Guide vanes are used to achieve this.
• Inlet guide vanes (IGVs) direct the air ow into the com ressor at the correct angle to
make the most e cient com ression.
• Variable inlet guide vanes (VIGVs) are fitted to engines which have a roblem with
inherent compressor stall at low rpm or during engine acceleration or deceleration.
The vanes are fitted just in front of the first rotor stage they can be automatically
ivoted around their own axis to vary the ath of the air ow going into the
compressor, so maintaining the proper relationship between compressor rotational
s eed and air ow in the front com ressor stages.
• At low compressor speeds, the VIGVs are angled to impart the greatest amount of
swirl to the air thereby correcting the relative air ow to obtain the o timum angle of
attack over the rotor blades. This optimum angle of attack allows a smooth and rapid
engine acceleration.
• When the engine is operating at non-optimum conditions, variable stator vanes,
(VSVs) may also be fitted after the first rotor stage where the air ow may still have
problems further down the compressor. These vanes can be pivoted automatically,
so that as the compressor speed is reduced from the optimum design value, they
are progressively closed to maintain an acceptable angle of attack onto the following
rotor blades.
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Clicking Noise
12 State the reason for the clicking noise whilst the compressor slowly rotates on the ground.
Figure 11.35 Typical variable stator vanes actuators
The method of fixing the rotor blades is usually the dovetail system. This system the blades
are uite loose fitting until firmly seated by centrifugal force during engine o eration. So when
windmilling on the ground, the blades rattle loosely, making a clicking sound somewhat like a
bag of nails being shaken.
Number of Spools
13 State the advantages of increasing the

number of spools.
Early axial ow engines were develo ed by

adding more compressor stages on one shaft
to obtain higher and higher compression ratios.
This made it increasingly di cult to retain
o erational exibility in terms of engine s eed.
Compressor blade angles are arranged to give
peak performance around maximum rpm, when
the axial velocity of the air ow and the rotational
speed of the blade produce the optimum angle of
attack of the air ow over the blade.
Any reduction of engine rpm changes the

symmetry of the vector diagram relating it to the
axial velocity, and the angle of attack no longer
retains its optimum value, stall became an ever
present problem at lower engine speeds.
To overcome this, the compressor was split,

initially into two, and subsequently into three
021.11.02.02.17 sections, each section being driven through a
shaft by its own turbine. The speed of rotation of
each successive compressor increases, the HP
compressor rotating faster than the LP. Figure 11.36 Multi spool engines
163
The whole unit, compressor, shaft and turbine, forms a spool.
By designing the engine so that, upon closing the throttle, the speed of the low-pressure spool
falls off more ra idly than the high ressure s ools it can be arranged that the symmetry of the
vector diagram relating to angle of attack can be maintained over a much greater range, thus
reducing greatly the chance of compressor stall.
Tip Losses
14 Explain the implications of tip losses and describe the design features to minimise the problem.
To maintain e ciency the com ressor blade ti s must be fitted very closely to the edge casing
to revent air owing around the com ressor blades instead of through them. This is referred
to as tip losses. The rotor blades spin at around 1,000 mph and must be crafted to very small
manufacturing tolerances to ensure they fit close enough to the casing without touching it.
Even with this recision the blades can suffer from a henomenon called blade creep. First of
all, the heat produced by friction with the air will cause the blades to expand in all directions,
lengthening them. In addition to this, the heat will make the blades more pliable and the high
rotation speed can act to further lengthen the
blades by centrifugal forces. If the blades touch
the casing whilst in motion su cient heat
from friction could ignite the titanium causing
expensive repairs, or severe blade fractures
could cause catastrophic engine failure.
An abradable lining can be used in the casing

area to reduce tip losses. This system allows
the abrasive tips of the blades to erode away a
channel in the casing so that they automatically
become a erfect fit when at o erating s eed
and temperature. Figure 11.37 Abradable lining
Blade Bending and Flapping
15 Ex lain the roblems of blade bending and a ing and describe the design features to
minimise the problem.
The pliability of the hot spinning blades also causes issues with distortions in the twisting and
a ing sense. To minimise the a ing the blades are held at both ends by shrouds.
Despite the enormous strength of titanium, the blades often have to incorporate a snubber
for extra stability. This is a su ort fitted at mid s an which revented aerodynamic torsion
unfortunately it also adds weight, and, particularly on complex designs, it interfered with the
su ersonic ow characteristics of the air at the extremities of the blade.
Ex eriments with new materials articularly carbon fibre were carried out but its exibility
greatly reduced its effectiveness and its use has largely been discontinued.
164
Figure 11.38 Blade shrouds Figure 11.39 Blade shaping
Success has been achieved by fabricating the blade from a honeycomb core sandwiched between
two outer skins of titanium. This method gives added strength with less weight, enabling the
introduction of the wide chord fan blade. The stability of the blade is ensured as a result of its
wider chord and so the snubber is no longer necessary.
New technologies are now growing compressor blades from single metal crystals. These
crystals have atomically perfect lattice structures and can withstand much higher temperatures,
pressures and forces than their molten-cast predecessors.
Stall and Surge
16 Explain the following terms: compressor stall; engine surge.
Increasing the com ression ratio of a com ressor makes it rogressively more di cult to ensure
that it o erates e ciently over the whole of its s eed range. This because as the com ression
ratio of the engine falls as the speed of rotation of the compressor falls. As the engine slows down,
the volume which the air takes up gets greater and greater, because it is not being compressed
so much.
The increased volume of air at the high ressure end of the com ressor makes it di cult for it
to pass through the space available, and so it slows down, and in some cases can cause choking
and turbulence.
This reduction in axial velocity happens throughout the compressor and can cause a phenomenon
called stall, which if not checked can progressively worsen to produce surge. This is a situation where,
in the worst case the air ow through the engine can instantaneously reverse its direction of ow.
Stall The artial breakdown of air ow through the engine
Surge - The com lete breakdown of air ow through the engine
165
Conditions for Stall and Surge
17 State the conditions that are possible causes of stall and surge.
The angle of attack of a compressor blade is

the result of the axial velocity of the air passing
across it and the rotational speed of the blade.
These two velocities combine to form a vector
which gives the actual angle of attack of the
air ow over the blade.
A compressor stall can be described as an

imbalance between these two velocities that
can occur through various causes, some of
which are as follows:
• cessive uel flo - Abrupt engine

acceleration can cause an excessive
fuel ow increasing combustion
chamber back pressure and thus,
reducing the axial velocity.
• Operation outside rpm parameters -
Engine operation above or below
the engine design rpm parameters Figure 11.40 Basic vector diagram
will not meet the requirements for
a smooth air ow.
• ur ulent or disrupted airflo If the air to the engine intake is not in uniform ow
it may be disrupted beyond the point that the inlet guide vanes can control it before
entering the main stages.
• Compressor damage - Contaminated or damaged compressor components will
decrease the compression ratio, therefore decreasing the engine power output, so
the axial velocity will drop. Catastrophic failure could cause engine to temporarily
overspeed before failing.
• Turbine damage - Contaminated or damaged turbine would cause loss of power to the
compressor and therefore decreased compression ratio, so decreased axial velocity.
• Lean mixture - An excessively lean mixture (possibly due to abrupt engine deceleration)
can cause decreasing combustion chamber back pressure, and so increased axial velocity.
This situation is most commonly caused by fuel system malfunction or mishandling and, in
extreme cases could in ict such large bending stresses on the com ressor rotor blades that
they contact the stator blades with potentially catastrophic results.
Indications of Stall and Surge
18 Describe the indications of stall and surge.
Compressor stall is a progressive phenomenon. In theory, it could initially occur at just one
blade, worsening to encompass the whole of one stage, and then, if nothing is done to prevent
it affect the whole engine. The rogressive deterioration of the situation will eventually cause a
166
surge. In severe cases this could cause an instantaneous reversal of the gases in the engine, with
air being expelled through the engine intake with a loud bang. If surge does occur, the throttle of
the affected engine must be closed slowly.
Indications of stall include:
• increased vibration level of the engine.

• increased exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
The increase in EGT is caused by the fact that there is less air going to the combustion chambers,
hence there is less air to cool the products of combustion, the exhaust gases.
Indications of surge include:
• Loud noise
• Large rise in the EGT
• Resulting loss of thrust may cause the aircraft to yaw.
Minimising Stall and Surge
19 Describe the design features used to minimise the occurrence of stall and surge.
The basic roblem with all cases of stall is that the angle of attack of the air ow over the blade
is no longer at its optimum value. This can be the result of changes in either the axial velocity of
the air ow over the blades or their rotational s eed. If the axial velocity can be controlled over
the whole of the engine speed range, then the chances of stall or surge happening are reduced.
Operation of the engine outside the optimum rpm and axial velocity range is inevitable. Design
criteria are aimed at roducing the greatest e ciency near maximum r m and o eration at
levels below that point has to occur if we are to be able to throttle the engine back.
There is no way to avoid altering the rotational speed of the compressor, and also the axial
velocity of the air as it passes through the engine. By doing so, we are encouraging the onset of
stall and surge.
ethods of ensuring that this does not ha en have to be fitted to the engine. The following is a
list of some of those methods:
021.10.02.02.04 • Full authority digital engine control (FADEC) - Has authority to prevent the engine
parameters entering stall/surge risk areas and can quickly sense and recover from
incipient stall, even in unexpected conditions.
021.11.02.02.11 • Variable guide vanes
021.11.02.04.06 • Active clearance control
021.11.02.02.13 • Multi-spool compressors - By controlling the compressor rpm with multipipe spools,
it can better control the ow of the air and reduce the chance of stall or surge.
167
Figure 11.41 Compressor bleeds
• Compressor bleeds - If a compressor bleed valve is introduced into the

intermediate stages of the compressor, it can be opened at low rpm or during
engine acceleration, to allow some of the excess volume of air to escape.
This will have the effect of increasing the velocity of the air in the earlier stages of
the com ressor and reducing the choking effects in the rear of the com ressor. This
combination will ensure that compressor stall is less likely to occur during the conditions
while the bleeds are open; but there are disadvantages to the use of the system.
Opening compressor bleeds, whether they are stall preventive measures or bleeds
used to su ly air for aircraft services decreases the mass ow through the engine.
This will cause a drop in thrust for a given throttle position, which raises the engine’s
s ecific fuel consum tion (sfc) and raises the E T because of the dro in the amount
of cooling air available.
Surge Envelope
20 Describe a compressor map (surge envelope) with rpm lines, stall limit, steady state line
and acceleration line.
Com ressor stall and surge is caused by an imbalance between the ow of air through the
021.11.02.02.19 compressor and the pressure ratio. The stall limit is the point at which an engine stall will occur;
but it is most commonly referred to as a surge line, to prevent confusion with aerodynamic wing
stall. The normal operating conditions of the engine lie along the steady state line (working line),
and built in air ow control devices allow a safety margin between the working line and the surge
line. At slower rpm, the safety margin is small, but the conditions improve to give a larger margin
as the engine is accelerates towards 100% rpm. Rapid engine acceleration or deceleration may
not kee the re uired balance between ressure ratio and mass air ow so the acceleration
line may veer too close or beyond the stall limit before the control methods can act.
168
Figure 11.42 Surge
i user
21 escribe the function of the diffuser.
After compression, the air velocity is still comparable with the inlet speed, around 150 m/s. At
this speed, the fuel air mixture would pass through the combustion chamber too quickly to be
021.11.02.02.03 burnt. A diffuser is re uired to slow the air down. The diffuser is a system of stationary divergent
ducts designed to convert the kinetic energy (velocity) into potential energy (pressure).
169
02.03 Combustion Chamber
Figure 11.43 Combustion chamber
The Task of the Combustion Chamber
01 efine the ur ose of the combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber must contain the burning mixture of air (from the compressor) with
fuel (from the fuel spray nozzles). It must give the maximum heat release at constant pressure,
so that the turbine receives a uniformly expanded, heated and accelerated stream of gas.
This is not an easy task, but advancements are constantly being made in combustion chamber
design to enable more e cient use of fuel with less and less ollution of the atmos here. E cient
combustion has been made increasingly more important because of the rise in the cost of the
fuel itself, and the increasing awareness of the general public of the dangers of atmospheric
pollution from the exhaust smoke.
Combustion
02 List the requirements for combustion.
In simple terms, combustion is a chemical reaction of a fuel source and oxygen, that releases a
large amount of heat. Combustion requires three elements:
• Fuel (a carbon rich material)

• Ignition (or enough heat source)
• Oxygen
A lack of any of these three elements will stop the chain reaction of combustion and the engine will stop.
uring normal engine running conditions combustion is self su orting. Effectively the ignition
system can be switched off as soon as the engine has attained self sustaining s eed the s eed
at which, after start, it can accelerate without the assistance of the starter motor.
170
There may be certain engine operating conditions which do require ignition, for instance,
following a ame out which is extinction of the ame due to various unusual occurrences such
as the ingestion of large amounts of water during takeoff from contaminated runways.
Another condition which can cause ame out is when the air fuel ratio becomes too weak a
situation which is most likely to occur when the engine is throttled back during descent when a
low fuel ow and high air mass ow will coincide.
Combustion stability is important; engine designers must ensure smooth burning is achieved,
with the ability to remain alight over a large range of air fuel ratios and air mass ows.
Figure 11.44 Typical combustion stability loop
Combustion stability will occur only between narrower and narrower limits as the air mass ow
increases. The range between the rich and weak limits is reduced as the mass ow increases
beyond a certain oint the ame is extinguished.
The ignition loo shows that it is more di cult to start the combustion than it is to sustain it
once it has started. A conse uence of this is that should the engine ame out at high s eed or
high altitude, it may be necessary to reduce both parameters before a successful relight can be
obtained.
Relighting
The ability of an engine to relight will vary according to the height and forward airspeed of the
aircraft. A notional relight envelope shows the ight conditions under which a serviceable engine
would be guaranteed to relight.
171
Figure 11.45 The relight envelope
The air ow through the engine will cause it to rotate (windmill) so the com ressor will su ly
su cient air all that is then re uired is the o ening of the P fuel cock and o eration of the
021.11.04.03 ignition system. This is achieved by selection of the relight switch, which functions separately
from the normal start circuit.
Igniters
Most gas turbine engines only have two igniters, in fact the engine would probably start quite
readily with only one operating, but because there are only two, another means of passing the
starting ame between the combustion chambers has to be found this is the inter connector.
Immediately after light u the ame in the chamber with the igniter causes an increase in the
ressure within that chamber. The differential ressure between that chamber and the one
adjoining it drives the burning gases through the inter-connector where they ignite the mixture.
This process is continued around the engine until the contents of all of the chambers
is burning, until the pressures within them are equalized, and the flow through the
inter-connectors ceases.
ciency
Combustion efficiency is the e ciency with which the combustor assembly extracts the otential
heat actually contained in the fuel. odern gas turbine engines have a very e cient combustion
cycle.
At high ower o erating conditions combustion e ciencies as great as are achievable and
at idle the systems will still give as much as 95%.
172
Figure 11.46 Combustion efficiency and air/fuel ratio
03 Describe the working principle of a combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber va orises fuel and s rays in into the com ressed air. The air ow is carefully
controlled to contain the burning area and air is fed in further downstream to dilute and cool the gases.
Snout
04 Ex lain the reason for reducing the air ow axial velocity at the combustion chamber inlet (snout).
Air enters the combustion chamber at approximately the same rate at which it enters the intake
of the engine, speeds of up to 150 m/s are not unusual.
The ame rate of kerosene the s eed at which the leading edge of the ame travels through the
vapour, is around 0.5 m/s. If burning kerosene was exposed in an airstream which was travelling
at 150 m/s it would be extinguished immediately.
Something must be done to slow down the s eed of the air ow after it leaves the com ressor
and before it reaches the primary zone, the zone inside the combustion chamber where it is
mixed with the fuel and burnt.
In fact, the pressure attained at this point is the highest in the whole of the engine. The reduction in
velocity is still not enough but further decreases must be achieved if the ame is not to blow out.
021.11.02.03.07
To slow the air, it enters the combustion chamber via the primary air scoop, also called the snout.
This divergent inlet chamber ensures the velocity of the air ow has been su ciently reduced so
that it can be economically burnt, rather than passing through the stage too quickly. From here,
the Primary air enters the combustion zone.
173
Figure 11.47 Combustion chamber component
To ensure the fuel is completely burnt, there are two considerations: making the surface area contact
between the fuel and oxygen the greatest and giving the reaction the longest time to complete.
Swirl Vanes
05 State the function of the swirl vanes (swirler).
Air circulation vanes around the fuel no les force the air ow into a vortex effectively increasing its
time within the combustion zone, looping it back around and so, allows more time to completely
combust the fuel. Swirl vanes are the start of the air ow control to maintain a steady and even burn.
Figure 11.48 Swirl vanes

Drain Valves
06 State the function of the drain valves.
The drain tubes provide for the unlikely event of a failure to start, more commonly known as a wet
start. This situation happens when the mixture in the combustion chamber fails to ignite during a start.
174
A considerable amount of fuel will have been fed into the engine and if it is not removed before
the next attem t to start. The result will be a very long very hot and very dangerous jet of ame
from the rear of the engine.
uel remaining after a wet start will attem t to find its own level by owing from the to of the
engine to the bottom chamber. Once in the bottom chamber, it exits via the drain valve located
at the six o’clock position, which is spring loaded towards open. During normal engine operation
internal pressure keeps the valve shut.
To evaporate any remaining traces of fuel from the chambers, the engine is then motored over
on a blow-out cycle. Using the starter motor, the engine is rotated for the time normally allocated
to a full start cycle, with the HP fuel cock shut and the ignition system automatically de-selected.
Com ressed air will ow through the combustion chamber and assist in the eva oration of any
fuel still remaining within.
ri ary and econdary irflo
07 efine the terms rimary air ow and secondary air ow and ex lain their ur ose.
rom the com ressed air delivered to the combustion chamber not all of it is burnt The air ow is
separated for functions of cooling and diluting at appropriate stages through the combustion chamber.
Primary Air
The rimary air is around of the ow coming into the combustion chamber. It is assed
through the swirl vanes and mixed with the vaporised fuel to be burnt.
Figure 11.49 The division of airflow through the combustion chamber
Secondary Air
The air which has not been icked u by the snout goes into the s ace between the ame tube and the
air casing. Some of this air is allowed into the ame tube through secondary air holes. Secondary air
about of the total reacts with the rimary air owing through the swirl vanes to form a toroidal
vortex a region of low velocity air ow which resembles a doughnut or a smoke ring. This stabili es and
anchors the ame and revents it being dragged down the ame tube away from the fuel no le area.
175
The temperature of the gases at the centre of the primary zone reaches about 2,000°C. This is
far too hot for the materials of the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades, so a further drop in
temperature is required before the gases can be allowed to exit the combustion chamber.
Tertiary Air
The remaining of the total air ow tertiary air is rogressively introduced into the ame tube
to cool and dilute the gases before they are allowed to go into the turbine assembly. Tertiary air
is used to cool both the gas exiting the chamber and the walls of the air casing.
Mixture Ratios
08 Ex lain the following two mixture ratios rimary air ow to fuel total air ow (within the
combustion chamber) to fuel.
To obtain the maximum heat release, the chemically correct air/fuel ratio of 15:1 must be used.
Whereas in the piston engine the use of this ratio would cause detonation and dissociation to
occur, in the gas turbine engine it poses no such problem, because there are no peaks of pressure
to assist in their generation.
The fuel and air are mixed and burnt in the rimary one in the ratio of fifteen units of air to one
unit of fuel, by weight. The addition of secondary and tertiary air will dilute the mixture to the
extent that the overall ratio may vary between 45:1 to as weak as 130:1.
Gas Parameter Changes
09 Describe the gas-parameter changes in the combustion chamber.
Pressure
Combustion theoretically occurs

at a constant pressure, but
in reality, there is a small loss
in pressure throughout the
combustion chamber. This is
caused by having to provide
adequate turbulence and
mixing. Losses vary from 3%
to 8% of the pressure at the
entrance to the combustion
chamber.
Axial Velocity
The extra boost of energy given to

the gas via combustion,produces
an increase in velocity, adding to
the jet thrust of the engine.
Figure 11.50 Combustion chamber gas parameters
176
Temperature
10 State a typical maximum value of the outlet temperature of the combustion chamber
As expected with combustion, the temperature rises dramatically in the combustion chamber. But
there is a limit to the maximum temperature of the gas from the combustion chamber dependent
on the materials that make the nozzle guide vanes and the turbine. The slightest excursion above
that limit will mean the possible disintegration of the turbine with probably catastrophic results.
Modern materials will allow a gas temperature initially in the combustion chamber of 2,000°C plus.
When it exits the combustion chamber the temperature must be reduced to 1,000 to 1,500°C.
Considering that the air may already have been heated to around 600°C due to compression,
su cient fuel must be added to rise the tem erature further.
This of course would be the temperature at full power; lower power settings would require lower
fuel ows so the combustion chamber has to be ca able of maintaining stable and e cient
combustion over a wide range of engine operating conditions.
Types of Combustion Chamber
11 escribe the following ty es of combustion chambers and state the differences between them
can ty e can annular cannular or turbo annular annular reverse ow annular.
Can System
The straight through ow multi le combustion chamber system was develo ed from Sir rank
Whittle s original design. It was used on some earlier ty es of axial ow engine and is still in use
on centrifugal compressor engines like the Rolls Royce Dart. It consists of eight or more of the
chambers placed around the engine to the rear of the compressor section, each chamber being
made u of a ame tube with an individual air casing and its own ignitor. This is known as a can
combustion system.
Figure 11.51 Can combustion chambers
177
In these classically designed combustion chambers it is ossible that ameout can occur in one or
more cans. This leads to a roblem called ame ro agation. ere the adjacent can will relight the
failed chamber, but the causes asymmetric forces around the engine and leads to excessive wear.
Can-Annular (Cannular or Tubo Annular) System

The tubo-annular combustion chamber system is sometimes also called the cannular or
can-annular system.
It differs from the sim le can combustion chamber system as it does not have individual air
casing for each of the ame tubes. A number of ame tubes are fitted within one common air
casing which provides a more compact unit.
Figure 11.52 Can-annular combustion chambers
ore modern combustion chamber designs use a different method of cooling the air casing this
is termed transpiration cooling where a film of air ows between laminations which form the
air casing wall.
Annular
The annular combustion chamber system has only one ame tube which is contained by an
inner and outer air casing. This system requires substantially better swirl vanes than the can
systems as the entire ring must be carefully controlled by the air ow.
The annular system has several advantages over the two other systems previously mentioned,
from which it was developed. These are:
• For the same power output, the length of the annular chamber is only 75% that of a
tubo-annular system of the same diameter.
• There are no ame ro agation roblems.
• Compared to a tubo-annular system, the air casing area is less, consequently less
cooling air is required.
• The combustion e ciency is raised to the oint where unburnt fuel is virtually
eliminated, allowing the oxidization of carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon dioxide.
• There is a much better pressure distribution of the gases impinging on the turbine,
so it has a more even load placed upon it.
178
Figure 11.53 Tubo-annular combustion chamber
Reverse Flow Annular
In a reverse ow combustion chamber the air ow is directed outwards by the diffuser before
reversing it direction to ow forward though the combustion chamber. This has several benefits
• Better heat exchange between the combustion chamber and incoming air; pre-heats
incoming air and cools the combustion chamber.
• Air ow is management can more easily control the combustion one as the air is
already beginning to ‘swirl’ as it enters the reverse chamber.
• A shorter length of engine means that less bearings are required per shaft. This saves
weight, eases maintenance burden, and reduces engine vibration. A short length can
also make transportation from build to aircraft easier.
• Gives easy access to fuel nozzles and combustion chamber for maintenance.
Figure 11.54 Reverse flow combustion chamber
179
02.04 Turbine
Figure 11.55 Intake
Purpose
01 Ex lain the ur ose of a turbine in different ty es of gas turbine engines.
The turbine of a gas turbine engine can be likened to the axial ow com ressor in reverse. Initially
a stator section (nozzle guide vanes) directs the air axially onto a rotor section. The turbine extracts
energy from the hot gases that ow through it and converts it into mechanical energy which it uses
to drive the compressor and gearboxes. Turbines can be used to operate accessories or, in the
case of engines that do not use predominantly jet propulsion, to power propellers or rotors.
Impulse and Reaction
02 escribe the rinci les of o eration of im ulse reaction and im ulse reaction axial ow turbines.
The turbine blades can turn by two different

methods:
• Impulse - Blades can rely on

Newtonian forces and impulse, like
water pushing a water wheel round.
In this case the adjacent blades form
a parallel duct, and are turned by the
air hitting the blade, and bouncing
through, creating an impulse in the
blade to turn it.
Figure 11.56 Impulse blades
180
• Reaction - Blades can be aero-

dynamically shaped, with convergent
ducts, to create a lift like reaction
force which rotates the disc.
A mixture of the two types is called an impulse/

reaction turbine blade.
The shape of the combination impulse/reaction

blade changes from its base to its tip.
base
The tip (relying on reaction) has a greater angle

of attack than the base. This gives it a twist, which
ensures that the gas ow does e ual work along
the length of the blade and enables the gas ow Figure 11.57 Reaction blades
to enter the exhaust system with a uniform axial
velocity.
Normally gas turbine engines do not use the

pure impulse or pure reaction type of blades.
The proportion of each type of blade utilized is
dependent upon the design requirements of
the engine, in general the combination impulse/
reaction is more commonly used. Impulse type
turbine blades are used in air starter motors.
It is very rare to find ure reaction blading used

if it is, the nozzle guide vanes are designed to
divert the gas ow direction without altering the
pressure of the gas.
Figure 11.58 Impulse to reaction
Components
03 Name the main components of a turbine stage and their function.
Each turbine stage consists of two elements,

one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes
and one row of rotating turbine blades. The
complete turbine assembly comprises one
or more turbine stages on one shaft, which, if
coupled to a compressor, forms a spool.
Figure 11.59 Turbine section
181
Nozzle guide vanes are of aerofoil shape and form convergent ducts where some of the
potential energy in the gas stream is converted to kinetic energy. Depending on the geometry
to the turbine blades, the nozzle guide vanes can be parallel or convergent; designed to give the
best transfer of energy to the turbine blades.
Figure 11.60 Nozzle guide vanes
The considerable stress imposed upon the

turbine blade and the turbine disc when the
engine is rotating at working speed makes
the method of fixing the blade to the disc
extremely important.
The fir tree fixing is most commonly used on

modern engines. The serrations which form
the fir tree are very accurately machined to
ensure that the enormous centrifugal load is
shared equally between them.
Figure 11.61 Turbine blades
The blade is free in the serrations while the

engine is not rotating, but the centrifugal force
im osed during o eration holds it firmly in
place.
Figure 11.62 Fir tree root
182
04 Describe the working principle of a turbine.
When a turbine is coupled to a compressor to form a spool, it must rotate at a speed which conforms to the
demanding requirements of the compressor, the speed of which is set at the point of best compression.
The power output of a turbine can be increased by increasing its diameter, but this of course would
increase both the drag factor, because of the larger size of the engine, and the stresses imposed
through the greater centrifugal forces created. A simpler method is to increase in the number of stages,
allowing an increase in power output with a reduction in turbine diameter.
ciency
The e ciency of a turbine blade increases as its rotational s eed increases because the losses reduce
in proportion to the square of the mean blade speed.
Unfortunately, the stresses on the blade increase in proportion to the square of the blade speed. It
would seem that the engine designer is locked into a vicious circle, where any attempt to increase
engine e ciency by increasing turbine s eed would re uire stronger blades. This would mean making
them heavier, which would mean greater stresses and so on.
The advent of the high ratio by ass engine with its much greater ro ulsive e ciency means that for a
given thrust it can have a smaller turbine. This to some extent circumvents the vicious circle problems
mentioned above.
Multiple Spools
Some engines feature three spools, the high pressure (HP) turbine driving the high-pressure compressor
at relatively high speeds, and to the rear of that is the intermediate pressure (IP) turbine, driving the
intermediate pressure compressor through a shaft inside that of the high-pressure turbine.
The rearmost, or the low pressure (LP) turbine, drives the fan, which is also the low pressure (LP)
compressor. This rotates at the lowest speed of all.
The power developed by this turbine produces almost all the thrust of the engine through the reaction
of the by ass air which has a high mass ow moving at a s eed which is relatively slow when com ared
with that of a pure turbojet engine. The shaft which connects the low-pressure turbine to the low-
pressure compressor runs inside those connecting the HP and IP compressors and their turbines.
Figure 11.63 Multi spools from the turbine
183
A free turbine is not connected to the compressor, it is connected only to the propeller or rotor
reduction gearbox. This allows the turbine to seek its optimum design speed. There are further
advantages to the free turbine, such as:
The propeller can be held at low rpm during taxiing, reducing noise pollution and wear on the
brakes.
Less starting torque required.
A rotor arking brake can be fitted which eliminates the dangers inherent in having ro ellers
rotating in windy conditions on the ground.
05 Describe the gas-parameter changes in a turbine stage.
The energy available in the gases owing through the turbine take the form of heat energy
potential (pressure) energy, and kinetic (velocity) energy. The conversion of all these into
mechanical energy means that the value of all of them will be reduced as they pass through the
turbine. Still, the velocity of the gas in the combustion chamber is lower than the velocity of the
gas in the exhaust unit.
Figure 11.64 Gas parameters for the turbine section
184
Active Clearance Control
06 Describe the function and the working principle of active clearance control.
Figure 11.65 Abradable lining
The gas turbine engine is a heat engine; high

thermal e ciency is de endent u on high
turbine entry temperatures. As stated earlier,
there is a limit to the amount of heat which can
be released into the turbine from combustion;
this limit is imposed by the materials from
which the turbine blades and nozzle guide
vanes are manufactured.
If these components are continuously cooled,

then the temperature of their operating
environment can exceed the melting point of
the material from which they are made.
The turbine discs are also heated, by conduction

Figure 11.66 Active cooling control
from the turbine blades, thus they are required
to be cooled if disintegration from continued
thermal stress is to be avoided.
Some modern turbofan engines use cooling air to control turbine blade tip clearance, by
controlling turbine casing temperature. This is called active clearance control.
An abradable casing can also be used to ensure a close fit of blade to edging.
021.11.02.02.14
185
Tip Losses
07 Describe the implications of tip losses and the means to minimise them.
The turbine is a very e cient mechanical

device nevertheless it does suffer losses during
its operation. On average, these total about
8%. This is comprised of approximately 3.5%
from aerodynamic losses in the turbine blades
and 1.5% aerodynamic losses in the nozzle
guide vanes. The rest is divided, fairly equally,
between gas leakage over the blade tips and
exhaust system losses.
The blade shroud is an attempt to minimize

losses due to leakage across the turbine blade
021.11.02.04.06 tips and also reduce vibration.
021.11.02.02.14 Figure 11.67 Turbine blades, fir tree root
Active clearance control and abradable lining and shroud
can also be used in to prevent tip losses.
Turbine Inlet Temperature
08 Explain why the available engine thrust is limited by the turbine inlet temperature.
The maximum temperature that the turbine assembly can withstand limits the thrust or power
available. Exceeding the maximum temperature will cause irreparable damage to the engine, so
monitoring the turbine temperature is vital.
The tem erature is measured by thermocou les laced in the gas ow somewhere in the turbine
assembly, typically after the high or low pressure turbine. There are several names this can take,
but they all give the same indication to the ight deck crew
• Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)

• Turbine inlet temperature (TIT)
• Inter turbine temperature (ITT)
• Turbine gas temperature (TGT)
• Jet pipe temperature (JPT)
The thermocouples are connected electrically in parallel. This has an added advantage that, if one
robe is damaged the tem erature reading on the gauge (a slight dro ) is virtually unaffected.
In modern engines the thermocou le robes are fitted inside selected fixed no le guide vanes to
enable tem erature to be sensed without the robe being battered by the high velocity gas ow. As
the engine is accelerated to produce more thrust (or more SHP), the EGT will increase in proportion
with the extra fuel ow and vice versa.
186
Divergent Gas Flow Annulus
09 Ex lain the divergent gas ow annulus through an axial ow turbine.
To remove the re uired energy from the air ow

and make the engine design most e cient the
pressure and velocity energy must be extracted.
In accordance with the gas laws and Bernoulli’s
rinci le allowing the ow to ex and through
a divergent duct will achieve this. The divergent
gas ow annulus also affords longer blades
to be fitted moving backwards in the turbine
to enable velocity to be controlled as the gas
expands into the larger area.
Figure 11.68 Divergent gas annulus
Thermal Stress
10 Explain the high mechanical thermal stress in the turbine blades and wheels/discs.
During normal operation of the engine, the

rotational speed of the turbine may be such that
the blade tips travel at a rate in excess of 450
m/s. At the same time, the temperature of the
gases driving the turbine can reach as high as
1,700°C.
The speed of these gases is as high as 760 m/s,

which is close to the speed of sound at these
temperatures.
These factors mean that a small turbine blade

Figure 11.69 Turbine creep
weighing only two ounces when stationary can
exert a load of two tons while working at top
speed. This tensile loading, coupled with the tremendous heat, causes a phenomenon called creep;
the stretching of the metal of the blade beyond its ability to reform back to its original length.
Whatever materials have been used to produce the turbine, and however carefully the temperature
and rpm limits of the engine have been observed, creep will cause the length of the blade to
increase over a eriod of time and engine o erational cycles. A blade will have a finite life before
failure occurs.
Low cycle fatigue describes relatively early turbine failure due to high operational demands. High
cycle fatigue describes failure after longer turbine life due to lesser operational demands.
187
To avoid the thermal stresses, cooling is provided at the:
• Turbine blades
• Nozzle guide vanes
• Turbine disc
Turbine Blade Cooling
riginally it was considered su cient to ass low ressure com ressor air through the blade
(single pass internal cooling) and, in so doing, retain its temperature below the critical level at which
excessive creep would occur.
The re uirement for greater engine ower and e ciency meant that higher gas tem eratures
were necessary. Low-pressure compressor air was no longer able to provide the amount of cooling
on its own. Research showed that an increase in blade resistance to the heat could be achieved by
passing both high- and low-pressure compressor air through the blade. This is called multi-feed.
An additional increase to the blade’s temperature resistance was found by creating a boundary
layer effect (film cooling) by assing air through small holes in the leading and trailing edge of the
blade. To some extent this boundary layer protected the turbine blade from the hot gases coming
from the combustion chamber.
This type of blade was used for the following decade, but eventually the need for more power
meant that further advances in blade technology had to be made.
Designers and researchers reasoned that, if passing air through the blade once could lower its
temperature, then passing the air through more than once would lower it more. This proved to
be true, eventually, the optimum number of times the air could be passed through the blade was
found to be five a quintuple pass. The quintuple pass, multi-feed internal cooling with extensive
film cooling is resently considered to be state of the art in turbine blade manufacture.
Figure 11.70 Turbine blade cooling
188
Nozzle Guide Vane Cooling

The no le guide vanes are cooled in a similar way to the turbine blades. The one major difference
is that only high-pressure compressor air is used.
Turbine Disc Cooling

In the vast majority of gas turbine engines the turbine blades are fixed to turbine discs. eat
conduction from the blades to the disc requires that the discs are cooled and prevented from
suffering thermal fatigue from uncontrolled ex ansion and contraction. The front and rear faces
of each of the turbine discs is cooled by high-pressure compressor air, the actual pressure in each
disc cavity being controlled by interstage seals.
Materials
The turbine blades of early gas turbine engines were manufactured from high-temperature
steel. This material imposed a severe limit upon the temperature at the rear of the engine, and
as the gas turbine engine is a heat engine, it follows that the power output was limited as a
consequence.
The next advance in turbine technology was the use of nickel-based alloys, and these were
subse uently su erseded by su er alloys. These are a com lex mixture of many different
metals: chromium, cobalt, nickel, titanium, tungsten, carbon, etc. Super alloys have a maximum
temperature limit of approximately 1,100°C or, if they are cooled internally, 1,425°C.
A more recent practice is powder metallurgy, in which powdered super alloys are hot pressed
into a solid state. But, in the search for even stronger materials, a procedure called single-crystal
casting is now being used in the most advanced engines. Traditional metal manufacturing
processes produce a crystal lattice, or grain, in the material. The boundaries of the crystals
create a weakness in the structure and are most likely to be the starting point of any failure.
Single crystal material forms as only one grain in the mould, eliminating corrosion and creating
an extremely creep resistant blade.
Ceramic materials are also being used in the production of turbine blades. Originally the ceramic
was applied as a plasma spray, the coating giving very good protection against a corrosive
condition caused by a reaction between the base metals of the blade, the sodium in the air and
the sulphur in the fuel.
189
02.05 Aeroplane: Exhaust
Figure 11.71 Exhaust
Components
01 Name the following main components of the exhaust unit and their function: jet pipe;
propelling nozzle; exhaust cone.
02 Describe the working principle of the exhaust unit
Jet Pipe
The exhaust system is an often-underrated part of the propulsion unit; its design exerts a
considerable in uence on the erformance of the engine. The gases which discharge from the
turbine must exit in the correct direction and at the optimum velocity to provide the thrust of the
turbojet engine, while in the turboprop engine the turbine gas temperature and back pressure at
the turbine are, to a large extent, dictated by the design of the outlet nozzle.
The temperature of the gases entering the exhaust system can be between 550°C and 850°C.
This can rise to as high as 1,500°C if afterburners (reheat) are used. The fuselage of the aircraft,
if it has the exhaust system running through it, must be protected from these temperatures, this
is done by both allowing a clearance between the jet pipe and the aircraft skin through which air
is allowed to circulate and insulating the jet i e with some form of fibrous material sandwiched
between thin layers of stainless steel.
The gas velocity leaving the turbine can be between 230 – 380 m/s; this is somewhere around
Mach 0.5. If this gas has to negotiate a long jet pipe before being ejected into the atmosphere
to provide thrust, a great deal of turbulence will be caused within the pipe. This will lower the
e ciency of the engine and reduce its thrust.
190
Figure 11.72 Exhaust section components
Exhaust Cone
Although the shape of the outer casing appears to be convergent, at the point where the gas
leaves the turbine, the shape of the volume within the casing is in fact divergent.
This is made possible by the insertion of the exhaust cone, a conical shaped device positioned
close up to the turbine disc rear face. The divergent duct exchanges velocity for pressure, reducing
friction caused by the hot gases and so minimizing turbulence. The exhaust cone also prevents
the hot gases owing across the disc face
further reducing disturbance, and preventing
overheating of the disc.
The rear turbine bearing is also supported

inside the exhaust cone via turbine rear support
struts. These are streamlined by fairings, which
also straighten out any residual whirl which may
exist in the gas stream as it exits the turbine.
This residual whirl can cause additional losses if
it is allowed to pass into the jet pipe.
Propelling Nozzle
After the exhaust cone, the gases exit the engine
via a convergent propelling nozzle. Newto’s
second law determined the amount of thrust Figure 11.73 Exhaust cone
form a gas turbine engine by the mass of air and
its velocity increase. The aim is to make a large mass ow and a large acceleration to make the
biggest thrust. The aim for the propelling nozzle is to make the most out of the accelerated mass of
air, even in the last stages of the engine. As the air mass passes through the convergent propelling
no le the uniform ow is given a final increase in velocity in accordance with enturi s rinci le.
191
03 Describe the gas-parameter changes in the exhaust unit.
When the gas enters the convergent section of the convergent-divergent nozzle, its velocity
increases with a corresponding fall in static pressure. The gas velocity at this point now reaches
the local speed of sound (Mach 1).
As the gas ows into the divergent section it rogressively accelerates towards the o en exit the
reaction to this increase in momentum is a pressure force acting on the inside wall of the nozzle. A
component of this force which acts parallel to the longitudinal axis of the nozzle produces the further
increase in thrust.
The s eed at which the air ow exits the exhaust makes it a dangerous lace While there is only a
25 m avoidance zone around the intake, the exhaust produces substantial dangers up to 160 ft away.
Figure 11.74 Convergent and divergent ducts
Figure 11.75 Exhaust section gas parameter changes
192
Choked Exhaust Nozzle
04 efine the term choked exhaust no le

(not applicable to turboprops).
When the exhaust gas velocity cannot be further

increased beyond the speed of sound (at that
tem erature) the air ow is termed choked.
This is the normal state for a turbojet engine,
as no matter what s eed the subsonic ow is
and at almost all levels above idle power the
exhaust velocity reaches Mach 1. This means
that no further increase in velocity can be Figure 11.76 Inlet and exhaust danger areas
obtained unless the temperature is increased,
for instance, with the assistance of ‘reheat’.
Reducing Noise
05 Explain how jet exhaust noise can be reduced.
While it has been evident for a long time, sound pollution is not simply a case of wasted energy. The
sound ollution to the environment has a large effect on wildlife as well as being a nuisance and stress
to humans. In recent years, the aviation industry has seen large initiatives and drives in technology to
reduce this noise pollution.
To measure the noise, the decibel (dB) scale is used. This is a logarithmic scale, meaning that if
something has a noise level of 0 dB and was increased to 10 dB, then its power has increased
10-fold. From 0 dB to 20 dB, the power has increased by 100! So, a sound at 60 dB carries
1 million times more power than a sound at 0 dB. Similarly, a sound of minus (-)10 dB is a sound
at 0.1 times the power of that at 0 dB.
Figure 11.77 Sound levels from various sources
193
Although an aircraft’s overall noise signature is the combination of sounds from many sources, the
rinci al agent is the engine. Air ort regulations and aircraft noise certifications governing the maximum
noise level which aircraft are allowed to produce, have forced rigorous research into ways of reducing
that noise.
The most significant sources of noise from the

engine originate from the compressor, the turbine
and the exhaust. Although the noises which
spring from these various sources all obey slightly
different laws and mechanisms of generation they
all increase with greater relative air ow velocity.
Exhaust noise is affected to a larger degree than

either compressor or turbine noise by a reduction
in velocity. It is logical to expect that a reduction in
exhaust jet velocity would have a stronger in uence
Figure 2.78 The pattern of noise create
in reducing noise levels than an equivalent
by jet exhaust
reduction in either compressor or turbine speeds.
The relative s eed difference between the exhaust jet and the atmos here into which it is thrusting
causes a shearing action, which in turn, creates a violent and extremely turbulent mixing.
With a pure jet engine, the noise of the exhaust is of such a high level that the noise of the compressor and
the turbine is insignificant exce t at very low thrust conditions.
021.11.02.05.01
Noise and Bypass Ratio

Having two gas streams to pass to atmosphere makes the exhaust system of the bypass engine
a slightly more com lex affair. The low ratio by ass engine exhaust combines the by ass air and
the hot exhaust gases in a mixer unit. This ensures thorough mixing of the two streams before
they are ejected into the atmosphere.
There are two methods used to exhaust the cold bypass air and the hot exhaust gases.
• Standard Method - Hot and cold nozzles are co-axial, and the two streams mix
externally.
Figure 11.79 Standard method
194
• Integrated exhaust no le reater e ciency can be obtained by fitting an integrated

exhaust no le. The two gas ows are artially mixed before ejection to atmos here.
Figure 11.80 High ratio bypass engine exhaust systems
The exhaust noise of a bypass engine drops because of the reduction in velocity, but because
they are handling a much greater power, the turbines and the low-pressure compressor generate
a higher noise output.
In the case of a high ratio bypass engine (5 to 1), the noise from the jet exhaust has reduced
to such a degree that the noise from the low-pressure compressor (the fan) and the turbine
become predominant.
Noise Absorbent Materials

The use of noise absorbing material (acoustic
lining) in the bypass duct and the engine intake, is
extremely e cient in reducing noise in the hotter
ones. Slightly different materials were used
to great advantage in the same quest for noise
reduction. Several designs are used across the
engine for optimum noise suppressant:
• Typical perforated liner

• Double perforated liner
• Linear liner
The disadvantages of these materials are that

they add a small percentage in weight, and their
skin friction is slightly higher. Together they cause
a slight increase in fuel consumption.
Whereas the modern engines could take

Figure 11.81 Noise absorbent materials
advantage of the new methods of sound
absorbing materials aircraft fitted with older
ure turbojets had to find some other system of
reducing their noise output.
195
Aircraft can still be seen with

‘corrugated internal mixers’
and lobe ty e no les fitted to
the rear of their power units.
The latter caused the gases to
ow in se arate exhaust jets
that rapidly mix with slower
moving air trapped by the
lobes. The corrugated internal
mixer was most e cient at
reducing noise, but also induced
performance penalties that
limited its popularity with aircraft
operators.
More commonly now, engine

designers are incorporating
a chevron rear edge to the
exhaust to smooth the air ow
and reduce the Nosie. Figure 11.82 Corrugated internal mixer
When comparing the noise signature from

a 1960s design to a modern-day engine,
the effectiveness of the noise su ressant
techniques can be clearly seen.
Figure 11.83 Chevron rear edge
Figure 11.84 Noise signature on straight jet engine
Figure 2.85 Noise signature of modern engine with bypass and fan
196
03.00 Additional Components and Systems

03.01 Engine Fuel System
Components
01 ame the main com onents of the engine fuel system and state their function filters
low-pressure (LP) pump; high-pressure (HP) pump; fuel manifold; fuel nozzles; HP fuel
cock; fuel control; or hydromechanical unit.
The engine fuel system consists of several com onents which filter and monitor the fuel ow
and supply the fuel to the fuel spray nozzles at the correct rate, in proportion with the throttle
position. The components are described below.
The booster pumps in the tank pass the fuel to the engine from the ‘airframe fuel system’ through
non return valves to an engine fuel shut off valve which is used to shut off the su ly of fuel to
the engine in the event of com onent removal. It can also be closed by the fire handle in the
event of an engine fire warning to isolate the fuel from the engine.
It can be used in an emergency to stop the engine, but the engine will take longer to run down.
11.86 Engine fuel system
Low-Pressure Pump
The fuel then enters the engine fuel system and is delivered to the low-pressure (LP) pump or
backing pump. The LP pump is driven by the engine gearbox and supplies fuel to the high-
021.10.02.02.10 pressure (HP) pump. In the event of total failure of the fuel tank booster pumps the LP pump will
‘suck’ fuel from the fuel tank to allow the engine to remain running. In this event the aircraft MEL
may require a reduction of altitude to prevent LP pump cavitation.
197
Fuel-Cooled Oil Cooler
A fuel-cooled oil cooler ( C C) is fitted in the majority of gas turbine installations. The C C has
two functions:
•Cooling the oil to maintain its viscosity and lubrication properties

•Heating the fuel to remove ice crystals that may have formed while the fuel was
exposed to the very low temperatures experienced at high altitudes. (they may block
the components further downstream)
Sometimes, the fuel cannot be heated enough by the FCOC and so, an extra heater is added. This uses
compressor delivery air to warm the fuel. The FCOC and heater may be automatically coordinated to
maintain a redetermined fuel tem erature or manually controlled by the ight deck crew.
Filters
The fuel filter is in the low-pressure side of the system and protects the delicate control components
within the HP fuel pump and the fuel control unit (FCU) from any dirt, ice or other contamination.
Sensors
The flowmeter measures the instantaneous fuel ow in gallons hour or kilograms hour and may
also include a sensor to sum the total amount of fuel used since the engine was started (totalizer).
Fuel pressure and temperature may be sensed at this point in the system and indicated to the
pilot, to allow the system to be monitored.
High-Pressure Pump
The high-pressure (HP) pump is driven by the engine high-pressure shaft through the HP gearbox.
It raises the ressure and ow of fuel re uired for the engine thrust demanded at the time.
HP Fuel Cock
The HP fuel cock (or HP fuel shut-off valve) can
be closed to sto the ow of fuel between the fuel
control unit and the fuel spray nozzles. It may be
mechanically controlled by a lever on the ight
deck, or electrically controlled by an actuator, also
controlled by a switch on the ight deck.
Fuel Manifold and Spray Nozzles
The fuel must be finely va orised to rovide

maximum contact with the oxygen in the air. So,
a manifold of fuel spray nozzles is positioned
around the combustion chamber.
At each fuel nozzle, a high velocity airstream is

used to break u the fuel ow and give the
required spray pattern. This type of air spray
021.11.03.01.02 system needs relatively low fuel pressures and
so, can operate using a gear type pump, which is Figure 11.87 Fuel spray patterns at
much lighter than swash plate piston pump. various pressure
198
Figure 11.88 Airspray nozzle
To roduce a fine s ray the fuel is forced through a small hole called an orifice. The primary fuel
line feeds the rimary orifice. When the engine accelerates during start fuel ressure builds until
the ressuri ing valve o ens allowing fuel to ow to the main orifice to su lement that from
the rimary orifice. This two stage system is called a duplex system.
199
Figure 11.89 Duplex system
Another method is the vaporizing method, where the fuel is sprayed into vaporizing tubes which are
ositioned inside the ame tube. Primary air is fed into the ame tube through the fuel feed tube
o ening and also through holes in the ame tube entry section. The fuel is turned through degrees
and as the tubes are heated by combustion it is va ori ed before assing into the ame tube.
Figure 11.90 Vaporizing method
200
Engine Driven Pumps

02 Name the two types of engine-driven high-pressure pumps, such as: gear-type; swash plate-type.
Engine driven pumps can be split into two main

types: the swash plate piston pump, and the
gear pump.
Swash Plate Piston Pumps
The HP swash plate pump uses a rotating drive

to spin an angled plate – called a swash plate.
Around the swash plate, there are several
pistons attached, so that as it rotates, the
pistons move in and out creating the pump
ressure. The ow of uid through the um
can be increased by moving the swash plate to
a greater angle, to make the piston intake more Figure 11.91 Swash plate piston pump
on each revolution.
Gear Pumps
Other engines may use a spur gear type pump.
These pumps simply use two gears rotating
in o osite directions to force the uid along
the i es. The ow rate can be increased or
decreased by either changing the speed or
rotation of the gears, or by controlling a bypass/
return valve.
Fuel Control Unit Figure 11.92 Gear pump
03 State the tasks of the fuel control unit.
A gas turbine engine is primarily controlled by the amount of fuel given to the combustion
process. In the early days of engine design, the pilot had direct, full control of the engine from
start to shut down. They had the tasks of:
• starting the engines.

• deciding and controlling the ower re uirement for the stage of ight.
• monitoring the performance/condition indicators.
• shutting the engine down if safety parameters were exceeded.
201
A bank of gauges and a simple mechanical linkage between the throttle lever in the cockpit and
the fuel control unit on the engine was all the pilot had to control and monitor the engine with.
owever ilot controlled fuel ow was found to be both di cult and dangerous.
• Adding fuel too quickly damaged parts because of excessive heat, cause compressor
stall, and could even cause a rich blow out, where the extra fuel displaced oxygen
and combustion was stopped.
• ot adding fuel fast enough led to the engine suffering a lean die out, where the lack
of fuel stopped the combustion.
The fuel control unit (FCU) or fuel flow regulator (FFR) is designed to overcome these issues, by
controlling the fuel ow for a given thrust setting. arious devices within the C are used to
021.11.03.02.01 adjust the fuel ow to cater for variations in air intake ressure engine acceleration control
exhaust gas temperature and compressor delivery pressure.
FCU Input Parameters

04 List the possible input parameters to a fuel control unit to achieve a given thrust/power
setting.
The FCU takes the following input parameters to ensure it delivers the correct amount of fuel to
the combustion chamber:
• Air intake pressure P1

• Compressor delivery pressure P3
• Exhaust gas temperature EGT
• Compressor speed N1
• rpm
Altitude Control
Variations in air intake pressure (P1) re uire that the fuel ow to the burners is changed
accordingly so that a fixed r m is maintained for a selected throttle osition at all altitudes
and airs eeds. This is achieved by the ex ansion or contraction of a ca sule in uenced by P
ressure which in turn modifies the fuel ow accordingly. This ca sule known as the barometric
pressure capsule (BPC), is incorporated in an altitude sensing unit within the FCU.
Acceleration Control
The addition of fuel is necessary to cause the engine to accelerate, but, too rapid an increase of
fuel is the usual cause of com ressor stall and surge. To regulate the fuel ow under conditions of
engine acceleration, an acceleration control unit is fitted within the fuel control unit. It receives
information regarding engine intake pressure (P1) and compressor delivery pressure (P3 for a
two s ool engine) and uses this information to adjust a fuel metering lunger . This effectively
acts as a second throttle valve in series with the main throttle and regulates the fuel ow to
achieve the maximum engine acceleration without causing stall or surge.
202
Exhaust Gas Temperature Limiting
Exhaust gas temperature is probably the most important parameter in a gas turbine engine. To
obtain maximum e ciency the engine must be run at the highest ossible tem erature in the
turbine without melting the materials from which it is made. To achieve this and yet allow the
engine to be a practical user-friendly unit, automatic monitoring of the exhaust gas temperature
is combined with a ‘top temperature control’ unit. This allows the pilot to select full power at any
time without risking a meltdown in the turbine assembly.
Power Limiter
The ability of the compressor to withstand internal pressure is limited by the strength of the
materials from which it is made. If the compressor casing is subjected to greater than its design
maximum pressure it will break with possibly catastrophic consequences.
To prevent this from happening, the FCU has a ‘power limiter’ device. This unit is signalled by both
intake pressure (P1), and compressor delivery pressure (P3). The combination of these signals
working through ca sules and levers controls the fuel ow so that the maximum ressure ratio
is not exceeded.
RPM Limiter
The rotational speed of the compressor spools must be limited if they are to be prevented from
self-destructing through excessive centrifugal forces. If engine speed exceeds a predetermined
maximum ressure a dia hragm o ens valves to bleed off some of the servo iston ressure
and limit fuel ow to the burners.
203
03.02 Engine Control System

Tasks of an Engine Control System
01 State the tasks of the engine control system.
The goal of any engine control system is to allow the engine to erform at maximum e ciency within
the design safety limits and operating parameters for any given condition. The complexity of this task is
directly linked to the complexity of the engine.
Types of Engine Control System

02 List the following different ty es of engine control systems hydromechanical
hydromechanical with a limited authority electronic supervisor; single-channel FADEC with
hydromechanical backup; dual-channel FADEC with no backup or any other combination.
Hydromechanical
Originally, the control and metering of the engine fuel system was carried out by a fuel control unit (FCU)
mounted on the engine. In the basic form, the hydromechanical unit consist of:
• A throttle in ut and yweight assembly The engine s ins a yweight which is balanced
against spring pressure set by the pilot’s throttle. This compares the speed the engine is
going with the speed the pilot is demanding of it.
• leed air ressure The throttle and yweight control a bleed air in ut to the C . If the
throttle setting is higher than the engine speed, the bleed pressure is increased. If the throttle
setting is lower, the bleed air pressure reduces.
• ia hragm A exible sheet called a dia hragm se arates a chamber for the bleed air and
the fuel chamber. e ending on the ressure difference between the fuel ressure and bleed
ressure a metering valve is o ened or closed allowing more or less fuel to ow to the manifold.
• Minimum pressure valve - After the metering valve is a spring-loaded minimum pressure valve to
prevent any fuel from flowing into the manifold until it reaches the required pressure for the nozzles.
• Cut off valve Ant time there is re uirement to immediately sto the fuel ow to the engine
the cut off valve does this task. It is often linked to fire handles as well as on the fuel selector.
Figure 11.93 Hydromechanical fuel control
204
Hydromechanical and Limited Authority Electronic Supervisor
In the 1960s, the analogue electronic engine control (EEC) was invented. Desired engine settings
that were previously sent to the FCU by mechanical inputs, were changed to electrical inputs. This
system was an improvement over the mechanical control system but had its own drawbacks,
including electronic noise interference.
The EEC system uses a computer with limited authority over the hydromechanical system. It
receives inputs from the throttle lever angle (TLA) and/or flight management system (FMS)
of required engine target operating parameters. Control of the fuel delivery is achieved by
Figure 11.94 Electronic engine control (EEC)
electronically signalling the FCU to varying the HP pump output.
The EEC performs the functions necessary for engine operation and protection. The computer
will monitor EPR, TLA, Mach number, engine inlet pressure and temperature and will maintain a
021.11
constant thrust regardless of changes in air ressure tem erature or ight environment. Any
fault within the EEC will cause the system to revert to manual control.
Single-Channel EEC with Hydromechanical Backup;
As technology advanced, the complex variable stroke swash-plate fuel pumps and
hydromechanical means of controlling engine power output was replaced by a single channel
digital electrical computer-controlled system. At the time, the computer hardware and software
were su ciently advanced to be able to control every as ect of engine monitoring and control
but long term reliability had not been established. Consequently, the electronic system was used,
but with a reversionary hydromechanical system.
205
Dual-Channel FADEC with No Backup
In further advancements, the single channel system was replaced by dual channel full authority
digital electronics control system (FADEC). This system has inbuilt redundancy with the dual
channels. Due to the complexity of the aircraft engines, manual control via hydromechanical
means is not an option, so there is no further backup.

03 Describe a FADEC as a full-authority dual-channel system including functions such as an
electronic engine control unit, wiring, sensors, variable vanes, active clearance control, bleed
configuration electrical signalling of thrust lever angle (TLA) (see also A C to CS E ) and
an EGT protection function and engine overspeed.
In the 1970s the full authority digital electronic control system (FADEC) was born. The FADEC
system significantly reduces the ilot s tasks and res onsibilities with regard to controlling engine
e ciency and monitoring the engine erformance and condition.
ASA and Pratt and Whitney were the first to ex eriment with a digital A EC system the
successful outcome of which led to a Pratt Whitney PW being the first civil engine
retros ectively fitted with A EC.
A EC systems recisely control fuel ow maximi e engine erformance monitor engine in uts
outputs, reduce pilot workload, and minimize the risks to engine health. They incorporate, in a
single housing, dual EEC interfaces. One EEC is channel ‘A’ and the other channel ‘B’. Each channel
is a sophisticated computer which operates both in tandem and in isolation with each other to
monitor and control all aspects of engine power output and performance.
Figure 11.95 FADEC
206
Figure 11.96 FADEC system
Functions
FADEC performs the following functions:
• Engine control and overspeed protection:

• uel control regulation for all stages of ight
• Power management control
• Fuel metering valve (FMV) control within the fuel metering unit (FMU)
• Engine stall and surge protection:
• Variable bleed valve control (VBV)
• Variable stator vane control (VSV)
• otor active clearance control and start bleed system ( ACS ) if fitted
• igh ressure turbine active clearance control ( PTACC) if fitted
• Low ressure turbine active clearance control (LPTACC) if fitted
• Engine/Aircraft integration:
• Automatic and manual starting and restarting
• Thrust reverser operation
• Auto-thrust
• Engine indication and engine maintenance data collection
• Condition monitoring data collection
A EC may take control by initiating an engine shutdown (ES ) the final closing down being a
pilot action in the event of exceeding the following:
• N1
• N2
• Acceleration
• EGT
207
Operation
Prior to ight the ight crew enters the data a ro riate to the day s ight in the S. The FMS
takes environmental data such as temperature and wind, as well as other factors like runway
length, runway condition, and cruise altitude etc. The FMS then calculates power settings for the
different hases of ight. To initiate takeoff the ight crew advance the throttles to a takeoff
detent or select an auto throttle takeoff if it is available. The A ECs com ute the re uired
takeoff thrust setting and a ly it to the engines. There is no direct linkage between the throttle
and the engine fuel control to o en fuel ow. y moving the throttle the ight crew have merely
sent an electronic signal to the EEC/ECU, which subsequently controls and monitors the fuel
ow. The A ECs com ute the a ro riate thrust settings and a ly them for climb cruise and
all other hases of ight.
uring ight small changes in o eration are constantly being made to maintain e ciency.
Maximum thrust is available for emergency situations if the throttle is advanced to full, but the
FADEC system will control the engine acceleration to ensure that operating limitations are not
exceeded.
The ight crew has no means of manually overriding the A ECs and must acce t whatever the
FADECs provide. But they do retain the facility to manually shut the engine down, if and when it
is required.
FADECs today are employed by almost all current generation jet engines and increasingly in
newer iston engines fixed wing aircraft and helico ters.
The Advantages of the FADEC System

• Im roved engine e ciency due to the recise management and control of the fuel system
• Automatic engine protection against out of tolerance operations
• Fault tolerant systems that function even if they are degraded
• Improved safety because the FADEC computer is dual-channel and receives multiple
inputs that provide redundancy in case of failure
• Semi-automatic engine starting/restarting, abort or recycle an engine start
• Better system integration with engine and airframe systems
• Long term health monitoring and fault diagnostics
• A reduction in the number of arameters to be monitored by the fight crew
• Automatic engine emergency responses, such as an automatic thrust increase to
avert a stall.
The Disadvantages of the FADEC System
True full authority digital engine controls have no form of manual override.
If a total FADEC failure occurs, the engine fails. The pilot has no way of manually controlling
the engines other than to shut them down. As with any single point of failure, the risk can be
mitigated by providing in-built redundancy.
208
Redundancy
04 Explain how redundancy is achieved by using more than one channel in a FADEC system.
Duplication of the channels provided the FADEC system with built-in redundancy because only
one channel is required to manage all aspects of engine monitoring and control. In addition,
the EECs have a much-improved reliability and an inbuilt fault tolerance system that allows
the channel in command to operate safely, even when some of its internal elements are not
fully operational. As a result, the need to revert engine control back to the pilot in the event of
malfunction was completely negated. The old ‘supervisory’ only function of the single channel
system was upgraded to a full command role in the dual channel system, and the modern FADEC
has no manual reversion facility at all.
Data Integrity
05 State the consequences of a FADEC single input data failure.
06 State that all input and output data is checked by both channels in a FADEC system.
Only one channel, ‘A’ or ‘B’ is necessary to monitor and control the engine but both channels
inde endently analyse the raw data including all arameters that are needed for or could affect
the engine performance.
The channels analyse the data independently, and then compare results with each other and
with the inbuilt limiting parameters set by the manufacturer. The built-in test (BITE) facility
incorporated into each channel continuously monitors the inputs and outputs to the EECs in
order to detect and isolate failures. The healthiest channel, the one with the least faults, takes
command of the engine, but the channels will swap command whenever the health of the stand-
by channel exceeds that of the channel in command. If any of the raw data is missing, corrupt or
exceeds limits, the channel in command will automatically default to the inbuilt values.
Once the raw data has been analysed, the channel in command uses the results to monitor and
regulate the ressures and tem eratures of the fuel and air ow through the engine from start
to shutdown to ensure maximum performance whilst, at the same time ensuring that structural
and performance limitations are not exceeded. The EECs achieve this by operating the igniters,
inlet guide vanes, variable stator vanes, compressor bleed valves, active clearance control,
thrust reversers etc as necessary. Such recise control and monitoring of the fuel and air ows
maximi es engine e ciency reduces costs minimi es the risk to engine health rolongs engine
life and reduces pilot tasking.
The FADEC system has an additional safety facility: if any of the engine controls malfunction,
reventing the channel in command from carrying out a s ecified function the channel in
022.13.04.01.03
command will attempt to move the appropriate control to a fail-safe position and will activate
the appropriate failure warning on the centralized warning panel. For example, if a fault occurs
to a compressor bleed valve such that it refuses to function properly, the channel in command
will attempt to move it to the optimum safe position and will give a bleed valve failure warning on
the ECAM/EICAS display.
209
FADEC Sensors
07 State that a FADEC system uses its own sensors and that, in some cases, also data from
aircraft systems is used.
Figure 11.97 FADEC inputs (green) and outputs (blue)
FADEC systems typically includes the following components:
• Dual channel EECs

• Digital displays giving indications of sensor quantities
• EGT and rpm overspeed systems
• Actuators to operate VIGV, VSV, ACS and Bleed-Valve
• Feedback from engine sub-systems such as active clearance control
• Fuel metering unit (FMU) which has integrated into it the HP fuel pump
• Engine health monitoring (EHM) systems and data collection
Inputs to FADEC from EEC:
• Air inlet temperature

• Air demand (compressor bleeds)
• EPR, N1, N2, N3, EGT, FF, oil pressure
Inputs to FADEC from air data computer (ADC):
• Altitude
022.02.08.00
• Vertical speed
• Mach number, TAS, IAS
• Ambient temperature
• Angle of attack
210
FADEC Power
08 State that a FADEC must have its own source of electrical power.
For the FADEC system to have ultimate reliability, it must have its own power source. So, it is
normally powered by a dedicated engine driven alternator.
03.03 Engine Lubrication

Most gas turbine engines use a self-contained recirculatory lubrication system in which the oil is
spread around the engine and returned to the oil tank by pumps. The oil used in gas turbine engines
will have to be synthetic because of the high temperatures involved. Oil level is checked immediately
after engine shutdown. Unlike a piston engine, the oil is not changed on a regular basis because gas
turbine engines use more oil due to the nature of the air seals, and the synthetic oil does not break
down and oxidi e like mineral oils do. The filters are removed washed out and refitted at regular
intervals to examine any debris collected and evaluate the wear rate of the engine.
Tasks
01 State the tasks of an engine lubrication system.
There are many reasons for having a lubricant within the engine besides that of reducing friction and
wear. Some of the oil’s additional functions include:
• Cooling - The engine bearings, particularly those around the hot end of the engine, must be
cooled if they are to be able to withstand the constant stresses imposed upon them. The
most likely medium for cooling is the lubricant which cleans, reduces friction and corrosion.
• Cleaning and chip detection - No matter how clean the engine is, there will always be a
small amount of dirt or im urities that find their way inside. That dirt must be removed
before it can cause damage to bearings or block small oil passageways. The oil can be used
to kee the engine clean by carrying dirt to the oil filter where it is strained out and where
it remains until re lacement of the filter.
• Minimize corrosion - The majority of the bearings within the engine are manufactured
from steel, a metal which would soon oxidize itself if it were not prevented from doing so
by a liberal coating of oil. Thus, the lubricant will also minimize corrosion inside the engine.
• ydraulics ot least among the tasks given to the lubricating oil is that of a hydraulic uid.
In many turboprop engines the control of the pitch of the propeller blades is achieved by
passing some of the engine lubricating oil into the pitch change mechanism.
• Sealing com onents il can be used to fill the ga s between metal com onents to get a
better air-tight seal.
• Engine status Information from the oil tem erature and ressure gives the ight deck
crew a good indication of the engine’s health and performance
021.10.06.02.01
211
Components
02 Name the following main components of a lubrication system and state their function: oil
tank and centrifugal breather oil um s ( ressure and scavenge um s) oil filters
(including the bypass); oil sumps; chip detectors; coolers.
Figure 11.98 Lubrication system
Oil Tank
The oil tank is normally a

separate unit mounted on the
side of the engine, although
it can be part of the engine
intake, or even an integral
part of the external gearbox.
As a separate unit it must
incorporate provision for
filling both by gravity and
more normally, by pressure.
There must also be some
method of determining the
contents of the tank, either by
a sight glass or by a dipstick,
sometimes by both. A de-
aerator tray allows removal of
air bubbles from the oil as it
ows back into the tank. 11.99 Oil tank components
212
Pressure Pump
The oil is drawn from the tank through a suction filter to the oil pressure pump. The suction
filter takes the form of a coarse strainer which revents debris being drawn into the um and
damaging it.
The oil um s both ressure and scavenge are fitted on the accessory housing. The oil um s
are vital to the operation of the engine. If an oil pump fails the engine must be shut down
immediately. or this reason the oil um ack drive shaft is not fitted with a shear neck they
must continue to supply oil for as long as possible, regardless of damage. If the pump becomes
blocked for any reason a by ass is fitted so that oil still has the ability to ow to the engine.
In a Turbo Prop Engine

In a turbo prop engine, the torque meter pump is also used to boost engine oil pressure to a
much greater figure sometimes as high as si. This ressure is used to balance the axial
thrust of the helically cut gears within the propeller reduction gear.
Pressure Filter
To facilitate the oil s task of cleaning a number of filters and strainers are ositioned within the
lubrication system. This prevents debris and foreign matter from being continuously circulated
around with the oil. They are often made from a resin im regnated with fibres to catch the solid
impurities.
The oil is now assed from the ressure um through a ressure filter to the distribution
galleries. Across the ressure filter is an oil differential ressure switch. This can give warning of
blockage of the filter. This warning is usually indicated at the ground crew servicing anel and is
sometimes du licated by a warning light on the ight deck.
At the outlet of the ressure um a ressure filter is fitted. This is a very fine mesh filter which
will retain any small articles which might block the oil feed jets. Thread ty e filters made of
finely woven wire cloth erforming the function of a last chance filter immediately rior to the
oil jets.
Some filters may have a differential ressure switch fitted across them or alternatively they may
be fitted with a o u indicator a small button which can be seen rotruding from the filter
casing to give a visual warning of a artially blocked filter. As with the um s the filters will have
a ressure by ass so that the ow of oil is not sto ed due to a blocked filter. irty oil is still
better than no oil.
Pressure Sensor
One oil line will take the oil to the distribution gallery, while another takes the oil to a pressure
transmitter and low oil pressure warning switch. These are used to give warning in the cockpit of
malfunctions in the oil system. Other parameters indicated in the cockpit are oil quantity from
the tank, and oil temperature which is measured as the oil leaves the oil cooler.
The distribution gallery then splits to give oil to all of the bearings in the accessory drive gearbox,
and to the bearings which support all of the compressor spools.
213
Magnetic Chip Detectors
Prior to the oil reaching the

scavenge pump it must pass over
a magnetic chip detector. Chip
detectors are magnetic plugs
fitted into the scavenge lines.
They collect iron based magnetic
material from the oil as it returns
to the scavenge pumps. The chip
detector is held in the pipeline in
a self-sealing valve housing so
that it can be removed without
any loss of oil.
When checked, the chip

detector may show the magnet
contaminated by iron filings.
Figure 11.100 Magnetic chip detector
This is evidence of impending
failure in the bearing chamber
monitored by that particular
chip detector.
When the oil has completed its tasks of lubricating, cooling, cleaning and acting as a hydraulic medium,
it falls into collecting trays where it is removed by scavenge pumps.
Scavenge Pumps
Each return oil line contains a scavenge filter, just downstream of the magnetic chip detector.
These scavenge filters will collect any debris returning from the lubricated com onent. There are
many scavenge um s to ensure all the oil is effectively removed and circulated correctly. This
will ensure that the method of lubrication remains a dry sump system. The scavenge pumps are
mounted in the same oil pump pack which contains the oil pressure pump.
021.10.06.02.04 Oil Coolers
The scavenge pumps force the oil through to the oil cooling system to drop the temperature of
the oil after its journey through the engine. Oil coolers can be either air-cooled or fuel-cooled.
Some engines use both systems.
021.10.05.01.04
Normally, the fuel cooled oil cooler (FCOC) is su cient to cool the oil on its own but in the event
that it proves inadequate, a valve opens automatically and brings the air-cooled oil cooler into
o eration as well. This maintains the oil tem erature at a figure which im roves the thermal
e ciency of the engine.
214
The fuel-cooled oil cooler has a

double benefit the fuel in the
aircraft wing tanks is inevitably
very cold and requires
warming up before it gets to
the fuel filter the oil is hot and
requires cooling; this device
allows both requirements to
be carried out within it, a rare
chance of achieving two for the
price of one. Incorporated in
the fuel-cooled oil cooler is an
oil by ass valve this is fitted
across the oil inlet and outlet.
As previously discussed, the

oil must be maintained to the
engine, even if its condition is
not optimum. So, to prevent Figure 11.101 Fuel cooled oil cooler (FCOC)
oil starvation in the event of a
blocked cooler, the FCOC also has a pressure relief bypass system. This also works in reverse;
if the oil is too cold and viscous, it also bypasses the cooler to allow the oil to heat up to the
optimum temperature and prevent damage to the cooler.
In the event that damage to the matrix occurs, fuel is prevented from entering the oil system by
a pressure maintaining valve, which ensures that the oil pressure is always higher than the fuel
pressure, thus the oil will leak into the fuel system rather than the other way around.
The Centrifugal Breather and Vent
Any air pressure which has

been built up within the engine
lubrication system, must be
allowed to escape. If it was
just vented to atmosphere,
any oil mist contained within
it will pass to atmosphere and
oil contents would quickly
diminish. To prevent this
from happening the oil mist
is vented via a centrifugal
breather, which is positioned
in the accessory gearbox.
The centrifugal breather is

rotated at high speed and as
Figure 11.102 Centrifugal breather
the oil mist enters, it is thrown
outwards by centrifugal force.
215
The air, having less inertia, makes its way out of the centre of the rotating portion of the breather
to atmosphere having had all the oil removed. The oil is thrown to the outsides of the cylinder
and allowed to ow back to the gearbox to be icked u by a scavenge um . So the centrifugal
breather minimizes oil loss in the gas turbine engine.
Temperature Sensor and Scavenge Filter
The final oint before the oil returns to the tank its tem erature is checked. A high tem erature
here could indicate a couple of issues:
• The engine may be too hot, from too much friction or wear; possibly indicating
imminent failure; or
• There is not enough oil in the system to absorb all the heat produced; possible due to a
leak which could also be evident with low quantity and low-pressure indications.
Then the oil is assed through another filter called the scavenge filter and is returned to the tank.
The Pressure Relief Valve System

In the pressure relief valve system, a valve limits the pressure in the feed line, and so controls
the ow of oil to the bearing chambers. At idling engine s eed the s ring loaded valve is o ened
by the pressure generated by the pump. This valve maintains a constant feed pressure over the
whole of the engine speed and oil temperature ranges. The downside of this, is that at high
speed, large amount of oil is spilled back to the oil tank by the pressure relief valve.
Figure 11.103 Oil lines
Full Flow System

This system achieves a variable oil ow. The oil is fed to the oil ressure um to directly su ly
the oil feed jets, without the use of a pressure relief valve. Using this system allows the use of
smaller pressure and scavenge pumps, since the volume of oil passed is less than that in the
pressure relief valve system.
216
Types of Lubricating Oils

Gas turbine engine oils must have a high enough viscosity for good load carrying ability, but
they must also have a su ciently low viscosity to ensure a good ow of oil at low tem eratures
for instance starting after prolonged cold soaking.
Early gas turbine engines used the same oils as had been used in petrol engines for years, these
oils were mineral based. It was found that under the higher temperatures and speeds at which
gas turbine engines operated, mineral oils burnt and oxidized. To attain the properties required
for a gas turbine engine, synthetic oils had to be developed. These oils had the following qualities:
• Low volatility - to prevent evaporation at high altitudes.
ig flas point the tem erature at which the oil va ours will ignite if near a ame.
ig l strengt - the ability of the oil molecules to stick together under compression
loads and adhere to surfaces under centrifugal loads.
Wide tem erature range most gas turbine lubricating oils have a tem erature range of C to C.
Low viscosity this increases the ability of the oil to ow under low tem erature conditions. The
use of a low viscosity oil is enabled because of the absence of reciprocating parts and heavy-
duty gearing.
High viscosity index - this is an indication of how well the oil retains its viscosity when heated to
its operating temperature.
Bearings
03 Ex lain that each s ool is fitted with at least one ball bearing and two or more roller bearings.
The bearings are lubricated by oil jets, which are positioned very close to the bearings so as to
minimi e the ossibility of the oil being de ected from its target by local turbulence. There are
two types of bearing used in gas turbine spools. While both minimise friction and assist in the
rotation of the s ools they are subtly different.
Figure 11.104 Bearing types
217
Roller Bearing
Roller bearings have been used for thousands of years to move heavy objects along with
cylindrical rolls. For example, in ancient times, heavy blocks were rolled across logs to reduce the
friction with the ground. This gives a very controlled movement in one direction, and is ideal for
heavy applications, but does not allow for a longitudinal movement down the spool.
Ball Bearing
If there is a possibility, or need for a longitudinal movement along the spool, a ball bearing
is needed. This spins also spins like the cylinders, but as it is a sphere, it can spin in multiple
dimensions and so, can cope with movement in several directions. The downside is that the
movement is less controlled and could lead to unstable vibrations. Ball bearings tend to be used
for smaller applications or in conjunction with roller bearings for larger components.
or these reasons each engine s ool is fitted with one ball bearing and two or more roller bearings.
Oil Sealing Systems

04 Explain the use of compressor air in oil-sealing systems (e.g. labyrinth seals).
To reduce any unnecessary oil losses, the component junctions must all be tightly sealed. To do
this, compressor air is used to force the seals together and prevent oil loss. A weakness of this
method is that air can often seep into the oil, but that problem is mitigated by the centrifugal
breather previously mentioned.
021.11.03.03.02 Labyrinth Seals
A labyrinth is another word for a maze or network, and a labyrinth seal is one where the seal has
a di cult ath for the uid to esca e and so losses are minimi ed.
The labyrinth seal consists of fins which rotate within an annulus of oil or in cases where the
exterior of the seal is static, the annulus can consist of a soft abradable material or a honeycomb
structure. In the case of the latter two initial running of the engine makes the fins rub against the
annulus material, cutting into it to give the minimum clearance.
Figure 11.105 Principle of a labyrinth seal
218
uring o eration there is a ressure dro across each fin which results in a restricted ow of
air from one side of the seal to the other. When used to seal bearing chambers, the air pressure
revents oil leakage by owing from the outside of the seal to the inside. This has the additional
beneficial effect of inducing a ositive ressure which assists the oil return to scavenge.
Inter-Shaft Seal
Where seals have to be placed between two rotating shafts, it is possible that there would be
friction between the fins and the abradable material due to exing of the shafts. This would
create high temperatures and the possibility of shaft failure and so an inter-shaft seal is used.
The inter shaft hydraulic seal is an exam le of the first ty e of labyrinth seal mentioned in this
section. The fin or fins rotate close within an annulus of oil. Any de ection of the shaft will cause
the fin or fins to enter the oil and the seal will be maintained without generating any undue
friction or heat.
Figure 11.106 Inter-shaft seal
In the particular case of sealing air used in bearing chambers, it is taken from the intermediate stages
of the compressor through air transfer ports in the compressor rotor drum and passed through
communicating passages to where it is required.
An inter-stage seal is also used to either prevent or control leakage of air between sections of the
engine which are o erating at different ressures. The amount of ressure dro ed across the seal
de ends u on the number of fins over which the air must ass. To create a larger ressure in one
one of the engine than another the number of fins in the labyrinth can be altered. If com ressed
air asses over just a few fins then the resultant ressure inside will be higher. If there are more fins
the cumulative pressure drop will be increased and result in a low-pressure zone.
The e ciency of all these seals generally de ends u on two factors
• The mechanical design of the seal

• The air pressure, which is essential if it is to work at all
uring eriods of low engine ower the greatest oil loss from a serviceable engine is suffered.
Oil loss from a serviceable engine working at high-power settings is almost negligible.
219
03.04 Engine Auxiliary Gearbox

Tasks
01 State the tasks of the auxiliary gearbox.
The auxiliary gearbox (accessory drive) provides the power for use in the engine and in the
aircraft. It drives the:
• hydraulic systems
• pneumatic systems
• electrical mechanisms
These systems include fuel pumps, oil pumps, tacho-generators, and various other devices
necessary for e cient engine o eration.

02 Describe how the gearbox is driven and lubricated.
The drive for the accessory unit is taken usually from the high-pressure compressor shaft, via an
internal gearbox, to an external gearbox, which provides the mountings for the accessories.
In modern turbofan engines there is much less of a problem concerning where to conceal the
accessory drive unit. The engine itself is so massive that even the largest accessories can be fitted
into the cowling that forms the air intake faring. Much more of a problem in this particular case is
that of how to get the drive shaft through the engine from the high-pressure compressor shaft. If
the drive was taken from the hot end of the engine, the losses incurred would be very high, also
the type of material used for the shafts would have to withstand this heat.
Figure 11.107 Gearbox location
220
Maintaining the Accessory Drive
When in operation, the compressor shaft will expand and contract. This forms a problem for the
accessory drive, as axial movement of the compressor shaft would cause the teeth of the bevel
gears to move apart and the drive would be interrupted. Momentary interruption of a drive
transferring 400 - 500 horsepower would impart massive damage to the teeth of the bevel gears
and probably destroy them.
A stub shaft drive is one method of arranging the gears so that they do not disconnect themselves
with axial movement of the shaft.
The inner compressor shaft is splined (grooves cut in it parallel to its axis), then a stub shaft with
teeth cut internally is placed around it. This means that the shaft can move axially while the stub
shaft is held firmly in the correct osition by the location bearing. The drive is then taken from
the stub shaft at 90 degrees by a bevelled gear.
Figure 11.108 Rotating the drive shaft through 90°
An alternative system uses an idler gear shaft which is held firmly in osition by location bearings.
One end of the idler gear shaft has a wide toothed spur gear which allows axial movement due
to its width. Again, the accessory drive is then taken via a bevel gear.
221
Spreading the Load
In an effort to s read the load of driving accessories some engines take a second radial shaft
from the low-pressure compressor shaft, which is rotating at a slower speed, and use it to drive
a second external gearbox.
This system has a second advantage of allowing the accessories to be divided into two smaller
grou s thus overcoming the di culties of limited s ace around the engine.
Figure 11.109 Spreading the load of accessories
At start u the starter motor causes the P com ressor shaft to rotate first so accessories s ecific
to the engine, such as the oil pumps and the fuel pumps, are grouped on the gearbox driven by
that shaft.
This is classified as the high-speed external gearbox, because it is being driven by the shaft which
is rotating at the highest speed of all. The other gearbox is called the low-speed external gearbox.
To fit around the engine the gearbox is often sha ed like a banana and to ease servicing it is
usually located on the underside of the engine.
Figure 11.110 Auxiliary gearbox example
222
The large width gear teeth show where the greatest load from driving the accessories and are
normally grouped together, while thinner teeth show that their load is much smaller. This grouping
of small and large gears enables an e cient distribution of the drives for the minimum weight.
The Shear Neck
Mechanical failure of an accessory could cause the failure of the whole gearbox with the
associated loss of the engine. To prevent this from happening, the mechanical equivalent of an
electrical fuse is fitted to some of the accessory drives.
A weak section is machined into the drive shaft. This is known as a shear neck. It is designed to
fail at a load around 25% in excess of the normal maximum for the particular component being
driven by that shaft.
In circumstances of excessive overload, the shear neck will break, allowing failure of the individual
component, while the rest of the gearbox and accessories continue as normal. This feature is not
used in the drives of primary engine accessory units, such as the oil pumps or HP fuel pumps,
because any failure of these components would necessitate the immediate shutdown of the
engine.
Lubrication
Auxiliary gearboxes can be oiled separately and may be splash or spray lubricated, but most large
021.11.03.03
gas turbine engines now have the gearboxes spray lubricated as part of the engine lubrication
system.
223
03.05 Engine Ignition

Tasks
01 State the tasks of the ignition system.
HE ignition systems have an output of approximately 12 joules and have several basic functions:
• Provide the heat source for the fuel and oxygen to start combustion.
• Ensure wet conditions (contaminated runway or ight through heavy reci itation)
do not cause the engine to ame out.
Figure 11.111 Ignition system
Figure 11.112 Igniter position in the combustion chamber
224
Components
02 Name the following main components of the ignition system and state their function:
power sources; igniters.
03 State why jet turbine engines are equipped with two electrically independent ignition systems.
The High Energy Ignition Unit
The high energy ignition unit (HIEU) works on the principle of charging up a very large capacitor
and then discharging it across the face of an igniter plug. An HEIU is supplied by 28 volts DC, but
the size of the capacitor makes it potentially a lethal device delivering 25,000 volts. For this reason,
several safety factors have to be built into the HEIU to make it conform to safety regulations. In
order to boost this voltage, the DC must be changed to AC, passed through a transformer and
then returned to DC. All gas turbine engines have electrically independent, dual ignition systems
fitted for redundancy.
Discharge resistors act as a safety device

should the unit have to be removed for
servicing. The charge which may remain in the
capacitor could be lethal to anyone touching
the casing of the HEIU, so it is allowed to leak
through the resistors to zero the charge once
the supply has been removed.
Safety resistors act as a safety valve if the igniter

plug becomes disconnected. If this happened,
there would be a continued build-up of energy
in the capacitor which eventually would cause it
to explode. To prevent this, the safety resistors
allow energy in excess of the normal level to
ow through them in an attem t to balance the
charge on the plates of the capacitor.
The primary coil and the trembler mechanism

are fed with 28 volts DC. The trembler
021.10.07.01.01 mechanism works in a manner similar to an
electric bell, and by doing so causes the primary
coil input to become a sawtooth waveform.
Figure 11.113 Electronic diagram of the HEIU
225
or reference here are the different ty es of waveform.
This AC is transformed via the secondary coil

and is boosted to 25,000 volts. The 25,000 volts
AC is changed back to C in the rectifiers and
then charges the reservoir capacitor.
As the charge in the capacitor builds up, it

eventually reaches a level that allows a spark to
jump the discharge air gap. The spark energy
then ows through the choke to slow down the
ow to make the duration of the s ark longer.
The energy then passes to the igniter in the
combustion chamber.
The normal rate of sparking of the HEIU is

between 60 - 100 per minute. This is completely
random; so, if relight is selected, the sound
from jet pipe before engine start is an
Figure 11.114 Waveforms
unsynchronized beat if both units on the engine
are working correctly.
As well as this type of unit there are transistorised devices, and for aircraft which have AC
electrical system there are units which will work on that type of supply.
Igniter Plugs
There are two types of igniter plugs. The older of

these two types works in a similar manner to that
of the piston engine spark plug, but with a much
bigger spark gap. The potential required to jump
this gap is approximately 25,000 volts and this
creates the need for very good insulation within
the unit and in the cabling.
The second type of igniter plug has the end of

the insulator formed from a semi- conductor
021.10.07.01.01 material. This allows an electrical leakage from
the hot electrode to the body of the igniter. It
ionizes the surface of the semi-conductor Figure 11.115 Igniter plug
material to provide a relatively low resistance
path for the energy stored in the capacitor. The
discharge takes the form of a high intensity
ashover from the hot electrode to the body of
the igniter, which only requires approximately
2,000 volts.
226
Modes of Operation
04 Ex lain the different modes of o eration of the ignition system.
The starting ignition system is activated when the engine start sequence is initiated, either
automatically or by the operation of the HP cock, start lever or fuel and ignition switch. The igniters
are automatically deactivated at some point after self-sustaining speed, typically by a speed switch
in the HP rpm indicator.
• Continuous ignition - Activated by selection on the engine start panel and activates the
low energy mode of the igniters.
• Combination system - It may sometimes be necessary to have the igniters selected in
circumstances other than engine starting for instance during takeoff from contaminated
runways or ight through heavy reci itation to hel revent engine ame out . The
use of the high-energy ignition system on these occasions would cause the igniter plug
to be eroded so quickly that it would shorten its working life dramatically. To minimize
this some aircraft engines are fitted with a combination ignition system which includes
a low-energy (3–6 joules) continuous selection as well as the high-energy (6-12 joules)
starting selection.
• Automatic ignition - Typically activated by the aircraft stall warning system to
automatically select continuous ignition during a detected aircraft stall.
03.06 Engine Starter

Components
01 Name the main components of the starting system and state their function.
To start a gas turbine engine, the starter system must include:
• Starter motor - The gas turbine engine must be spun enough to provide initial air
ow to the combustion chamber. It is connected via a sprag clutch, so once the engine
reaches a certain speed, it can continue accelerating faster than the starter motor.
• Fuel - The fuel nozzles deliver the correct pressure and quantity of fuel to the
combustion chamber.
• Ignition efore the first combustion chamber ame is stable a s ark must be given
to combust the fuel.
• Cross start connections - To allow one engine (or APU) to start any other engine.
• External input - If the aircraft does not have the power to start its own engines, it may
use an external pneumatic or electric starter.
• Gears, connections, switches, etc. - All used to control the start.
227
Principle
02 Explain the principle of a turbine engine start.
In order to start a gas turbine engine there are three basic requirements:
• The compressor/turbine assembly must be rotated to get air into the combustion chambers.
• Fuel must be provided in the combustion chambers.
• Ignition must also be provided in the combustion chambers to start the air/fuel mixture
burning.
Ignition may be automatically selected at the same time as engine start, or in conjunction with the
introduction of the fuel. Some moments after the engine starts rotating, the fuel HP cock is opened
and moments after that the engine should light up. This is indicated by an increase in EGT and a
more rapid acceleration of the engine.
Extra to these basic requirements are two others. The ability to:
• motor the engine with no igniters operating.

• fire the igniters with no starter motor.
Blowout Cycle
Sometimes called a motoring over cycle, this is the motoring of the engine without ignition. This
can be required when there has been a failure to start. It prevents torching by allowing excess
fuel to evaporate from a wet start or allows air ow to cool the engine down after a hot start.
In most modern turbofan engines, the air turbine starter motor will have a duty cycle of 3-5
minutes. If the engine fails to light u within the s ecified time limit then the fuel and ignition
switch may be selected off but the starter motor will continue to turn the com ressor and blow
out’ the unburnt fuel until a second attempt to start is carried out. This of course must be within
the duty cycle of the starter.
In-Flight Starting
In the event of an engine aming out whilst airborne the engine may need to rovide ignition to
the fuel. In this event, the starter motor may not be required, as the engine is already windmilling,
and a starter motor would risk damage to the engine.
Evidence that an attempt to relight has been successful will be obtained from the EGT and rpm gauges, a
rise in the value of either of these shows that a light up has occurred.
Types of Starter
03 Describe the following two types of starters: electric; pneumatic.
There are several methods of obtaining engine rotation upon engine start. The most common
methods of rotating the HP compressor on a gas turbine engine are the:
• electric starter motor

• air (pneumatic) starter motor
228
Any starter system will have a duty cycle, the time limit that the starter is allowed to be operated
and may have to be followed by a cooling down period before re-energizing the system.
Electric Starter
The electric starter motor was the original means of starting a gas turbine engine and is still
used in smaller executive jets and helicopters, but it has fallen out of favour in modern larger
engines because of its weight. Rapidly becoming more popular on smaller engines is the starter/
generator combination which because of its dual purpose has a greater usefulness, and its
increased weight is more accepted.
021.09.05.00
The starter motor is attached to the engine accessory gearbox and drives the compressor when
it rotates. It also incorporates an automatic release clutch device, to disengage the starter drive
from the engine drive. This consists of a pawl and ratchet type mechanism, which performs
three functions:
Figure 11.116 Pawl and ratchet starter
• It prevents excessive starting torque being applied to the engine.

• It acts as an overrunning clutch when the engine accelerates up to idle speed.
• Disengages the starter from the engine.
At a predetermined engine speed, the start valve is closed. The sprag clutch automatically
disengages as the engine accelerates up to idling speed and the starter motor ceases to rotate.
The sprag clutch ratchet is designed to prevent the starter motor being driven by the engine
after engine start. The danger, should this happen, is that the starter motor will rotate at a speed
su cient to cause it to break u due to centrifugal force.
A problem associated with the sprag clutch ratchet is known as the crash re-engagement, which
occurs when the starter motor is re energi ed before the driven s ool has slowed su ciently for
the clutch mechanism to engage itself.
The starter generator connection to the accessory gearbox is different from that of the
straightforward starter motor; it must remain permanently engaged to the gearbox if it is to
perform its function as a generator and of course its control circuitry is much more complicated.
229
Pneumatic Starter
The pneumatic air starter motor is possibly the most popular starting system presently in use. It
is light, simple to use, and very economical using low-pressure air. The air starter motor is
021.06.01.00 attached and driven by the accessory gearbox of the engine.
The sources of air available for engine start, in order of preference, are:
• the aircraft auxiliary power unit (APU).

• the external pneumatic power unit.
• a cross-bleed start, where air from an already started engine is used.
Air from one of these sources is fed through an electrically controlled start valve to the air inlet,
to rotate the turbine rotor, and is then exhausted. The turbine turns the reduction gear to rotate
the engine drive shaft through the sprag clutch ratchet.
Figure 11.117 Sprag clutch starter
Figure 11.118 Air starter motor
230
Also included may be a flyweight cut-out switch. This is used to shut off the starting air su ly by
removing the electricity energizing the starter air valve. This device will automatically terminate
the engine start cycle when the engine has reached an appropriate speed.
Start Sequence
04 escribe a ty ical start se uence (on ground in ight) for a turbofan.
A typical starting sequence for a two-spool turbofan engine is described here. The system shows
each engine has an air turbine starter motor which is supplied with low-pressure high-volume air
from the AP ground cart or other engine. The normal bleed air ducting is used and the ow of air
reversed to the starter motor. The air supply will not reverse into the engine compressor because
of a non return valve at the LP outlet and a non return valve facility in the P shut off valve.
Figure 11.119 Cross engine pneumatic start layout
During the engine start sequence, the instruments which require the most attention are the
EGT gauge, and the HP compressor rotational speed gauge (N2). These two parameters must
be monitored closely to ascertain whether or not the start cycle is proceeding safely. Other
instruments that re uire to be monitored are fuel ow LP rotation duct ressure and start
valve warning light, if applicable.
Upon start selection, the starter motor is powered. Initially fuel and ignition is not supplied, the
com ressor begins to accelerate under the in uence of the starter motor and starts to force air
through the combustion chambers.
When the compressor has achieved the rpm stated for that engine, the fuel and ignition is
activated by selection of the switch, the switch is then held until the start is successful.
231
Light up is indicated by an
increase in EGT and must occur
within a s ecified time ( secs
typically). The initial increase
is quite sharp, there being an
excess of fuel in the combustion
chamber. Once this is burnt
off the rise steadies. The gas
which is being produced in the
combustion chambers now
adds impetus to the turbine
blades, which eases the task of
the starter motor; the engine
continues to accelerate.
The fuel control unit (FCU)

progressively increases the
fuel ow as the com ressor
accelerates towards idle. This Figure 11.120 Typical start sequence in terms of N2 and EGT
means that the air/fuel ratio
becomes biased towards being
very rich. The evidence of this
is the second steep rise in the
EGT.
Self-Sustaining rpm
05 efine self sustaining r m .
Continued acceleration of the engine brings the compressor to self-sustaining rpm, the speed at
which the engine can accelerate without the help of the starter motor. But, the starter motor is not
de-selected at this point, it is kept supplying power until the engine has accelerated a little more.
This gives the engine a better chance of smoothly reaching idle rpm.
Self-sustaining speed is approximately 30% N2.
The starter motor and igniters may be cancelled automatically by a speed switch in the N2 gauge.
As it continues towards this oint the E T eaks. This is caused by the air ow reaching the value
a ro riate to the idle fuel ow. When that ha ens the tem erature dro s from its highest value
to that of idle EGT.
When the engine has stabilized at ground idle, the fuel and ignition switch can be released and the
after start checks carried out.
Idle rpm is approximately 60% N2 and 25% N1.
The indications referred to in the preceding paragraph will be observed during a normal start,
regardless of the type of starter motor which is used.
232
03.07 Reverse Thrust

Principle of Reverse Thrust
01 Name the following main components of a reverse-thrust system and state their function:
reverse-thrust select lever; power source (pneumatic or hydraulic); actuators; doors; annunciations.
02 Explain the principle of a reverse-thrust system.
Modern aircraft braking systems, which incorporate anti-skid units and other sophisticated
devices are extremely e cient but bad runway conditions can reduce the ability of even the
most refined braking systems to the oint where they become a liability.
021.04.03.00
everse thrust is re uired to assist in slowing the aircraft down at landing or rejected takeoff. It
is selected by means of a lever on the throttle quadrant. The systems are typically operated by
hydraulic or pneumatic actuators or motors driving screw shafts.
There are three basic thrust reversal systems presently in use. These are:
• Clamshell doors
• Bucket doors (external doors)
• Blocker doors
In all three of these ty es of reverse thrust the rinci le is the same the mass air ow direction is
artially reversed to divert the force forward and thereby reversing the thrust. The ight deck crew
will then have cockpit indicators/annunciators to show the state of the reverse thrust system.
Advantages and Disadvantages

03 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of using reverse thrust.
The addition of a reverse thrust capability has improved the situation so much, that landing a
modern aircraft on a wet and/or icy runway in crosswind conditions is now a much safer process.
The difference in sto ing distance in an aircraft with and without reverse thrust can be uite
marked. If reverse thrust is coupled with ground spoilers, it can reduce the landing distance
dramatically, without producing friction at the wheels.
Sadly though, reverse thrust malfunctions and failures have caused aircraft crashes, some of
which were fatal. Some of the causes are:
• The reaction of reverse thrust engagement can cause a pitch up moment, which can
momentarily make the aircraft airborne again.
• At lower speeds, there is an increased risk of FOD being blown into the intake.
• Any asymmetric deployment may make directional control impossible.
• Inadvertent deployment whilst airborne would be catastrophic and safety measures
021.11.03.07.06
need to be taken to avoid this.
233
Types of Thrust-Reverser Systems

04 escribe and ex lain the following different ty es of thrust reverser systems hot stream
reverser; clamshell or bucket-door system; cold-stream reverser (only turbofan engines);
blocker doors; cascade vanes.
05 Explain the implications of reversing the cold stream (fan reverser) only on a high bypass
ratio engine.
Hot-Stream Reversers
The first ty e of reverser discussed here will be the hot-stream reverser. This diverts the hot air
from the exhaust system to a forward movement, so providing a reversal of the engine thrust.
Two types of hot-stream reverser are the bucket door system and clamshell doors
The bucket reverser system is a hydraulically o erated external modification to many older
engines. The rear of the exhaust pipe is shaped like two halves of a bottomless bucket which are
hinged to enable them to swing backwards when selected to de ect the exhaust gas forward.
Ideally the air ow would give most affect if it was directed com letely forwards but due to
design constraints, 45° angle is normal.
Figure 11.121 Hot-stream reverser external to engine
Figure 11.122 Bucket doors in reverse position
234
The clamshell system is a more integral design where the shape of the reverse thrust doors
resemble clamshells. The reverser doors are usually pneumatically operated and use high-
pressure compressor (P3) air as the power source. Pneumatic rams move the doors from their
stowed (forward thrust) position to their deployed (reverse thrust) position.
11.123 Clamshell reverse inbuilt to engine
11.124 Clamshell reverser in reverse position
Whilst deployed, the clamshell doors close the normal exhaust gas exit and it escapes through the
cascade vanes in a forward direction, so that the forward motion of the aircraft is opposed. The
ur ose of the cascade vanes is to more accurately control the direction of the forward air ow. The
lower cascade vanes, while still directing the jet thrust forward, are also angled, so that the exhaust has
an outboard angular component as well. This minimizes the chances of debris and hot gases being re-
ingested into the engine intake during the use of reverse thrust. In their stowed position, the clamshell
doors cover the cascade vanes.
Cold-Stream Reverser
The cold-stream reverser only diverts the colder bypass air. A low bypass engine would not have the
by ass mass ow to give su cient reverse thrust so this system is only used on high by ass fan jet
engines. The speed and direction of an air motor is determined by operation of the reverse thrust
lever. The out ut of the air motor then drives through exible shafts to o en or close the blocker doors
which by their movement, expose or cover cascade vanes to direct the bypass air where it is required.
235
11.125 Cold steam reverser
11.126 Cold-steam reverser in reverse position
Early designs of the cold-stream reverser also included a method of reversing the hot stream
such as clamshells or bucket doors. But the majority of thrust from a high-bypass engine comes
from the mass ow of the cold air stream so it has been found that the core reverser is not
required.
Summary of Reverse Thrust Methods
Type Diverts Operated by Used in

Bucket Hot-stream Hydraulic etro fits
Clamshell Hot-stream Pneumatic Low-bypass
Cold-stream blocker Cold-stream Air motor High-bypass
Figure 11.127 Reverse trust comparison
236
Protection Features
06 escribe the rotection features against inadvertent thrust reverse de loyment in ight as
present on most transport aeroplanes.
If wrongly serviced or mishandled the reverse thrust system can become a risk to ight safety.
Safeguards have to be built into the system which will protect the aircraft in case of a malfunction
or incorrect handling.
There are five safeguards built into the selection of reverse thrust. They are
• Reverse thrust cannot be:
° selected until the throttle lever is idle.

° activated until the aircraft has weight on the mainwheels.
• Reverse rpm cannot be increased above idle until the reverse thrust doors are in
the deployed position.
• If reverser doors inadvertently move:
° to the deployed position while forward thrust selected,

> the throttle may automatically close to idle.
° to the stowed position while reverse thrust selected,
> reverse thrust lever will automatically go to the reverser deploy position.
When reverse thrust is in use, engine indications must be closely monitored, in particular for
excessive EGT. Care must be exercised when increasing reverse rpm that the engines respond
symmetrically as adverse yaw can be induced.
There may also be a performance limitation imposed if one engine thrust reverse system is
inoperative, as the total reverse capability will be reduced and on a two-wing pylon mounted
engine aircraft, may mean that the good reverser may not be operated either, because of the
asymmetric effect.
These rules were originally designed within SOPS for the crew and mechanical, pneumatic or
hydraulic locks, but now, form part of the logic functions within the FADEC to protect the aircraft.
Some military aircraft ermit the use of thrust reverse in ight for tactical manoeuvrability.
237
Controls and Indications

07 Describe the controls and indications provided for the thrust-reverser system.
Operation of the system is initiated by movement of reverse thrust levers in the cockpit, each
engine with a reverse thrust capability has a reverse thrust lever.
Figure 11.128 Throttle and reverse control
To further indicate the position of the reverse thrust doors, reverse thrust warning lights are
fitted. These are usually amber lights positioned somewhere on the forward instrument array
within full view of the crew. The light will illuminate whenever the reverser doors are unlocked
and away from their stowed (forward thrust) position.
Other indications may be provided on the electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM) such as:
reverser deployed, reverser unlocked, reverser operating; dependent upon the aircraft type.
Figure 11.129 Typical cockpit engine display
238
04.00 Engine Operation and Monitoring

04.01 General
Engine Ratings
01 Ex lain the following aero lane engine ratings takeoff go around maximum continuous
thrust/power; maximum climb thrust/power.
Engines are designed and certified to deliver standard thrusts de ending u on the ight conditions
they are expected to encounter. Thrust is typically measured in kilo newtons (kN) or pounds of
thrust (lbf). The term rating is a redefined ower setting that the ight deck crew can select for
each articular ight condition. In Princi les of light it was discussed that thrust is a force and
power is the energy transferred per second, but in Performance Considerations, thrust and power
setting are terms often interchangeable.
Maximum takeoff thrust/power (MTO) At takeoff the aircraft is at its heaviest and the engine
has to roduce the most ower to accelerate the aircraft to the takeoff s eed. It is at this rating that
032.01.03.01.01 the engine usually generates the highest temperatures and greatest stresses on the engine
com onents and so the takeoff rating is normally only ermitted for minutes. This rating will be
calculated in the performance charts, and it is a balance between available thrust, aircraft weight
and takeoff distance available. Sometimes if the conditions allow it an aircraft will use a reduced
thrust takeoff to minimise engine wear and maintenance costs.
In addition to the all engines operating (AEO) constraints it must be considered what effect a
single engine failure would have on the takeoff run. If an engine was to fail at the most critical
point, it is possible that the aircraft would be too slow to get airborne on one engine, but also be
too fast to stop on the runway distance available.
Maximum climb thrust/power (MCL) After time limited takeoff rating the engine must be
backed off to the max climb ower. The most demanding section of this rating will be when the
032.04.01.04 aircraft is at the top of climb, where the low-density atmosphere gives both the lest lift and the
lowest engine performance. Usually for a 3 or 4 engine aircraft, this is the same rating as the
maximum continuous rating.
Maximum continuous thrust/power (MCT) utside the takeoff and climb ight envelo es
the maximum continuous power rating is derived from the balance between component life,
maintenance costs and risk of failures. Ultimately, the max continuous power has direct relevance
to the aircraft s erformance in the event of an engine failure in ight. This setting is articularly
important for engine failure considerations, where the aircraft would have to transit to the nearest
diversion airport at one engine inoperative (OEI) MCT. It is common that the max cruise thrust is
set at a lower value than MCT to lower engine stress and reduce maintenance costs.
Go-around thrust/power - This is usually the full power available and often falls in line with MTO.
But, as the aircraft will have been airborne for a time before a go-around, the aircraft will have
burnt some fuel, and so its weight will be reduced. While this doesn’t change the power output
the engine will roduce it will make its effect larger on the lower weight aircraft. any throttle
quadrants have a TO/GA switch (Take ff o Around) which direct the A EC to give T and
can also be linked to the ight director to automatically y the missed approach procedure (MAP).
239
Figure 11.130 Engine rating terms
Spool Up
02 Explain spool-up time.
The amount of thrust produced by a turbojet is proportional to its rpm as the increased rpm
increases the mass ow. ut the highest ro ortion of thrust is roduced at com ressor s eeds
above than 80-85% HP rpm. It will take a time between the moment the throttle is advanced,
and when the engine reaches the rpm to deliver the thrust required. This lag is known as the
spool-up time.
Figure 11.131 Thrust produced as the engine rpm increases
Ground Idle and Flight Idle
03 Ex lain the reason for the difference between ground and a roach ight idle values (r m).
For a twin spool engine at idle on the ground, the HP rpm will be of the order of 50-60%, and the
LP r m about . In ight these values will be higher because of the other systems that are fed
from the engine and take some of the power from the engines.
In a turboprop, selecting Low Idle on the condition lever will alter the fuel schedule to the engine.
This reduces engine (and propeller) rpm, it reduces noise and saves fuel.
240
Thrust and Power Settings
04 State the parameters that can be used for setting and monitoring the thrust/power.
Dependent on the conditions of the day and the deviation from ISA, the engine may be power or
temperature limited. So, when selecting power and thrust settings, the pilot must closely monitor
021.11.05.01.03 both the engine rpm limit (N1) and the EGT.
Turboprop Power Ranges
05 Describe the terms ‘alpha range’, ‘beta range’ and ‘reverse thrust’ as applied to a turboprop power lever.
06 Ex lain the dangers of inadvertent beta range selection in ight for a turbo ro .
The alpha (flight) range of pitch angles ranges from feathered to flight-fine pitch.
The beta (ground) range of pitch angles is from flight-fine pitch to full reverse thrust pitch.
Figure 11.132 Variable pitch blade angles
The propeller lever will have a detent between the alpha and beta ranges to reduce the risk of
021.10.09
inadvertent selection of the beta range in ight. If this was to ha en the ro eller would go to
a very fine ( ossibly reverse) setting which would cause a large amount of drag on the ro eller.
In a multi engine aircraft this would result in an adverse yaw effect which could atastro hically
affect the controllability of the aircraft.
241
Engine Trending
07 Explain the purpose of engine trending.
Engine trend monitoring is a collection of data regarding all the engine parameters available. It
collates and compares the data over time with the aim to spot any early signs of deterioration or
engine poor health. This means that components can be changed as and when needed, rather
than on a fixed schedule before it is needed which saves money on the servicing schedules.
Early correction of engine decline due to corrosion, wear, or small failure, will allow the problem
to be resolved at less cost with escalation and it dramatically im roves ight safety.
Parameters taken into the trend analysis are commonly:
• Engine details such as: N1 E T fuel ow

• Air data computer information: OAT, TAS, altitude
• Engine vibration monitors
• Oil temperature and pressure
EGT and Turbine Stress
08 Explain how the exhaust gas temperature is used to monitor turbine stress.
The hottest section of the engine is the turbine, and so exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gives a
good indication of engine health and is directly related to turbine stress.
021.02.04.10
At the high r m of the turbine any increase in E T will affect the turbine blades in terms of both
thermal stress and turbine creep.
EGT and Engine Acceleration
09 escribe the effect of engine acceleration and deceleration on the E T.

10 escribe the ossible effects on engine com onents when E T limits are exceeded.
11 Explain why engine-limit exceedances must be reported.
The turbine blades are made from special titanium alloys that are designed to withstand the high
temperatures and stresses expected of them. However, with an operating temperature ranging
up to 1,000°C, and rpms up to possibly 25,000, the turbine still is a high-risk area for damage.
There are two factors affecting the turbine during engine acceleration and deceleration:
• Large centrifugal forces – forces radially outwards acting to stretch the blades
• High temperatures – causing expansion in the blades and making them more pliable
at the higher temperature – so more susceptible to the centrifugal forces.
242
Figure 11.133 Temperature (°C) of a turbine blade
In addition to these, if the engine is accelerated rapidly, the increase in temperature will not have
time to conduct through the entire blade. This results in the outer layers expanding, while the
centre portion stays (relatively) cooler. Likewise, when the engine is decelerated too quickly, the
inner portion of the turbine blades will remain hotter than the outer layers. This process is often
called thermal shock and can be compared to throwing boiling water on a frozen windscreen –
making it crack or shatter.
Figure 11.134 Thermal shock/onion skin weathering on a rock
Forces throughout the blade metal structure can lead to an onion skin form of damage where
the outer layers are thermally ripped from the inner layers. Any fractures of the blade will cause
catastrophic engine failure. It is vital that any exceedance of EGT is reported to the maintenance
team, so they can fully assess and repair any damage caused.
243
Cooling air can be passed inside some turbine blades to assist in better controlling the
temperature variations.
Thrust Reverser
12 Explain the limitations on the use of the thrust-reverser system at low forward speed.
To prevent the likelihood reverse thrust FOD at the lower speeds, the Standard Operating
Procedure (SOP) on some aircraft is to reduce reverse thrust lever to idle at typically 60 - 80
knots. Then, when it is judged that there is no further requirement for a sudden selection of
full reverse power, usually at about 50 knots, the reverse thrust lever is returned to the stowed
position.
Engine Seizure
13 Explain the term ‘engine seizure’.
Engine seizure describes the situation where an engine stops rotating for a reason other than
fuel starvation. This may occur very suddenly and indicates a catastrophic failure of the engine.
Causes and Preventative Measures of Engine Seizure
14 State the possible causes of engine seizure and explain their preventative measures.
There are several causes why a gas turbine engine may seize:
• Oil leaks would stop the required lubrication at individual components, and so
damage is caused by the loss of free movement. Damage to any rotating part can
021.11.04.01.07 lead to further breakdown in other sections. To reduce the risk of these types of
seizure, careful monitoring via engine trending can help alert to an approaching
failure, so it can be stopped before it even happens.
• Fuel contamination can cause uneven EGT and damage. To prevent this, fuel checks
are carried out before the first ight of each day to reduce the risk of contamination.
• External factors such as bird strike, volcanic ash or severe precipitation ingestion
could damage the engine. Careful ight lanning can mitigate against ying in these
071.02.03 conditions, and airports take bird scaring measures seriously.
Fuel Oil Heat Exchanger Leaks
15 Describe the potential consequences of a leak in the following two designs of fuel and oil
heat exchanger: oil pressure higher than fuel pressure with oil leaking into the fuel system,
otentially affecting the combustion and running of the engine fuel ressure higher than oil
ressure with fuel leaking into the oil system otentially increasing the risk of a fire due to fuel
entering warm parts of the engine that should be free from fuel.
244
The fuel oil heat exchanger is a location where leaks can cause issues in both directions. A hole in
this system could have two effects either the fuel could leak into oil or the oil could leak into fuel.
The difference between each of these ossibilities lies with the ressure of each uid. If the oil
pressure is higher than the fuel pressure, then oil will seep into the fuel. Or, if the fuel pressure
is higher than the oil pressure, fuel will leak into the oil.
Figure 11.135 Fuel/oil heat exchanger
• Oil Pressure > Fuel Pressure: If oil leaks into the fuel system it will find its way to the
combustion chamber. il for lubrication is less ammable than fuel and so will not
021.11.03.01.01 combust as well as the fuel. Any affects on the combustion rocess will also affect the
021.11.03.03.02 performance of the engine.
In a piston engine, burning of oil is seen as a blue smoke in the exhaust on start and
in an acceleration.
021.10.02.01
• Fuel Pressure > Oil Pressure: If the fuel pressure is higher, it will leak into the oil
system. This situation can cause an engine fire as the highly ammable fuel will be
transported to all the hot areas of the engine.
At the fuel/oil heat exchanger, it is usual that the oil pressure is higher than the fuel pressure to
avoid the risk of engine fires.
245
Oil Filter Blockages
16 Ex lain oil filter clogging (blockage) and the im lications for the lubrication system.
Waxing is the depositing of heavy hydrocarbons from the fuel at low temperatures. The deposits
take the form of ara n wax crystals which can clog the fuel filter and interfere with the o eration
of the fuel control unit. The effects of waxing can be reduced by
• the refinery kee ing the levels of heavy hydrocarbons low.

• the inclusion of a fuel heater in the engine fuel system.
Any oil filter blockage could easily starve the engine of oil and with so many rotating arts this
would lead to an engine sei ure. So the oil filters are normally fitted with ressure relief by asses
so that the engine will maintain an oil supply, albeit a dirty supply. Dirty oil is better than no oil!
The engine monitoring system will log any action of the bypass and highlight it for engineering
attention as well as sending an annunciation to the ight deck crew to warn them of any rough
running possibilities.
Monitoring Instruments
17 Give examples of monitoring instruments of an engine.

18 Describe how to identify and assess engine damage based on instrument indications.
The Electronic centralised aircraft monitor (ECAM) displays all the engine indications for the
ight deck crew.
Figure 11.136 Typical cockpit ECAM display
In a situation of suspected engine damage, the Quick Reference Handbook (or appropriate
digital aircraft solution) should be used to identify and assess the situation. There are a few
common indications or combinations of them that can show an impending problem that may
not be immediately obvious from the simple indication.
246
Figure 11.137 Cockpit indication and possible causes
In many of these cases a precautionary engine shutdown is advised, but it is impossible to give
a run-down of every possible eventuality of malfunction on such technically advanced modern
aircraft. light management com uters will often hel with the rocess and to assist ight deck
crews in a decision making process, a simple acronym can be used:
• T – Time ow much time is there to com lete the emergency rocess Is it a ight critical
time such as a roach or takeoff Is there some way of getting more time to think
• D – Diagnose - What indications are there? Ask the co-pilot to check what they see. Refer
to the uick eference andbook. Clearly state the indications and agree with the ight
deck crew.
• O – Options - What are the possible options? Is it one malfunction or multiple? Does
something need to be prioritised?
• D – Decide What is the decision All ight deck crew should agree and acknowledge the
chosen decision.
• A – Act or Assign - Are there any immediate actions that should be carried out? Subsequent
actions Communication with crew ATC ight o erations control and assengers.
• R – Review - Keep updating the information available and communicating, so that the
100.KSA situation is continually reviewed and confirm the decisions are still valid.
247
04.02 Starting Malfunctions
01 Describe the indications and the possible causes of the following aeroplane starting malfunctions:
false (dry or wet) start tail i e fire (torching) hot start abortive (hung) start no rotation; no FADEC
indications.
As has already been stated the two instruments which require the most attention during engine
start are the EGT gauge and the N1 compressor rpm (HP) gauge. Starting malfunctions on gas
turbine engines are rare and always come as a surprise, except in the simulator, where they will
become the norm.
The Hot Start

The best way to determine that a hot start is happening, is by comparing its indications to those
of a normal start. It is most commonly seen as:
• EGT initial rise as normal, then a rapid acceleration towards the EGT limit only
becoming apparent a few seconds into the start.
In many cases the only chance of stopping the temperature limit being exceeded lies in having
the ability to switch off the engine fuel and ignition switch as uickly as ossible. Waiting for
instructions or discussing the indications will almost certainly cost you or your company the price
of a new engine.
Figure 11.138 Hot start EGT indications compared to a normal start
If the EGT does exceed the limit by only one degree, the engine is to be considered unserviceable.
In the majority of cases, the reasons for a hot start are too much fuel and not enough air to cool
the gases through the turbine.
248
This can be caused by a variety of reasons:
• Throttles not set to idle during the re ight check

• Throttle being accidentally knocked away from the idle position
• Engine not rotating fast enough
• Partial seizure because of ice
Partial ice seizure is a very common fault and is most likely to be caused by a tailwind during the
second start of the day. The residual heat in the engine partially melts any ingested precipitation
that can then re-freeze as more solid ice.
The Wet Start

The failure to start, more commonly known as the wet start, is indicated by:
• EGT not rising

• N1 stabilizing at the maximum that the starter motor can achieve.
Figure 11.139 A wet start compared to a normal start
It may be some time before it is realized that the problem is a wet start.
Tailpipe Fire
A wet start will have implications beyond that one start. During the wet start, there will have
been a period of the fuel being pumped into the engine but not combusted. This means that
the engine will be saturated with it and can be confirmed by the fuel owmeter indication. The
danger exists that this fuel if ignited will cause a very large jet of ame out from the exhaust
system. The phenomenon is called torching and can cause tail i e fires.
249
Figure 11.140 Tailpipe fire
To prevent this from happening, before attempting a second start a motoring over or
blow-out cycle must be carried out.
Depending on the duty cycle of the starter motor, it can be possible to go straight from the wet
021.11.03.06.02 start to a blow-out cycle. To do this, do not terminate the start cycle when the wet start is
diagnosed, just close the HP fuel and ignition switch and allow the starter to continue to turn the
com ressor for a s ecified time before attem ting a restart.
The Hung Start

The indications of a hung start are:
• Engine stabilises at EGT higher than expected for the rpm but is lower than
self-sustaining speed.
Figure 11.141 Hung start compared to a normal start
This high EGT is not greater than the limit but maintaining the engine in this state will do it no
good at all and could do a great deal of harm.
250
The HP cock must be closed, and the problem investigated, the usual answer being the fact that there is
not su cient air ow through the engine to su ort e cient combustion (e.g. contaminated com ressor).
ases from the combustion chambers will not have su cient ower to assist the starter motor in
accelerating the engine beyond self sustaining s eed. nce the starter motor cycle has finished
the engine r m remains stable below the figure that will enable it to accelerate away to idle s eed.
No N1 Rotation
So far, the discussion has revolved around failure to start on a single spool engine. If the engine has 2
or more spools, then the starter motor will be attached to the N2 compressor and the N1 compressor
will only start to turn once the air ow is established and strong enough to begin tis rotation. ailure
of N1 rotation in this case would suggest an internal seizure and start should be aborted.
No FADEC Indications
Any issues with the FADEC could result in no indications being displayed. The start should be
aborted in this case as there is no way to ensure the safe operation of the engine.
Engine Rundown Time

Engine rundown time or spool-down time is the time taken for the engine to stop after the
HP fuel cock is closed. Mental note should be taken of the rundown time of each engine and
comparison made to the normal pattern, thereby giving advance warning of engine malfunction.
04.03 Relight Envelope
01 Explain the relight envelope.
In the event of an engine failure

in ight if mechanical failure is
NOT expected, then a relight can
be considered. But, depending on
the altitude and airspeed, there
are 3 possibilities:
• Aircraft forward speed is

su cient to turn the engine
for start by just the windmilling
action. No starter motor is
needed.
• Air mass ow not enough to
start, so the starter motor is
needed for relight.
• Aircraft is too slow or too low
for a relight to be attempted.
Each aircraft type will have its

own designed and tested relight
Figure 11.142 Restart in-flight envelope
envelope.
251
05.00 Performance Aspects

05.01 Thrust, Performance Aspects and Limitations
To maintain an economical engine, the ratio of fuel consumption to thrust or SHP must be as low as
possible. This is the specific fuel consumption (SFC) and is measured in pounds of fuel used per
hour er ound of thrust (or S P). The thermal and ro ulsive e ciency determine the S C.
In a similar way to how piston engines produce power, a gas turbine engine produces a thrust
output which can be compared to its weight. This is known as the thrust to weight ratio and is used
to compare one engine against another.
SFC and Altitude (Constant TAS)
01 escribe the variation of thrust and s ecific fuel consum tion with altitude at constant TAS.
As aircraft altitude increases, both temperature and pressure decrease. The fall of pressure
causes a reduction in air density and a loss of thrust as altitude increases.
Figure 11.143 Density and pressure change with altitude
As the mass ow of air decreases the altitude sensing ca sule of the fuel control unit adjusts
the fuel ow to match the reduced air ow in order to maintain a constant engine s eed for a
fixed throttle osition.
The fall of tem erature increases the air density so that the mass ow of air into the engine increases
and therefore the thrust increases.
252
The combined effect of tem erature and ressure reduction are that thrust will decrease but at a
lower rate than if the pressure alone was reducing. Until, of course, the aircraft reaches the tropopause,
when any increase in altitude will cause the pressure to keep reducing but the temperature remains
constant at -56°C. So, the thrust will reduce at a greater rate. It will be seen that the SFC remains
essentially the same as the thrust decreases along with fuel burn as altitude increases.
Figure 11.144 SFC and altitude
SFC and TAS (Constant Altitude)
02 escribe the variation of thrust and s ecific fuel consum tion with TAS at constant altitude.
Theoretically, as aircraft speed increases thrust decreases. The thrust equation shows that the
thrust produced is dependent on the velocity increase of the air mass. So, if the inlet velocity
increases but the exit velocity remains the same, then it follows that the thrust will decrease. This
would mean that as an aircraft accelerates, the thrust would continually decrease. Luckily, this is
not the case, as the forward speed generates extra pressure in the intake.
The increase in ram ratio increases the mass ow therefore fuel ow has to be increased causing
an increase of SFC as the net thrust decreases.
The overall effect is to increase S C as TAS increase
253
Figure 11.145 SFC and true airspeed
ur oprop ect o ltitude

As aircraft altitude increases a turbo ro engine suffers a similar loss of ower as density
reduces. Shaft horse ower and net jet thrust reduce (ES P reduce). As density reduces fuel ow
reduces but the s ecific fuel consum tion remains essentially the same.
Figure 11.146 Turboprop SFC and altitude
254
ur oprop ect o ircra t peed

As airs eed increases on a turbo ro engine the ram effect into the intake causes the S P to
increase as net jet thrust decreases. uel burn increases in line with additional mass ow and
SFC SFC goes down.
Figure 11.147 Turboprop SFC and true airspeed
Variation of Thrust with Temperature
03 Ex lain the term at rated engine by describing the change of takeoff thrust turbine inlet
temperature and engine RPM with outside air temperature (OAT).
As temperature decreases, air density increases, and the mass of air for a given engine speed
increases. So, thrust increases. To maintain the compressor speed, more fuel must be added, or
050.01.01.02.02 the compressor will slow down.
255
Note: Turbine inlet temperature (TIT) is the same as exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
The thrust an engine can produce is a balance the rpm and the EGT. The limits depend upon a few factors:
• The turbine and compressors will have rpm limits that cannot be exceeded due to
centrifugal forces leading to turbine creep.
• The E T will vary de ending on the r m as well as on how much mass ow of
cooling air is available. The cooling air ow e ciency is directly affected by the density
(altitude) of the air ow and its tem erature.
In warmer less dense air the cooling air ow of the engine is not as effective. This leads to a
higher E T than usual. As the engine thrust is increased the first o erating limit that will be
reached is the EGT. The engine is said to be temperature limited.
In cold weather the denser air allows the engine to develo the re uired takeoff thrust before
the limiting temperature has been reached. Instead, it is the engine rpm, N1 that is the first limit
to be reached. So, in colder conditions, N1 becomes the important factor in power settings and
the engine is said to be power limited.
Figure 11.148 Power limited and EGT limited
An engine will therefore have a at section of the gra h relating to the ower limited section.
This will continue to a certain temperature, dependent on the engine design. The engine will
then be termed as flat rated to ISA x°C”, a reference temperature termed T ref.
Engine Pressure Ratio
04 efine the term engine ressure ratio (EP ).
Another way of monitoring the power or thrust of an engine, is the engine pressure ratio. It is the
total pressure ratio across a gas turbine engine, which is measured as the total pressure at the exit of
the propelling nozzle divided by the total pressure at the entry to the compressor.
256
Pressure at propelling nozzle exit

______________________________
Engine ressure ratio
Pressure at compressor entry
Derated Thrust
05 Ex lain the use of reduced ( exible) and derated thrust for takeoff and ex lain the advantages
and disadvantages when com ared with a full rated takeoff.
In some circumstances o erators may wish to take off without full thrust. This can give advantages of
• Lower maintenance costs due to less engine stress

• Less noise
• Fuel saving
• In some circumstances it may allow increase takeoff weight.
These advantages must be carefully considered as a reduced thrust takeoff will lead to less
acceleration, a longer ground run, and lower initial climb rate.
There are two ways an engine thrust can be reduced in a controlled manner. Some engine
manufacturers allow for one of these methods to be used, some allow both, but separately, and
some even allow both methods to be sued together.
• Derated thrust Electronic reduction of the rated thrust to a s ecified ercentage of

the at rated thrust. Performance data must be studied to ensure the changed critical
speeds are understood and acceptable for the conditions of the day.
• Assumed (flexible) temperature thrust - In this method, the performance charts of a
tem erature limited takeoff are used. Above the at rated tem erature a limited thrust
appropriate to the day is chosen, and then that ‘assumed’ temperature is input to the
S to reduce the thrust. This exible tem erature will be above the actual outside
tem erature otherwise the engine would be actually limited rather than artificially
reducing the thrust for the benefits described above. ere it should be noted that
regulations limit the assumed temperature so that it cannot normally reduce the thrust
available by more than 25% (depending on regulation).
Figure 11.149 Derated thrust
257
leed ir ects
06 escribe the effects of use of bleed air on P E T thrust and s ecific fuel consum tion.
Air bleeds from the engine compressor are used internally to cool and seal the engine and
externally, to service many aircraft user systems. In the modern turbofan aircraft these may
include:
• Air conditioning/pressurization
• Hydraulic reservoir pressurization
• Domestic water tank pressurization
• Thrust reverser actuation
• Engine/airframe anti-icing
• Fuel heaters
For external use, air bleed is typically taken from two sources: a continual low-pressure bleed,
taken from the outlet of the LP compressor, supplemented, when required, by a
021.06.01.00 high-pressure bleed, taken from the HP compressor.
Since air has considerable work done on it to raise its pressure as it passes through the engine,
it is logical to extract the air from as early a stage in the compressor as possible, once it has
reached the required pressure to perform its function.
When air is bled from the com ressor the reduction in mass ow through the engine has several
notable effects
• Reduced thrust
• Reduced cooling in the combustion chamber
• Increased rpm
• Increase EGT
• Increased SFC
• Reduced EPR
When the air has done its job, it is either dumped overboard, or alternatively ejected into the
main gas stream at the highest possible pressure, thus achieving a small performance recovery.
258
06.00 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)

06.01 Design, Operation, Functions, Operational Limitations
APU Tasks
01 State that an APU is a gas turbine engine and list its tasks.
As aircraft became more complex, a need was created for a power source to operate the aircraft
systems on the ground without having to operate the aircraft’s main engines. This became the
task of the auxiliary power unit (APU).
The use of an APU means the aircraft is not dependent on ground support equipment at an
airfield. It can rovide the necessary ower for o eration of the aircraft s
• electrical systems
• hydraulic systems
• pneumatic systems
The requirement for an APU has become more important with the introduction of
twin engine aircraft now ying long haul routes under extended twin operations’ (ETOPS)
071.01.03.04 regulations.
The gas turbine produces very high power for a light weight, making it ideal for the task. The APU
can use the same fuel system as the main engines, so reducing the need for additional systems.
The type of engine layout normally used is that of the free turbine turboshaft engine. A
turboshaft engine is both small and lightweight, yet it produces around 600 hp. The free turbine
021.11.01.02.09 arrangement makes the engine very exible as the com ressor is not affected by changes of
load on the free turbine which drives the accessories via a gearbox. The free turbine is usually
designed to run at constant speed; this ensures that a generator run by the APU maintains a
constant frequency, without the need for an additional constant speed drive unit.
Some aircraft use air bleed taken from the compressor of the APU to power aircraft’s pneumatic
system, but it is more common for the free turbine to drive a separate load compressor to
supply these services.
Figure 11.150 APU position in the tail of the aircraft
259
APU Inlets
02 State the difference between the two ty es of AP inlets.
The APU is normally positioned in part of the airframe where its operation will not cause harm to
personnel working around the aircraft whilst it is on the ground. This is normally the tail of the aircraft.
The APU inlet may be of single or double-entry design and will typically have a motorized door which
opens when the APU master switch is selected, and will close automatically after a cooling period on
shutdown.
Figure 11.151 APU in the tail, viewed from below, highlighting the intake
Alternatively, the APU inlet may be a permanently open scoop on the side of the tail.
Figure 11.152 Side APU intakes
260
APU Operating Altitudes
03 efine maximum o erating and maximum starting altitude .
The design philosophy behind the APU is to keep it simple, rugged and reliable. It is started by a small
electrical motor driven by the battery.
Like all engines using air as its working uid ower out ut is reduced at higher altitudes where air
density is reduced. The starting altitude must be low enough, that the intake air can give the required
mass ow until the oint of self sustaining. This sets the maximum starting altitude limit of the APU.
Once operating, the APU is self-sustaining, it can operate to higher altitudes, but as it is a smaller, less
owerful engine than the main ight engines it is usually erformance limited at a lower altitude. So
the APU will have a maximum operating height, beyond which it will not have the power to run all
the required emergency services.
APU Control and Monitoring
04 Name the typical APU control and monitoring instruments.
The pilot has very little in the way of indication when starting and running the APU compared to the
aircraft’s main engines. With modern technology, there are not many controls for the APU available
to the ight deck crew. They usually consist of
• a start switch.
• turbine temperature indication.
• compressor speed indication.
• system fault lights.
• a normal stop switch.
• a manual emergency shut down and fire su ression control.
Figure 11.153 Analogue APU indication panel
261
Figure 11.154 Digital APU indication page
There is also an external APU control panel to facilitate the shutting down of the APU from
somewhere other than the ight deck.
Figure 11.155 APU shut off switch
The AP may not be able to ower all the aircraft s systems but it will rovide su cient services
so that the aircraft can be operated safely.
The APU is in operation normally on the ground during start and taxi of the aircraft, and only
operated in the air, in the event of failure of a main engine.
262
Ram Air Turbines (RAT)

In addition to an AP some aircraft may be fitted with a ram air turbine ( AT) to rovide ower
to aircraft systems in emergency situations.
The AT consists of a turbine wheel which is driven by air ow due to the aircraft s forward s eed
(ram air). The turbine can be internally mounted in the aircraft, and the ram air directed onto
it via a control valve. Alternatively the turbine can be extended into the air ow. The design is
normally fail-safe: if power is lost on the aircraft, the RAT will automatically be selected to run.
The turbine drives a gearbox to which a generator or a hydraulic um can be fitted. These will
ower essential electrical su lies or ying controls in an emergency.
Automatic Shutdown
05 Describe the APU’s automatic shutdown protection.
Due to the relatively few indications for the APU, it relies on automatic sensors to shut the APU
down in the event of an AP fire system malfunctions or o erating limits being exceeded. The
automatic shutdown acts as a governor device, protecting the APU against overloading.
263
X Glossary Index
Beat frequency................................... 96
A Bernoulli’s theorem ............................. 7
Absolute pressure controller ..........115
,
Best power ratio ................................ 79
Acceleration .....................................172 Beta ............................................ 88 108
Acceleration control unit ................206 Beta (ground) range ........................245
Accelerator pump .............................. 46 Big end................................................ 22
Active clearance control .................189 Blade creep ......................................168
Air annulus .......................................162
,
Blow-out ...........................................254
Air bleed mixture control ................. 46 Boost pressure ........................ 110 123
Air-cooled ........................................... 59 Bore .................................................... 11
Air-cooled radiator ............................ 60 Bottom dead centre (BDC)................ 11
Air cooling .......................................... 58 Boyle’s law ........................................142
Air intake pressure (P1) ..................206 Brake horsepower ............................. 11
Air moto............................................239 Brake horsepower (BHP) .................. 20
Air spray ...........................................202 Brayton working cycle.....................140
Air throttle assembly ......................... 52 Bucket reverser ................................238
,
All engines operating (AEO) ............243 Built-in test (BITE) ............................213
Alpha.......................................... 88 108
Alpha (flight) range .........................245
Altitude boosted ..............................115 C
Ambient pressure ............................110 Calorific value .................................... 30
Anti-surge valve ................................. 69 Cams ................................................... 24
Ashless dispersant ............................. 64 Camshaft ............................................ 24
Assumed (flexible) temperature thrust Can ....................................................181
261 Can-annular.....................................182
Atitude sensing unit ........................206 Cannular ..........................................182
Autofeather ........................................ 99 Capacitor (condenser) ...................... 73
Automatic boost control (ABC).......115 Cascade vanes .................................239
Automatic ignition ...........................231 Cavitation ........................................... 38
Auxiliary gearbox ............................224 Centrifugal breather .......................219
Auxiliary power unit ........................234 Charles’s law ....................................142
Auxiliary power unit (APU) .............263 Check valve ........................................ 68
AVTUR ................................................. 32 Chemically correct ratio ................... 79
Axial velocity ....................................143 Choke ................................................230
Choked..............................................197
B Circumferential................................143
Clamshell..........................................239
Back-suction economiser ................. 44
Clearance volume ............................. 12
Ball bearing......................................222
Coarse................................................. 88
Barometric .......................................206
Coils .................................................... 76
Bearings ............................................. 23
264
X Glossary Index
Cold-stream reverser ......................239 Derated thrust .................................261

Combination system .......................231 Desalination wash...........................164
,
Combustion........................................ 15 Detonation ......................................... 48
Combustion efficiency ....................176 Diffuser .................................... 161 173
Common rail ...................................... 52 Diffuser or compensation jet ........... 43
Compensation jet .............................. 43 Discharge resistors ..........................229
,
Compound oils .................................. 64 Distributor .......................................... 74
Compression ratio............................. 12 Dry sump ..................................... 66 67
, ,
Compressor......................................112 Duplex system..................................203
Connecting rod ........................... 21 22 Duty cycle ................................ 232 233
Connecting rods ................................ 22 Dynamic viscosity .............................. 37
Constant speed propellers .............109
Constant speed unit .......................... 88
Constant volume combustion engine15 E
Contact breaker................................. 73 Economiser jet ................................... 48
Continuity equation: ........................... 7 Electromagnetic induction ............... 73
Continuous ignition.........................231 Electronic centralised aircraft monitor
Convergent/divergent ......................... 7 250
Cooling system................................... 58 Electronic engine control (EEC) ......209
Coring ................................................. 70 End gas ............................................... 33
Corrosion inhibitors .......................... 31 Engine seizure ..................................248
Cowled ................................................ 61 Engine trend monitoring ................246
Enrichment jet ................................... 48
,
Cowl flap ............................................ 61
Crankcase.................................... 22 23 Epicyclic ............................................100
Crank pin............................................ 22 Exhaust back pressure....................110
,
Exhaust cone....................................195
,
Crankpins ........................................... 22
Exhaust gas temperature ........ 82 246
,
Crankshaft .................................. 21 22
Crank throw ................................ 11 22 expansion space ................................ 67
Crash re-engagement .....................233 Extended twin operations’ (ETOPS) 263
Creep ................................................191 Externally driven..............................112
Critical altitude ................................117 External pneumatic power unit .....234
Cross-bleed start .............................234 Extra high tension ............................. 73
Cylinder head..................................... 23
Cylinder head temperature .............. 83
Cylinder head temperature gauge .. 62
F
Fail-safe ............................................267
, ,
Fashover ............................................. 76
D Feathered ......................... 88 104 245
,
Feathering ................................... 88 98
Dead cut check .................................. 77
Density altitude................................111 Feathering pump .............................106
Filter ..................................................202
265
X Glossary Index
Fine ..................................................... 88 Grade .................................................. 63

Fine pitch stop .................................124 Gross thrust (Fg) ..............................138
Firing interval ..................................... 26 Ground boosted ..............................115
Firing order ........................................ 22 Ground fine pitch ............................108
Fixed pitch .......................................... 56 Gudgeon pin ...................................... 22
Flat rated ..........................................260
,
Flat spot.............................................. 46
Flight fine................................... 88 245 H
Flight fine pitch ................................108 Header tank ....................................... 60
Flight management system (FMS)..209 High cycle fatigue ............................191
,
Float chamber ................................... 41 High energy ignition unit ................229
Float chamber carburettor .............. 41 High-pressure (HP) pump ...... 201 202
Flowmeter ........................................202 High-speed external gearbox .........226
,
Flyweight cut-out switch .................235 High-tension (HT) booster coil ......... 75
Foreign object damage ...................155 Hot start .................................. 232 252
,
Free power turbine ..........................148 Hot-stream reverser ........................238
Free turbine............................. 148 188 Hot well............................................... 67
Free turbine turboshaft engine ......263 Humidity ...........................................110
Friction horsepower .......................... 66 Hung start ........................................254
,
Fuel cock ...........................................202 Hydraulicing....................................... 65
Fuel control unit ....................... 52 236 Hydrocarbon utilizing microbes ...... 36
Fuel control unit (FCU) ....................206
Fuel-cooled oil cooler ......................202
Fuel cooled oil cooler (FCOC) .........218 I
Fuel flow regulator (FFR) .................206 Idler gear shaft ................................225
Fuel icing ............................................ 53 Ignition switch.................................... 74
Fuel shut-off valve ...........................202 Impact ice ........................................... 53
Fuel system icing inhibitor (FSII) ...... 31 Impeller ............................................161
Full authority digital electronics control Impulse .............................................184
system (FADEC) ................................210 Impulse coupling ............................... 75
Full authority digital engine control128 Impulse/reaction .............................185
Full authority dual engine control .128 Indicated horsepower ....................... 19
Full reverse thrust ...........................245 Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
Full throttle height ...........................120 19
Indirect fuel injection ........................ 50
Ineffective crank angle...................... 17
G Inertia law ............................................ 6
Galvanometer .................................... 62 Injection carburettor......................... 41
Gas turbine ......................................135 Inlet guide vanes (IGVs)...................166
,
Gills ..................................................... 61 In-line engines.................................... 27
Go-around thrust/power ................243 Intercooler............................... 117 118
266
X Glossary Index
Internally driven ..............................119 Max cruise thrust ............................243

Inter-shaft seal.................................223 Maximum climb thrust/power (MCL)243
Iso-octane........................................... 35 Maximum continuous power (MCP)124
Maximum continuous thrust/power
(MCT) .................................................243
J Maximum operating height ...........265
Jet A-1.................................................. 32 Maximum starting altitude ............265
Journals .............................................. 22 Maximum takeoff thrust/power (MTO)
243
Max power .......................................124
K Metal deactivators ............................ 31
Kinematic viscosity ............................ 37 Metering fuel valve ............................ 52
Missed approach procedure (MAP)243
Mixture ............................................... 79
L Mixture control valve ........................ 52
,
Labyrinth seal ..................................222 Momentum law ................................... 6
,
Lat/horizontally opposed ................. 27 Momentum thrust .................. 136 137
Lean die out .....................................206 Motoring over ......................... 232 254
lean (weak) mixture .......................... 79 Multi-feed .........................................192
Light up.............................................232 Multi-grade oils ................................. 64
Line ...................................................172
Liquid cooling .................................... 58
Live magneto check ........................... 77 N
Load compressor ............................263 Net thrust (Fn) ..................................139
Low cycle fatigue .............................191 Newton’s third law of motion ........135
Low-pressure (LP) pump .................201 Noise abatement .............................145
Low-speed external gearbox ..........226 Normal heptane ................................ 35
Low-tension (LT) booster coil ........... 75 Normally aspirated ........................... 28
,
Lubricant ............................................ 65 Normally aspirated engine ............111
Lubricity agent (HITEC)...................... 31 Nozzle guide vanes................. 184 186
M O
Magnetic chip detector ...................218 Octane ratings ................................... 31
Magneto rpm drop check ................. 77 Oil cooler ............................................ 69
Magnetos............................................ 73 Oil pressure pump ..........................217
Manifold ...........................................202 Oil temperature ................................. 70
, ,
Manifold absolute pressure (MAP) ...... One engine inoperative (OEI) .........243
12 92 123 On-speed ............................................ 88
Manifold air pressure ....................... 19 Orifice ...............................................203
Manifold pressure ...........................123 Out of phase ...................................... 96
267
X Glossary Index
,
Over-oiling.......................................... 68
Overspeed ................................. 89 104 R
Over-square ....................................... 11 Radial engine ..................................... 27
Radiator ...........................................118
Ram pressure recovery ...................157
P
,
Rated altitude ..................................120
Parallel spur ....................................100 Rated boost ............................. 120 121
,
Pawl and ratchet .............................233 Rated power .....................................121
,
Performance index............................ 36 Rated rpm ............................... 120 121
Performance number ................ 33 36 Rating................................................243
Performance recovery ....................164 Reaction............................................185
Piston .................................................. 21 Reaction engine ...............................134
Piston pin ........................................... 22 Reaction law ........................................ 6
Piston rings ........................................ 21 Reduced thrust takeoff ...................243
Pitch change mechanism ................. 89 Reference rpm .................................123
Pitch change mechanisms................ 88 Relative density .................................. 37
Pitch lock solenoid ..........................106 Relight envelope ..............................175
Planetary gear .................................100 Reservoir capacitor .........................230
Popping back ..................................... 82 Residual thrust only ........................147
Power output ..................................... 12 Reverse ............................................... 88
Pre ignition ......................................... 35 Reverse pitch ...................................... 88
Pressure.............................................. 70 Rich blow out ...................................206
Pressure balance duct ...................... 42 Rich mixture ....................................... 79
Pressure capsule (BPC) ...................206 Riction horsepower, (FHP) ................ 20
Pressure lubrication.......................... 65 Rocker arm......................................... 24
Pressure pump .................................. 68 Rocker arms ....................................... 23
Pressure ratio ..................................163 Roller bearings.................................222
Pressure relief valve (PRV) ................ 68 Rotor blades.....................................162
Pressure thrust ................................137 RPM ..................................................... 11
Priming pump .................................... 49 Rundown time .................................255
Propeller control unit........................ 88
Propelling nozzle .............................195
Push-rod ............................................. 24 S
, ,
PV diagram ........................................ 18 Safety resistors ................................229
Scavenge filter ................. 69 218 220
Scavenge pump ................................. 69
Q Self-sustaining rpm .........................236
,
Quantity ............................................. 70 Shear neck........................................227
Quintuple pass ................................192 Shroud ..................................... 168 190
Single acting propeller ...................... 94
Small end ........................................... 22
268
X Glossary Index
Snout ................................................177
T
, ,
Snubber ............................................168
Spark plug .............................23 73 76 Takeoff power ..................................124
, , ,
Specific fuel consumption .................... Temperature ....................................110
12 81 154 256 Temperature limited .......................260
,
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) ....... 12 Tension cable ..................................... 73
,
Specific power output ....................... 12 Thermal efficiency .................... 28 151
,
Splash lubricated .............................. 65 Thermal shock .......................... 60 247
Splined ..............................................225 Thermocouple............................. 62 82
Spool .................................................168 Thermostatic valve ............................ 69
Spool-down time .............................255 Third Law of Motion........................134
,
Spool-up time ..................................244 Throttle ............................................... 18
Sprag clutch ............................ 231 233 Throttle lever angle (TLA) ................209
Spring drive unit ..............................119 Thrust ...............................................135
, , ,
Stage .................................................162 Thrust power....................................150
Stall ................................. 169 170 171 Thrust to weight ratio ............ 136 256
Stall limit ..........................................172 Timing belt ......................................... 24
Starter/generator ............................233 Tip losses ..........................................168
Static boost ......................................123 TO/GA switch....................................243
Static dissipater ................................. 31 Top dead centre (TDC) ...................... 11
Stator blades ...................................162 Torching ...........................................253
Steady state line ..............................172 Torque ................................................ 11
Step-up transformers ....................... 73 Torque meter pump ........................217
Stoichiometric. ................................... 79 Totalizer............................................202
Straight oil .......................................... 64 Total volume ...................................... 12
Stroke.................................................. 11 Transistorised devices.....................230
Stub shaft drive ...............................225 Transpiration cooling .....................182
Suction filter.....................................217 T ref ...................................................260
Sulphidation ....................................164 Turbine .............................................112
Supercharged ..................................119 Turbochargers .................................122
Superchargers .................................122 Turbocharging .................................112
,
supercharging .................................... 28 Turbo lag ..........................................115
Surge ........................................ 169 171
Swash plate ......................................205
Swept volume .................................... 12 U
Synchronisation................................. 96 Underspeed........................................ 89
synchrophasing ................................. 97 Urbocharged ....................................119
269
X Glossary Index
V
Valve bounce...................................... 24
Valve guides ....................................... 23
Valve lag ............................................. 17
Valve lead ........................................... 17
,
Valve lift solenoid .............................. 99
Valve overlap .............................. 17 18
Valves .................................................. 23
Valve seat ........................................... 23
Valve seats ......................................... 23
Valve springs ...................................... 24
Vaporizing method..........................204
Vapour locks ...................................... 38
Variable inlet guide vanes (VIGVs) .166
Variable pitch .................................... 88
Variable valve timing ........................ 18
V engine .............................................. 27
Vent ..................................................... 67
,
Venturi tube ......................................... 7
Viscosity ....................................... 37 63
viscosity index .................................... 63
Volatile ................................................ 37
Volumetric efficiency ......................... 28
W
Wastegate.........................................113
Wastegate actuator .........................114
,
Waxing ..............................................250
,
Wet start .................................. 232 253
Wet sump .................................... 66 71
Windmilling ........................................ 98
270
021 Powerplant
CAE ATPL Ground Training Series
Powerplant, book 4 in the series of 16, covers the EASA ATPL syllabus and
learning objectives for this subject. Powerplant is part of the Aircraft General
Knowledge (AGK) subject, alongside Airframes and Systems (book 2), Electrics
and Electronics (book 3), and Instrumentation (book 5).
It deals with engine design and engine operation considerations, as well as
with the recognition of engine malfunctions.
The text is easy to read, and the numerous illustrations help cadets better
understand the more di cult as ects of the subject.
CAE Oxford Aviation Academy

Oxford Airport, Kidlington
Oxford, OX5 1QX, England
Tel ( )
Email: info.il@cae.com
Complies with
EASA ATPL www.caeoxfordinteractive.com

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CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

This book is published as a reference work to assist students enrolled on an approved

How to use this book

In the heading bar

Within the text

EASA Learning Objectives

Information with Links to Other Subjects

Examples and Questions

CAE APTL Ground Training Series

Book 1: Subject 010 - Air Law

Book 2: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Airframes and Systems

Book 3: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Electrics and Electronics

Book 4: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Powerplant

Book 5: Subject 022 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Instrumentation

Book 6: Subject 031 - Mass and Balance

Book 7: Subject 032 - Performance

Book 8: Subject 033 - Flight Planning and Monitoring

Book 9: Subject 040 - Human Performance and Limitations

Book 10: Subject 050 - Meteorology

Book 11: Subject 061 - General Navigation

Book 12: Subject 062 - Radio Navigation

Book 13: Subject 070 - Operational Procedures

Book 14: Subject 081 - Principles of Flight

Book 15: Subject 090 - Communications

Book 16: Subject 100 - Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA)

021.10 Piston Engines ......................................................... 1

10.00 Performance and Engine Handling .......................................... 110

021.11 Gas Turbines Engines ............................................ 133

Glossary Index .................................................................. 268

00.00 Introduction ...............................................................3

01.00 General .....................................................................11

02.00 Fuel ............................................................................30

03.00 Engine Fuel Pumps ..................................................39

04.00 Carburettor and Injection System .........................40

05.00 Cooling Systems .......................................................58

06.00 Lubrication Systems ...............................................63

07.00 Ignition Circuits .......................................................73

08.00 Mixture .....................................................................79

09.00 Aeroplane: Propellers .............................................84

10.00 Performance and Engine Handling..................... 110

In 1862, Beau de Rochas developed an

Internal combustion engines fall into three

Figure 10.2 Terminology table

Figure 10.3 Weightlifter • Kinetic energy of moving limbs and weights

Momentum = mass × velocity

Bernoulli’s theorem: In a smooth ow kinetic energy ressure energy constant.

Figure 10.4 Venturi effect

area × density × velocity = constant

00.04 The Gas Laws

The Combined Gas Laws

This e uation defines the gas constant ( )

Or it can be written as a comparison of a before and after state:

The Application of the Combined Gas Law

Figure 10.5 Four-cylinder strokes

00.05 Other Physical Quantities, Units and Equations

Figure 10.6 Physical quantities, units and equations table

Figure 10.7 Piston engine definitions

Torque - measure of force that acts to rotate an object about an axis.

Compression ratio - the increase in pressure as the piston moves.

Swept Volume = Cross Sectional Area of the Cylinder × The Stroke