Stoichiometry - is the branch of chemistry which A.

Gaseous Fuels
deals with mass and volume relations in unit ▪ Industrial fuels that usually contain CO, light or
operations and unit processes. The basic principle low molecular weight hydrocarbons and
of stoichiometry is the Law of Definite and sometimes nitrogen and oxygen
Multiple Proportions. This states that a pure 1. Natural Gas - combustible gas that occurs in
chemical substance always contains its elements porous rocks of the earth’s crust (methane (CH4),
in the same proportions by weight, and that, ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10),
when two elements unite to form a series of CO, H2, N2)
compounds, the weight of one element 2. Liquefied Natural gas (LNG) - natural gas in
combining with a fixed weight of the other are liquid form
simple integral multiples of each other. 3. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - can be
liquefied under moderate pressure at normal
Industrial Stoichiometry - is the application of temperature but are gaseous under normal
the laws of conservation of matter, of elements atmospheric pressure
and of energy, and of the chemical laws of 4. Re-formed Gas - applied to lower thermal
combining weights to the processes and value gases obtained by the pyrolysis and steam
operations of industrial chemistry. decomposition of high thermal value gases
5. Oil Gases - made from thermal decomposition
Fuels and Combustion of oils
The application of stoichiometric principles to 6. Producer Gas - generated by blasting a deep,
problems involving fuels and combustion is hot bed of coal of coke continuously with a
important in modern industrial work. Fuel mixture of air and steam
combustion constitutes an important step in 7. Blue Water Gas - a blast of air is forced through
almost any chemical process industry where heat a fuel bed and steam is passed through forming
generation is desired. Thus, the study of blue water gas
combustion is most important especially in the 8. Carbureted Water Gas - water gas enriched
field of chemical engineering, which encompasses with oil
the chemical process industry. 9. Blast Furnace Gas - a byproduct of the
manufacture of pig iron in blast surfaces
Combustion
• Commonly employed industrial process B. Liquid Fuels
for heat generation ▪ Light and heavy oils obtained in the refining of
• It is the chemical reaction of a free petroleum oil
reactant (oxygen, O2 in air) and 1. Non-Petroleum Liquefied Fuels
commonly available chemical called fuel. a) Tar Sands - strip-mined and extracted
• It is accompanied by the evolution of light with hot water to recover heavy oil
and heat, thus, it is generally used in the b) Oil Shale - non-porous rocks containing
generation of heat to supply energy to the organic kerogen; extracted by pyrolysis
process industries. after mining
2. Light Oils
Classes of Fuels a) Alcohols - obtained by synthesis or
Fuels can be divided into three general classes: fermentation process (methyl or ethyl)
gaseous, liquids and solids. The stoichiometric b) Alcogas - mixtures of methyl or ethyl
treatments of problems involving different alcohol and gasoline
classes of fuels are similar. Consequently, in the c) Benzole - obtained by distillation of coal
study of the methods for manipulation of the tar or by extraction from coal gas
data supplied, the actual form of the fuel is not of d) Gasoline
great importance. e) Paraffin
f) Kerosene
g) Diesel fuel
3. Heavy Oils - fuel oil that contains residual oil Theoretical O2 = total oxygen required
left over from distillation (Method II) - total O2 in the fuel
a) Bunker oil Theoretical O2 = O2 required by C + O2 required
by H + O2 required by S - O2 in fuel
C. Solid Fuels
Examples: coal, wood, charcoal Note: N2 is non-combustible

Combustion Analysis: Empirical and Molecular B. Theoretical Air for Combustion - air that
Formula contains the exact amount of theoretical O2. Air
The molecular formula is an expression of the is assumed to contain 21% O2 and 79% N2 by
number and type of atoms that are present in a volume. N2 in air is non-combustible and acts
single molecule of a substance. It represents the only as diluent to the O2 in air. The theoretical air
actual formula of a molecule. Subscripts therefore is determined from theoretical
after element symbols represent the number of O2.
atoms. If there is no subscript, it means one atom
is present in the compound. Note: Dry air contains 79% by volume N2 and
The empirical formula is also known as the 21% by volume O2
simplest formula. The empirical formula is the
ratio of elements present in the compound. The C. Excess Oxygen or Excess Air - is the amount of
subscripts in the formula are the numbers of O2 or air supplied above that of theoretically
atoms, leading to a whole number ratio between required for complete combustion/oxidation of
them. the combustibles in the fuel. This is because in
▪ The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6. actual practice, theoretical O2 or theoretical air is
One molecule of glucose contains 6 atoms of not sufficient to get complete combustion.
carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen and 6 atoms of Supplying air in excess will therefore improve
oxygen. combustion efficiency.
▪ If you can divide all of the numbers in a
molecular formula by some value to simplify
them further, then the empirical or simple
formula will be different from the molecular
formula. The empirical formula for glucose is
CH2O. Glucose has 2 moles of hydrogen for every
mole of carbon and oxygen.

Theoretical and Excess Oxygen

A. Theoretical Oxygen - oxygen required for
complete combustion
Methods of Determining Theoretical Oxygen:
▪ Method I. The balanced equation for complete
combustion is written and the
theoretical O2 is the sum of all oxygen consumed
for complete combustion of the fuel.
Theoretical O2 = total oxygen required (Method I)
- O2 free in the fuel
▪ Method II. The components of the fuel are
broken down into its corresponding atoms of
carbon, sulfur, hydrogen, and oxygen. One C
atom needs 1 mole of O2, one S atom need 1
mole of O2, one H atom need 1/4 mole of O2.
 Engineering Nanomaterials -In specific cases and where warranted by
concerns for the environment, health, safety or
A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a competitiveness the number size distribution
meter. For comparison, a red blood cell is threshold of 50 % may be replaced by a
approximately 7,000 nm wide and a water threshold between 1 and 50 %.
molecule is almost 0.3 nm across.
-By derogation from the above, fullerenes,
People are fascinated by the nanoscale, which graphene flakes and single wall carbon
ranges from 100nm down to the size of atoms nanotubes with one or more external dimensions
(around 0.2nm) because material properties can below 1 nm should be considered as
differ significantly at this scale compared to larger nanomaterials.
scales. Nanoscience involves studying
phenomena and manipulating materials at Nanomaterials that are naturally occurring (e.g.,
atomic, molecular, and macromolecular scales, volcanic ash, soot from forest fires) or are
where properties vary greatly from those at generated as incidental (unintentional) by-
larger scales. Nanotechnologies encompass the products of combustion processes (e.g.,
design, characterization, production, and welding, diesel engines) are usually physically and
application of structures, devices, and systems by chemically heterogeneous and often
controlling their shape and size at the nanometer termed “ultrafine particles”. Engineered
scale. nanomaterials, on the other hand, are
intentionally produced and designed with
WHAT ARE NANOMATERIALS? physico-chemical properties for a specific
Nanomaterials are chemical substances or purpose or function.
materials that are manufactured and used at a
very small scale. Nanomaterials are developed to WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?
exhibit novel characteristics compared
to the same material without nanoscale features, Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and
such as increased strength, chemical technology conducted at the nanoscale,
reactivity or conductivity. which is about 1 to 100 nanometers.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study
ISO (2015) defines a nanomaterial as a: “material and application of extremely small things
with any external dimension in the and can be used across all the other science
nanoscale (size range from approximately 1 – 100 fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics,
nm) or having internal structure or materials science, and engineering.
surface structure in the nanoscale”. The term was coined in 1974 by Norio Taniguichi
of of Tokyo Science University to describe
In 2011, the European Commission released a semiconductor processes such as thin-film
specific recommendation on the definition deposition that deal with control on the order of
of a nanomaterial (EC, 2011) which should be nanometers. His definition still stands as the basic
used in European Regulations, including statement today: "Nano-technology
REACH and CLP. According to this mainly consists of the processing of separation,
Recommendation, a ―nanomaterial‖ means: consolidation, and deformation of
materials by one atom or one molecule."
-A natural, incidental or manufactured material
containing particles, in an unbound state or *Physicist Richard Feynman, the father of
as an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, nanotechnology
for 50 % or more of the particles in the
number size distribution, one or more external
dimensions is in the size range 1 nm - 100 nm.
The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is
nanotechnology started with a talk entitled among a number of instruments that allows
―There‘s Plenty of Room at the Bottom‖ by scientists to view and manipulate nanoscale
physicist Richard Feynman at an American particles, atoms, and small molecules. Its
Physical Society meeting at the California development earned its inventors, Gerd Binig and
Institute of Technology (CalTech) on Heinrich Rohrer, the Nobel Prize in
December 29, 1959, long before the term Physics in 1986.
nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman
described a process in which scientists would be Atomic force microscopes (AFMs) gather
able to manipulate and control individual information by "feeling" the surface with a
atoms and molecules. Over a decade later, in his mechanical probe. Gerd Binig, along with Calvin
explorations of ultraprecision machining, Quate and Christoph Gerber, developed
Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term the first AFM in 1986.
nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981, with the
development of the scanning tunneling These microscopes make use of tiny but exact
microscope that could "see" individual atoms, movements to enable precise mechanical
that modern nanotechnology began. scanning.

Seeing at the Nanoscale Nanoparticles: Physical and Chemical Properties

How do scientists see what‘s going on in the The principal parameters of nanoparticles are
extremely small world of nanotechnology? The their shape (including aspect ratios where
microscopes that are typically used in high school appropriate), size, and the morphological sub-
and college won‘t do the job. Nanoscientists use structure of the substance. Nanoparticles
high-powered microscopes that use unique are presented as an aerosol (mostly solid or liquid
methods to allow them to see the surface phase in air), a suspension (mostly solid in
features on the atomic scale, effectively opening liquids) or an emulsion (two liquid phases). In the
the door to modern nanotechnology. presence of chemical agents (surfactants), the
surface and interfacial properties may be
Beginning as early as the 1930s, scientists were modified. Indirectly such agents can stabilise
able to see at the nanoscale using against coagulation or aggregation by conserving
instruments such as the scanning electron particle charge and by modifying the outmost
microscope, the transmission electron layer of the particle. Depending on the growth
microscope, and the field ion microscope. The history and the lifetime of a nanoparticle, very
most recent and notable developments in complex compositions, possibly with complex
microscopy are the scanning tunneling mixtures of adsorbates, have to be expected. In
microscope and the atomic force microscope. the typical history of a combustion nanoparticle,
for example, many different agents are prone to
The electron microscope, first developed by condensation on the particle while it cools down
German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll and is exposed to different ambient atmospheres.
in the 1930s, uses a particle beam of electrons to Complex surface chemical processes are to be
illuminate a specimen and create a highly expected and have been identified only for a
magnified image. Electron microscopes yield small number of particulate model systems. At
much greater resolution than the older the nanoparticle - liquid interface,
light microscopes; they can obtain magnifications polyelectrolytes have been utilised to modify
of up to 1 million times, while the best surface properties and the interactions between
light microscopes can magnify an image only particles and their environment. They have been
about 1,500 times. used in a wide range of technologies, including
adhesion, lubrication, stabilization, and
controlled flocculation of colloidal dispersions
(Liufu et al 2004).
At some point between the Angstrom level and THE CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT
the micrometre scale, the simple picture of
a nanoparticle as a ball or droplet changes. Both Environmental chemistry is a branch of chemistry
physical and chemical properties are that deals with the study of effect of
derived from atomic and molecular origin in a chemicals on environment. These include the
complex way. For example the electronic formation of compounds, how chemicals get
and optical properties and the chemical reactivity into the environment, the changes they undergo
of small clusters are completely once introduced into the environment,
different from the better known property of each the number of chemicals in the environment and
component in the bulk or at extended how they enter the organisms and other
surfaces. Complex quantum mechanical models things from the environment and the damage
are required to predict the evolution of they cause.
such properties with particle size, and typically
very well defined conditions are needed to In other words, environmental chemistry deals
compare experiments and theoretical with the effect of pollutants on the
predictions. environment and the ways and means to reduce
the contamination. This branch of
Nanomaterials: High Surface Area Materials chemistry is the study of pollutants behavior from
the environmental point of view. The
Nanomaterials have significantly larger surface environmental chemistry is further classified into
areas than similar masses of larger-scale main areas; measurement of pollutants,
materials. This increase in surface area enhances and study of the behavior of the contaminants.
reactivity, which is why these materials are so
valuable in various applications. For instance, a Environmental chemistry is vital as chemicals
simple experiment shows that as the size of introduced into the environment proves to be
particles decreases, the surface area per volume harmful not only to the environment but also to
increases dramatically. Nanoparticles exhibit human health and economy. We have
unique properties due to their high surface area- discussed below why environmental chemistry is
to-volume ratio. essential and how it benefits human
health, environment and the economy.
The trend towards miniaturization in
manufacturing and microelectronics is mirrored The Chemistry of Water
in material science, where smaller structures
reveal new intrinsic properties. High surface Water is a crucial, versatile substance that exists
areas are achieved either by making small in many forms and is essential for all life. It is
particles or by creating porous materials. odorless, nearly colorless, and tasteless in its
Examples include supported metal catalysts, purest form. Water is in your body, food, and
zeolites, porous carbons, and amorphous silicas. beverages, and it's used for cleaning,
Several industries benefit from high surface area transportation, and cooling off. Its presence in
nanostructures, such as energy storage, high many everyday products is also significant. Water
temperature engines, construction materials, scarcity can lead to political disputes, and it is
battery elements, pharmaceutical separations, either treasured or squandered depending on
and petrochemical processes. For example, in availability. Chemically, water is a V-shaped polar
catalysis, nanoparticle synthesis can create highly molecule made up of one oxygen and two
efficient and selective catalysts. Scientists and hydrogen atoms, which form hydrogen bonds
engineers use two approaches to create due to their polarity. These bonds give water its
nanostructures: "bottom up," building from unique properties, such as being denser in liquid
atoms or molecules, and "top down," breaking form than solid form (ice floats). Water covers
down bulk materials. The aim is to exploit the 70% of the Earth's surface, but only 3% is
unique quantum behaviors of nanoscale freshwater, with most of it being frozen, making
materials for various technological only a tiny fraction available for use.
breakthroughs.
Despite its simplicity, there are still many Hydrogen bonding
scientific unknowns about water, and ensuring
enough clean, drinkable water for everyone Water molecules are electrically neutral but have
remains a significant challenge. Scientists uneven charge distribution, resulting in an electric
dipole. This causes electrostatic attraction between
continue to study water's special properties and
the partially-positive hydrogen of one molecule and
the essential role it plays for plants, animals, and
the partially-negative oxygen of another, forming
humans. hydrogen bonds. These bonds are weaker and
shorter-lived than covalent bonds.
WATER
Hydrogen bonding gives water unique properties like
A chemist's perspective is far broader than it cohesion (molecules sticking together) and adhesion
seems. Starting with atoms and the structures (molecules bonding to other substances). Cohesion
they form, chemists predict the properties of bulk causes surface tension, while adhesion allows
matter. However, water (H₂O) defies many capillary action, enabling water to move through
predictions, and its existence on Earth is narrow spaces, essential for water transport in plants
and animals.
astonishing. This tiny molecule's unique
properties make it exceptional among millions of
Water's high boiling point, due to hydrogen bonds,
chemical species. Realizing this transforms keeps most of it in liquid form, crucial for life. Its high
chemistry into a journey of wonder, connecting specific heat helps regulate temperature, maintaining
the microscopic world of atoms to our broader homeostasis in cells. Ice's lower density, caused by
reality. hydrogen bonding, allows it to float, insulating aquatic
life in cold climates. Water's density variations ensure
the densest water remains at the bottom of large
bodies, providing a stable environment for organisms.

SOLUTIONS

Most of the materials that we encounter in everyday

life are mixtures. Many mixtures are
homogeneous; that is, their components are
uniformly intermingled on a molecular level.
Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions. Examples
of solutions abound in the world
The molecule of water around is. The air we breathe is a solution of several
gases. Brass is solid solution of zinc and
Water molecules are highly stable and challenging to copper. The fluids that run through our bodies are
decompose. Each hydrogen atom bonds to the central solutions, carrying a great variety of
oxygen atom through a pair of shared electrons, essential nutrients, salts, and other materials.
forming covalent bonds. Of the oxygen atom's six Solutions are extremely important. throughout the
outer-shell electrons, only two are used for bonding, living world, solutions are necessary for
leaving four in two non-bonding pairs. These electron maintenance and survival. In the human body,
pairs arrange themselves to minimize repulsions, nutrients are transported in solution, while
creating a distorted tetrahedral structure with a bond waste products are removed as solutions. In plants, all
angle of 104.5°. internal organs are constantly
bathed in moisture; in photosynthesis, a wet surface
Despite having no net electric charge, water is required on which gases can diffuse
molecules exhibit polarity due to uneven electron materials to the body.
distribution, which contributes to water's unique
properties. Molecules can't be observed directly due A solution, since it is homogeneous, will have the
to their small size, so visualizations like computer- same properties all throughout No matter
generated images are used to model the electron where we take a sample from a solution, we will
distribution. This helps define the effective "surface" obtain materials with same composition as
of the molecule based on the electron cloud's extent. that of any sample from the solution.
SOLUTION - is a homogeneous mixture of two or I. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
more substances A. According to state or phase
* Homogeneous - only one phase; no part is
separated by another by a detectable
boundary.
2 components
1. solute - dissolved substance; present in smaller
amount
2. solvent - dissolving medium; present in greater
amount
Aquation or Hydration - when water is used as a
solvent
SOLUBILITY - amount of solute that can be dissolved
in a given amount of solvent at a specific B. According to solubility
temperature; usually expressed as grams of solute per 1. Unsaturated solution - a solution that can still take
100 grams of solvent more of the solute in addition to what
soluble - substance that dissolves in the solvent it already contains; less concentrated than a saturated
insoluble - substance that does not dissolve in the solution
solvent 2. Saturated Solution - contains the maximum amount
of solute that can be dissolved in the
given amount of solvent; contains the maximum
amount of dissolved solute
necessary for the existence of an equilibrium between
dissolved and undissolved
solute
I. FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY 3. Supersaturated solution - contains more of the
solute that it normally contains at an
A. SOLID in LIQUID elevated temperature; more concentrated than a
1. Shaking or Agitation saturated solution
2. Powdering or Pulverizing C. According to the amount of dissolved solute
3. Temperature 1. Concentrated solution - contains greater amount of
4. Nature of Reactants - “like dissolves like” solute
2. Dilute solution - contains lesser amount of solute;
B. LIQUID in LIQUID concentrated solution + water
1. Miscible - dissolve in any amount in each other
ex. alcohol + water; oil+ gasoline/CCl4 III. WHY SUBSATANCES DISSOLVE? SOLUTION
2. Partially miscible - have limited solubility in each FORMATION
other A. solute - solute attraction - attraction between
ex. tincture of iodine + water solute particles
3. Immiscible - do not dissolve in each other and B. solvent - solvent attraction - attraction between
forms two separate layers upon mixing solvent particles
ex. oil + water * driving force for solution formation
C. GAS in LIQUID solute - solvent attraction - attraction between solute
and solvent particles
1. Pressure - affects gases only
* Henry’s Law - the weight of a gas dissolved by a IV. METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF
given amount of solvent is directly SOLUTIONS
proportional to the pressure exerted by the as wen in concentration - amount of solute present in a
equilibrium with the solution. specified amount of solvent or solution
2. Temperature
A. PERCENTAGE METHODS F. DILUTION CONCEPT
1. Percentage by weight or mass (%w/w) A common problem encountered when working with
- most frequently used by chemists solutions in the laboratory is
that of diluting a solution of known concentration
(usually called a stock solution) to a
lower concentration.
Dilution - a process in which more solvent is added to
a solution in order to lower the
concentration of the solution. The amount of solute
present is now distributed in a
2. Percentage by volume (%v/v) larger amount of solvent.
- used when both solute and solvent are liquids

The Chemistry of the Atmosphere

3. Percentage by weight-volume (%w/v)
- usually encountered in hospitals and industrial The Earth's atmosphere is complex, with numerous
settings reactions occurring constantly. The early atmosphere
- used when working with a solid solute and liquid was primarily carbon dioxide with minor water vapor,
solvent methane, ammonia, and little oxygen, similar to Mars
and Venus. Volcanoes and comets contributed to the
early gases and water. The atmosphere stabilized with
carbon dioxide as the main component. About 3.4
B. MOLE FRACTION (yi) billion years ago, bacteria evolved to utilize
surrounding chemicals, followed by photosynthetic
organisms producing oxygen. Around 200 million
years ago, the atmosphere, now composed of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and other gases, stabilized.
Amino acids, containing hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen,
C. MOLARITY (M) or FORMALITY (F) and oxygen, form proteins in living beings. Most early
- most often used in chemical laboratories atmospheric carbon dioxide is now stored in
M = number of gram-molecular weight (mol) of solute organisms and rocks. Photosynthesis and the
per liter of solution formation of limestone and fossil fuels reduced
F = number of gram-formula weight (mol) of solute carbon dioxide levels. Currently, excessive carbon
per liter of solution dioxide emissions are absorbed by oceans, making
them more acidic, which harms marine life like coral
reefs.

The Earth’s atmosphere is dynamic and forever

D. NORMALITY (N) changing. The causes of these changes are sometimes
- number of gram-equivalent weights of solute per man-made and sometimes part of many natural
liter of solution cycles. Scientists use very complex software to predict
- most often encountered in neutralization reactions weather and climate change as there are many
variables that can influence this. The problems caused
by increased levels of air pollutants require scientists
and engineers to develop solutions that help to
reduce the impact of human activity

The Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere

E. MOLALITY (m) For 200 million years, the proportions of different
- used in experimental situations where changes in gases in the atmosphere have been much
temperature are concerned the same as they are today:
- number of moles of solute per kilogram (kg) of -about four-fifths (approximately 80%) nitrogen
solvent -about one-fifth (approximately 20%) oxygen
-small proportions of various other gases, including
carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
Earth’s Atmospheric Layers Ozone, though only a trace gas in the atmosphere,
plays a vital role by absorbing harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun, acting as Earth's shield. UV
light, including UVB and UVA, can damage DNA and
cause skin conditions and cancers. UVA is particularly
harmful, causing deep tissue damage and melanoma.

The ozone layer is thinning due to

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are found in
refrigerants and plastics. CFCs break down ozone
molecules, hindering their natural reformation. This
thinning, often misnamed as "ozone holes," is more
like thin patches, especially near the poles.

Since the 1970s, global awareness led to regulations

reducing harmful chemicals like those in aerosol cans.
Troposphere These efforts have helped the ozone layer slowly
The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and recover.
extends 8 to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This
part of the atmosphere is the most dense. Almost all Greenhouse Effect
weather is in this region.
Stratosphere
The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere
and extends to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. The
ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar
ultraviolet radiation, is in this layer.
Mesosphere
The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere
and extends to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. Meteors
burn up in this layer
Thermosphere
The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere
and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high.
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms
Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.
the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches
Ionosphere
the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to
The ionosphere is an abundant layer of electrons and
space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by
ionized atoms and molecules that stretches from
greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include water
about 48 kilometers (30 miles) above the surface to
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
the edge of space at about 965 km (600 mi),
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as
overlapping into the mesosphere and thermosphere.
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The absorbed energy
This dynamic region grows and shrinks based on solar
warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.
conditions and divides further into the sub-regions:
This process maintains the Earth’s temperature at
D, E and F; based on what wavelength of solar
around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would
radiation is absorbed. The ionosphere is a critical link
otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.
in the chain of Sun-Earth interactions. This region is
what makes radio communications possible.
Enhanced greenhouse effect
Exosphere
The problem we now face is that human activities –
This is the upper limit of our atmosphere. It extends
particularly burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural
from the top of the thermosphere up to
gas), agriculture and land clearing – are increasing the
10,000 km (6,200 mi).
concentrations of greenhouse gases. This is the
Ozone Layer
enhanced greenhouse effect, which is contributing to
The ozone layer is one layer of the stratosphere, the
warming of the Earth.
second layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. The
stratosphere is the mass of protective gases clinging
to our planet.
Global Warming Soil Chemistry
Global warming refers to the rise in Earth's Soil is essential for life on Earth. It supports plant
temperatures due to human activities, especially the roots, holds water and nutrients, and hosts
burning of fossil fuels, which release greenhouse microorganisms that fix nitrogen and decompose
gases. Since 1880, global temperatures have risen organic matter. Soil also provides materials for
significantly, with a faster increase noted since 1981. construction and protects groundwater quality.
This has led to a total increase of 3.6°F (2°C) since the Without soil, human life would struggle.
preindustrial era.
Key soil functions include:
Greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun, causing the 1. Food and biomass production
greenhouse effect, which leads to higher 2. Environmental interaction (storage, filtering,
temperatures. Scientists link rising temperatures to transformation)
longer, hotter heat waves, more frequent droughts, 3. Biological habitat and gene pool
heavier rainfall, and stronger hurricanes. For example, 4. Source of raw materials
California's drought in 2015 was intensified by 15-20% 5. Physical and cultural heritage
due to global warming. 6. Platform for structures (buildings, highways)

Ocean temperatures are also rising, energizing These functions make soil vital for agriculture,
tropical storms and increasing the frequency of severe environmental protection, and urban development.
hurricanes. The impacts of global warming include
extreme heat waves and significant ice loss in Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air,
Antarctica, leading to rising sea levels. If fossil fuel organic matter, and countless organisms that are the
consumption continues, sea levels could rise several decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the
meters in the next 50 to 150 years. surface of land – it is the “skin of the earth.” Soil is
capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on
Climate Change earth. Soil, as formally defined in the Soil Science
Society of America Glossary of Soil Science Terms, is:
Climate change is a critical issue of our time, with 1. The unconsolidated mineral or organic
global impacts including extreme weather, rising sea material on the immediate surface of the
levels, and threats to food production. Immediate earth that serves as a natural medium for the
action is necessary to mitigate future adaptation growth of land plants.
challenges. 2. The unconsolidated mineral or organic
matter on the surface of the earth that has
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change been subjected to and shows effects of
(IPCC) confirms that human activities are the primary genetic and environmental factors of: climate
cause of climate change. The UN's Framework (including water and temperature effects),
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) initiated in and macro- and microorganisms, conditioned
1992 aims to prevent harmful human interference by relief, acting on parent material over a
with the climate. The Kyoto Protocol and the Paris period of time.
Agreement further strengthen global efforts, with the
latter setting goals to limit temperature rise below 2°C Soil chemistry, discipline embracing all chemical and
above pre-industrial levels. mineralogical compounds and reactions occurring in
soils and soil-forming processes. The goals of soil
In 2019, the Climate Action Summit emphasized chemistry are: (1) to establish, through chemical
increasing and accelerating climate action. Secretary- analysis, compositional limits of natural soil types and
General António Guterres highlighted the need for optimal growth conditions for the various plant
more concrete plans and ambitious actions from communities, (2) to derive principles governing
countries and businesses, advocating for a shift development of soil profiles, and (3) to apply
towards a green economy. analytical and theoretical knowledge to the
improvement of agricultural production.
Pedology, scientific discipline concerned with all The horizons are:
aspects of soils, including their physical and chemical O – (humus or organic) Mostly organic matter
properties, the role of organisms in soil production such as decomposing leaves. The O horizon is
and in relation to soil character, the description and thin in some soils, thick in others, and not present
mapping of soil units, and the origin and formation of at all in others.
soils. Accordingly, pedology embraces several A - (topsoil) Mostly minerals from parent material
subdisciplines, namely, soil chemistry, soil physics, with organic matter incorporated. A good
and soil microbiology. Each employs a sophisticated material for plants and other organisms to live.
array of methods and laboratory equipment not E – (eluviated) Leached of clay, minerals, and
unlike that used in studies of the physics, chemistry, organic matter, leaving a concentration of sand
or microbiology of nonsoils systems. Sampling, and silt particles of quartz or other resistant
description, and mapping of soils is considerably materials – missing in some soils but often found
simpler, however. A soil auger is used to obtain core in older soils and forest soils.
samples in places where no subsurface exposure can B – (subsoil) Rich in minerals that leached
be found, and the soil units are defined, delineated, (moved down) from the A or E horizons and
and mapped in a manner similar to procedures in accumulated here.
stratigraphy. Such soils studies, in fact, overlap the C – (parent material) The deposit at Earth’s
concerns of the stratigrapher and the geologist, both surface from which the soil developed.
of whom may treat the soils layers as strata of the R – (bedrock) A mass of rock such as granite, basalt,
Quaternary Period (from 2.6 million years ago to the quartzite, limestone or sandstone that
present). So then, what is dirt? Dirt is what gets on forms the parent material for some soils – if the
our clothes or under our fingernails. It is soil that is bedrock is close enough to the surface to
out of place in our world – whether tracked inside by weather. This is not soil and is located under the C
shoes or on our clothes. Dirt is also soil that has lost horizon.
the characteristics that give it the ability to support
life – it is “dead.” Soil performs many critical functions
in almost any ecosystem (whether a farm, forest,
prairie, marsh, or suburban watershed). There are
seven general roles that soils play:
1. Soils serve as media for growth of all kinds of
plants.
2. Soils modify the atmosphere by emitting and
absorbing gases (carbon dioxide,
methane, water vapor, and the like) and dust.
3. Soils provide habitat for animals that live in the soil
(such as groundhogs and mice) to organisms (such as
bacteria and fungi), that account for most of the living
things on Earth.
4. Soils absorb, hold, release, alter, and purify most of
the water in terrestrial systems.
5. Soils process recycled nutrients, including carbon,
so that living things can use them over and over again.
Weathering
6. Soils serve as engineering media for construction of
Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving
foundations, roadbeds, dams and buildings, and
of rocks and minerals on the surface
preserve or destroy artifacts of human endeavors.
of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals,
7. Soils act as a living filter to clean water before it
and changes in temperature are all
moves into an aquifer.
agents of weathering.
Soil Profile
Weathering breaks down rocks, and erosion
There are different types of soil, each with its own set
transports the fragments away. No rock can resist
of characteristics. Dig down deep into any soil, and
these forces, which shape landmarks like the Grand
you’ll see that it is made of layers, or horizons (O, A, E,
Canyon. Weathering, through exposure, gradually
B, C, R). Put the horizons together, and they form a
wears away surfaces. Rocks buried quickly are less
soil profile. Like a biography, each profile tells a story
vulnerable to these processes.
about the life of a soil. Most soils have three major
horizons (A, B, C) and some have an organic horizon
(O).
Weathering produces soils by mixing tiny bits of Soil Types
minerals with organic matter. This creates fertile soil, Soil is a natural resource that can be categorized into
especially from a mix of different rocks. Weathering different soil types, each with distinct characteristics
includes mechanical, chemical, and biological that provide growing benefits and limitations.
processes, where living organisms play a role in both. Identifying the type of soil you require for a project is
Soil types from mixed weathered rocks include glacial paramount to support the healthy growth of plant
till, loess, and alluvial sediments. life. Soil can be categorized into sand, clay, silt, peat,
chalk and loam types of soil based on the dominating
Soil Formation size of the particles within a soil.
Soil formation is influenced by five main factors: time,
climate, parent material, topography and relief, and Sandy soil
organisms.

1. Time: Soil formation is a continuous process taking

several thousand years for significant changes.
2. Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and frost
influence soil formation processes and vegetation
types.
3. Parent Material: The unconsolidated mineral and
organic deposits determine the soil's physical and
chemical properties.
4. Topography and Relief: Land surface shape, slope,
-Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tend to be
and position affect drainage and soil profiles.
acidic and low in nutrients. Sandy soils are often
5. Organisms: Bacteria, fungi, plants, animals, and
known as light soils due to their high proportion of
human activities impact soil's chemical and physical
sand and little clay (clay weighs more than sand).
environment.
-These soils have quick water drainage and are
easy to work with. They are quicker to warm up in
Soil Structure
spring than clay soils but tend to dry out in
summer and suffer from low nutrients that are
washed away by rain.
-The addition of organic matter can help give
plants an additional boost of nutrients by
improving the nutrient and water holding
capacity of the soil.

Clay Soil

▪ Granular: Resembles cookie crumbs and is usually

less than 0.5 cm in diameter. Commonly found in
surface horizons where roots have been growing.
▪ Blocky: Irregular blocks hat are usually 1.5 - 5.0 cm in
diameter.
▪ Prismatic: Vertical columns of soil that might be a
number of cm long. Usually found in lower horizons.
▪ Columnar: Vertical columns of soil that have a salt -Clay Soil is a heavy soil type that benefits from
“cap” at the top. Found in soils of arid climates. high nutrients. Clay soils remain wet and cold in
▪ Platy: Thin, flat plates of soil that lie horizontally. winter and dry out in summer.
Usually found in compacted soil. -These soils are made of over 25 percent clay, and
▪ Single Grained: Soil is broken into individual particles because of the spaces found between clay
that do not stick together. Always accompanies a particles, clay soils hold a high amount of water.
loose consistence. Commonly found in sandy soils. -Because these soils drain slowly and take longer
to warm up in summer, combined with drying out
and cracking in summer, they can often test
gardeners.
Silt Soil Loam Soil

-Silt Soil is a light and moisture retentive soil type -Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that
with a high fertility rating. are combined to avoid the negative effects of
-As silt soils compromise of medium sized particles each type.
they are well drained and hold moisture well. -These soils are fertile, easy to work with and
-As the particles are fine, they can be easily provide good drainage. Depending on their
compacted and are prone to washing away with predominant composition they can be either
rain. sandy or clay loam.
-By adding organic matter, the silt particles can be -As the soils are a perfect balance of soil particles,
bound into more stable clumps. they are considered to be a gardeners best
friend, but still benefit from topping up with
Peat Soil additional organic matter.

-Peat soil is high in organic matter and retains a

large amount of moisture.
-This type of soil is very rarely found in a garden
and often imported into a garden to provide an
optimum soil base for planting.

Chalk Soil

-Chalk soil can be either light or heavy but always

highly alkaline due to the calcium carbonate or
lime within its structure.
-As these soils are alkaline they will not support the
growth of ericaceous plants that require acidic
soils to grow.
-If a chalky soil shows signs of visible white lumps
then they can’t be acidified and gardeners
should be resigned to only choose plants that
prefer an alkaline soil.
Nuclear Chemistry and Energy Part II: Bohr’s Hydrogen Atom - 1913
Nuclear energy, or atomic energy, is released from - Bohr found classical mechanics insufficient for
processes affecting atomic nuclei, unlike ordinary explaining atomic structure, proposing a semi-classical
chemical reactions involving only orbital electrons. It model where:
can be harnessed via controlled nuclear fission in - Angular momentum of the electron is quantized.
reactors to produce electricity, while controlled
nuclear fusion holds future promise but remains
- Energy and orbital radii are also quantized.
unperfected as of 2020. Nuclear energy can be
explosively released through both fusion and fission.

A key application is in nuclear power plants, which use

low-enriched uranium fuel for electricity production.
This fuel, in the form of ceramic pellets, is inserted
into reactors where uranium atoms are split (fission), - Bohr's model successfully predicted hydrogen's
generating heat to produce steam, which then turns energy levels but had limitations.
turbines to create electricity.
Birth of Quantum Mechanics: 1925
Radioactivity - Heisenberg's uncertainty principle showed
It is a phenomenon that occurs in a number of limitations in measuring position and speed precisely.
substances. Atoms of the substances - Heisenberg and Schrödinger contributed models
spontaneously emit invisible but energetic radiations, focusing on measurable variables and describing
which can penetrate materials that matter as waves, forming the basis of quantum
are opaque to visible light. The effects of these mechanics.
radiations can be harmful to living cells but,
when used the right way, they have wide range of Nuclear Chemistry: Basics
beneficial applications. Nuclear Terminology
▪ Nuclide - atom with a specific number of protons in
History of Radiation: The Birth of Atomic Models its nucleus
The history of radiation and atomic models began -There are 27 stale nuclides in nature, others are
with early notions of atoms by Democritus in 400 B.C. radioactive
and major discoveries like uranium (1789) and the ▪ Nucleon - proton or neutron, especially as part of an
periodic law of elements (1869). Key milestones atomic nucleus
include: ▪ Unstable isotope - naturally or artificially created
isotope having an unstable nucleus
- 1895: Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays. that decays, emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays until
- 1896: Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity. stability is reached
- 1897-1911: J.J. Thomson, Marie Curie, and Ernest ▪ Radionuclide - unstable isotope that undergoes
Rutherford made significant contributions, including nuclear decay
the discovery of electrons, radioactive elements, and -All isotopes of elements with ≥ 84 protons are
the atomic nucleus. radioactive; specific isotopes of lighter
- Early 20th century: Developments in understanding elements are also radioactive
radiation types, atomic structure, and the relationship # nucleons = # protons + # neutrons
between mass and energy (Einstein's E=mc²).
- 1930s-1940s: Discoveries in artificial radioactivity, Chemical reaction: breal and form bonds between
the first clinical use of radioisotopes, and the atoms but elements remain the same -
Manhattan Project. nuclei are unchanged. Nuclear reactions differ from
ordinary chemical reactions
Atomic Theory ▪ Atomic numbers of nuclei may change (elements are
Part I: Rutherford - Birth of Planetary Model converted to other elements or an element can be
- 1900: Alpha, beta, and gamma rays identified. converted to an isotope of that element)
- 1909: Rutherford's gold foil experiment revealed a ▪ Protons, neutrons, electrons, and other elementary
small, dense nucleus, leading to the planetary model particles may be involved in a nuclear reaction
of the atom. ▪ Reactions occur between particles in nucleus
- Rnuc ≈ 1.3 A1/3 x 10^-15 m ▪ Matter is converted to energy & huge amounts of
- Ratom ≈ 1.5 x 10^-10 m energy are released
▪ Nuclear reactions involved a specific isotope of an A nucleus is stable if it cannot change into another
element; different isotopes of an element may configuration without external energy. Out of
undergo different nuclear reactions thousands of nuclides, about 250 are stable. A plot of
neutrons versus protons shows stable isotopes
forming a narrow band called the band of stability.

X is the elemental symbol Lighter stable nuclei generally have equal numbers of
A is the mass number = total number of protons and protons and neutrons, while heavier nuclei have more
neutrons in the nucleus neutrons than protons to counteract proton-proton
Z is the atomic number = total number of protons in repulsions. For example, nitrogen-14 has a 1:1 ratio,
the nucleus - determines identity of element iron-56 has a 1.15 ratio, and lead-207 has a 1.52 ratio.

-Neutrons act as glue to hold the nucleus together This plot also shows all known nuclides, with stable
▪ For the smaller elements, the ratio of neutrons to ones in blue and unstable ones in green. All isotopes
protons is ~1:1 of elements with atomic numbers above 83 are
▪ As the size of the nucleus increases, the ratio of unstable. The solid line represents nuclei with a 1:1
neutrons to protons increases to ~2:1 neutron-to-proton ratio.

Nuclear Stability Radioactivity

▪ An unstable isotope emits some kind of radiation, -Unstable isotopes decompose (decay) by a process
that is it is radioactive. referred to as radioactivity. A few such nuclei occur in
▪ A stable isotope is one that does not emit radiation, nature, accounting for natural radioactivity. Many
or, if it does its half-life is too long to more can be made (induced) artificially by
have been measured. bombarding stable nuclei with high-energy particles.
▪ It is believed that the stability of the nucleus of an
isotope is determined by the ratio of Types of Radioactivity
neutrons to protons.
▪ Observations of the atomic number of isotopes show
us that:
-Isotopes with atomic number (Z) > 82 are unstable
-Of the elements with atomic number (Z) < 82, all
have one or more stable isotopes except technetium
(Z = 43) and promethium (Z = 61) which do not have
any stable isotopes.
-Isotopes with atomic number (Z) ≤ 20 and with a
neutron (n) to proton (p) ratio of
about 1 are more likely to be stable (n ÷ p ~ 1)
▪ Observations on whether the nucleus contains odd
or even numbers of protons and
neutrons leads us to believe that a nucleus with:
-odd numbers of protons and odd numbers of
neutrons is most likely to be unstable
-even number of protons and even numbers of
neutrons is most likely to be stable
▪ Nuclei containing 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126 protons or
neutrons are generally more stable
than nuclei that do not possess these magic numbers
▪ As the atomic number increases, more neutrons are
needed to help bind the nucleus
together, so there is a high neutron:proton ratio
 Activity can be expressed in terms of the number of
atoms decaying per second, or
Becquerels (Bq).

1 Bq = 1 atom/s

Alternatively, activity may be cited in disintegrations

per minute or, perhaps most
commonly, in Curies (Ci).

1 Ci = 3.70 x 1010 atoms/s

Dating Artifacts by Radioactivity

Carbon-14 Dating
t1/2 = 5730 yr
While alive, plants constantly replace carbon-14
After death, the carbon-14 will decay at a known
rate

Nuclear Transmutation
Transmutation is the change of one element to
another as a result of bombardment of
high energy particles (e.g. neutrons, electrons, and
The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
other nuclei)
Whether or not a given isotope is radioactive is a
▪ Rutherford prepared the 1st synthetic nuclide,17^O,
characteristic of that particular isotope. Some
in 191; Irene Curie prepared the 1st radioactive
isotopes are stable indefinitely, while others are
nuclide,30^P, in 1934
radioactive and decay through a characteristic form of
▪ All trans-Uranium elements (Z > 92) are both
emission. As time passes, less and less of the
synthetic (man-made) and radioactive.
radioactive isotope will be present, and the level of
▪ Nuclear transmutations can show alpha, beta, and
radioactivity decreases. An interesting and useful
gamma emissions as well as
aspect of radioactive decay is half-life, which is the
production of protons
amount of time it takes for one-half of a radioactive
isotope to decay. The half-life of a specific radioactive
Nuclear Fission
isotope is constant; it is unaffected by conditions and
Fission - a nuclear reaction that releases energy as a
is independent of the initial amount of that isotope.
result of splitting of large nuclei into
The rate of decay for radioactive isotopes is a first
smaller ones. Nuclear power pants use fission to split
order process and obeys the integrated rate for first
U-235 to produce energy.
order kinetics:
1. U-235 is bombarded with slow neutrons - this
produces smaller nuclei as well as more
neutrons and energy.
2. A chain reaction results because each neutron
produced can cause fission of another
U-235 nucleus.
Critical mass - minimum mass required to sustain a Fuels
chain reaction. Fuel is a material that burns continuously once it
Control rods are made of B or Cd; these rods absorb reaches its ignition temperature, with sufficient
neutron so the process doesn’t oxygen or air. The main components are carbon and
accelerate too rapidly. Rods are raised to control the hydrogen, which are combustibles, along with sulfur.
speed of the process. The chemical process of combining with oxygen is
Fuel rods are made of U-235. 238^Uis the most called oxidation, while rapid oxidation with significant
abundant U isotope but is not fissionable so uranium heat release is combustion, and an almost
must be enriched to increase the amount of235^U. instantaneous reaction is detonation.
Moderator - slows down the neutrons. Water or other
liquid coolant surround rods. The A common use of fuel is in coal power plants, which
water serves to 1) slow down neutrons so they can burn coal to generate electricity. These plants
collide with U-235; 2) transfer heat to contribute to over a third of the world's electricity but
steam generator. cause significant air pollution-related deaths. Coal is
pulverized and burned in boilers to convert water into
Primary problems with nuclear power plants steam, which spins turbines to generate electricity,
1. Safety (Chernobyl and Three Mile Island had cooling transforming chemical energy into thermal,
system failures that led to reactor mechanical, and finally, electrical energy.
meltdowns. Chernobyl also did not have containment
building around reactor) Classification of Fuels:
2. Nuclear Wastes - some products will remain 1. Solid fuel
radioactive for thousands of years. 2. Liquid fuel
3. Gaseous fuel
Nuclear Fusion Major forms of fuel being used today
Fusion - a nuclear reaction that releases energy as a 1. Petroleum
result of the union of smaller nuclei to 2. Natural gas extract
form larger ones. It occurs in the upper atmosphere 3. Coal – is generally black rock that is composed of C,
and outer space; reactions that power H2, O2, N2 and S
the sun and stars. Classification of coal:
1. Anthracite – is the hardest type of coal and has
more carbon and more energy.
2. Lignite – has low carbon content but high in
hydrogen and oxygen contents.
3. Bituminous – falls in between the range of
anthracite and lignite coals for its
Fusion generates even more energy than fission and hardness and energy output.
creates little radioactive waste, so it would provide a
wonderful source of energy - fusion is attractive as a In early China, coal was used for cooking and later
potential alternative power source, but fusion became essential worldwide for transportation,
requires very high temperatures (tens of millions of factories, and power plants to produce electricity.
degrees Celsius) in order for nuclei to overcome Oil, or petroleum, has a long history of use, dating
strong repulsive forces - magnetic fusion reactors back 5,000 to 6,000 years. Ancient civilizations like the
are being designed and tested. Babylonians and Egyptians used crude oil for fuel,
medicine, and lighting. In 1859, Edwin Drake
discovered crude oil in Pennsylvania, leading to the
development of oil wells in places like California and
the Middle East, significantly contributing to the
global oil supply.

Crude oil undergoes fractional distillation:

-Petrol contains 5-7 carbons in the hydrocarbon chain.
Petrol vaporizes at low temperatures and are easily
ignited making it useful for cars, bikes, etc.
-Kerosene is useful for jets engines, air craft, rockets,
lamps.
-Diesel is common for vans, trucks, and heavy
equipment.
-Fuel oil from residue is produce after diesel and is
used for ships, power plants etc.
-Lubricating oil from residue is produce also after
diesel.

Natural gas was discovered 2000 years ago. The

natural gas seats were first discovered in Iran. The
ancient Persians discovered the natural gas. Natural
gas is made up of methane and is lighter than air.
Natural gas is usually found near petroleum wells
pumped out, purified and stored.

Two Classification of Natural Gas

1. Dry – Contains generally methane
2. Wet – Aside from methane it contains ethane,
propane, butane, pentane

Uses of Natural Gas: Domestic, industrial, power

generation, fuel for vehicles, feed stocks for fertilizers,
hydrogen fuel cells.

Other forms of natural gas such as biogas are used in

the countryside for domestic purposes.