Introduction

to

PROF. DR. K. ADISESHA

 R-Programming 2
Part-1

R-Programming Introduction

Data Objects in R

Variables in R

Operators in R

R Programming
 3
Introduction

R Programming:
"R is an interpreted computer programming language which was created by Ross
Ihaka and Robert Gentleman at the University of Auckland, New Zealand."
➢ It is also a software environment used to analyze statistical information, graphical
representation, reporting, and data modeling.
➢ R is the implementation of the S programming language, which is combined with
lexical scoping semantics.
➢ R is one of the most important tool which is used by researchers, data analyst,
statisticians, and marketers for retrieving, cleaning, analyzing, visualizing, and
presenting data.
➢ R allows integration with the procedures written in the C, C++, .Net, Python, and
FORTRAN languages to improve efficiency.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Introduction

History of R Programming:
The history of R goes back about 20-30 years ago. R was developed by Ross lhaka and
Robert Gentleman in the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and the R Development
Core Team currently develops it.
➢ This programming language name is taken from
the name of both the developers.
➢ R communicate with the other languages and
possibly calls Python, Java, C++.
➢ The big data world is also accessible to R. We can
connect R with different databases like Spark or
Hadoop.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Introduction

Features of R programming:
R is a domain-specific programming language which aims to do data analysis. The
most important arguably being the notation of vectors allowing us to perform a
complex operation on a set of values in a single command.
➢ There are the following features of R programming:
❖ R is an interpreted language used as data analysis software.
❖ R supports procedural programming with functions and object-oriented programming
with generic functions.
❖ It has a consistent and incorporated set of tools which are used for data analysis.
❖ It is an open-source, powerful, and highly extensible software.
❖ It provides highly extensible graphical techniques.
❖ It allows us to perform multiple calculations using vectors.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Introduction

Why R programming:
There are various tools available in the market for Data Visualization: R, Power BI,
Spark, Qlikview etc..
➢ R, SAS, and SPSS are three statistical languages. Of these three statistical languages,
R is the only an open source.
➢ Uses of R programming:
❖ R is a programming and statistical language.
❖ R is used for data Analysis and Visualization.
❖ R is simple and easy to learn, read and write.
❖ R is an example of a FLOSS (Free Libre and Open Source Software) where one can
freely
❖ distribute copies of this software, read its source code, modify it, etc.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Introduction

Applications of R:
R programming is used for statistical information and data representation. So it is
required that we should have the knowledge of statistical theory in mathematics.
➢ There are several-applications available in real-time.
❖ Facebook ❖ XBOX ONE
❖ Google ❖ ANZ
❖ Twitter ❖ FDA
❖ HRDAG
❖ Sunlight Foundation
❖ RealClimate
❖ NDAA
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Introduction

Installation of R:
R programming is a very popular language and to work on that we have to install two
things, i.e., R and RStudio. R and RStudio works together to create a project on R.
➢ The official site https://cloud.r-project.org provides
binary files for major operating systems including
Windows, Linux, and Mac OS.
➢ First, we have to download the R setup from
https://cloud.r-project.org/bin/windows/base/.
➢ When we click on Download R 3.6.1 for windows,
our downloading will be started of R setup. Once
the downloading is finished, we have to run the
setup
Prof. Dr. of R
K. Adisesha
 9
Introduction

Editors for R programming :

The prominent editors available for R programming language are:
➢ RGUI(R graphical user interface) – R-studio – Studio R offers a richer editing
environment than RGUI and makes some common tasks easier and more fun.
➢ RStudio - RStudio is an integrated development environment (IDE) for R language.
Rstudio is a code editor and development environment, with some nice features that
make code development in R easy and fun.
➢ R Command Prompt: Once you have R environment setup, then it’s easy to start your
R command prompt by just clicking on R Software icon. This will launch R interpreter
and you will get a prompt > where you can start typing your programs or commands.

Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha

 10
Introduction

Editors for R programming :RStudio is an integrated development environment

(IDE) :

Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha

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Introduction

Computations in R:
To understand computations in R, two slogans are helpful:
❖ Everything that exists is an object.
❖ Everything that happens is a function call.
➢ Variables, Datatypes in R: Everything in R is an object. R has 5 atomic vector types.
By atomic, we mean the vector only holds data of a single type.
❖ Character : "a", “adi"
❖ Numeric (real or decimal) : 10, 25.5
❖ Integer : 2L (the L tells R to store this as an integer)
❖ Logical : TRUE, FALSE
❖ Complex : 1+4i (complex numbers with real and imaginary parts)
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Introduction

Computations in R:
R provides many functions to examine features of vectors and other objects, for
example:
➢ class() - what kind of object is it (high-level)?
➢ typeof() - what is the object’s data type (low-level)?
➢ length() - how long is it? What about two dimensional objects?
➢ attributes() - does it have any metadata?
v = “Adisesha" v = 2L
print(class(v)) print(class(v))
o/pt: [1] "character“ o/p: [1] "integer"

Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha

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Data Objects in R

Data Objects in R:
Data types are used to store information. In R, we do not need to declare a variable as
some data type.
➢ The variables are assigned with R-Objects and the data type of the R-object becomes
the data type of the variable.
➢ There are mainly six data types present in R:
❖ Vectors
❖ Lists
❖ Matrices
❖ Arrays
❖ Factors
❖ Data Frames
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Data Objects in R

Vectors: A Vector is a sequence of data elements of the same basic type.

➢ Scalar variable A scalar is a single number.
➢ Scalar variable with the numeric value 5: x = 5. Vector variable A vector is a sequence
of numbers.
>vtr = c(1, 3, 5 ,7 9) or >vtr <- c (1, 3, 5 ,7 9)
>print(vtr) o/p: [1] 1 3 5 7 9
➢ Creating sequence vector by using colon operator
>v = 2:12
>print(v) o/p: [1] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
➢ Using seq() (sequence) function, create vector from 1 to 9 increment by 2.
>a=seq(1,10,by=2)
>a o/p: [1] 1 3 5 7 9
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Data Objects in R

List: Lists are the R objects which contain elements of different types like − numbers,
strings, vectors and another list inside it.
➢ A list can also contain a matrix or a function as its elements. List is created using list()
function.
>n = c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) O/p –
>s = c("adi", “sunny", “prajwal") [[1]]
>x = list(n, s, TRUE) [1] 1 2 3 4 5
>x [[2]]
[1] "adi", “sunny", “prajwal"
[[3]]
[1] TRUE

Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha

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Data Objects in R

Matrices: Matrices are the R objects in which the elements are arranged in a two-
dimensional rectangular layout. A Matrix is created using the matrix() function.
➢ A list can also contain a matrix or a function as its elements. List is created using list()
function.
➢ Example: matrix (data, nrow, ncol, byrow, dimnames) where,
❖ data is the input vector which becomes the data elements of the matrix.
❖ nrow is the number of rows to be created.
❖ ncol is the number of columns to be created.
❖ byrow is a logical clue. If TRUE then the input vector elements are arranged by row.
❖ dimname is the names assigned to the rows and columns. o/p: [,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] "a" "a" "b"
>M = matrix( c('a','a','b','c','b','a'), nrow = 2, ncol = 3, byrow = TRUE)
[2,] "c" "b" "a"
>print(M)
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Data Objects in R

Arrays: Arrays are the R data objects which can store data in more than two-
dimensions.
➢ For example − If we create an array of dimension (2, 3, 4) then it creates 4 rectangular
matrices each with 2 rows and 3 columns. While matrices are confined to two
dimensions, arrays can be of any number of dimensions.
➢ An array is created using the array() function. It takes vectors as input and uses the
values in the dim parameter to create an array.
➢ Example: Here we create two arrays with two elements which are 3x3 matrices each
>v1 <- c(5,9,3) Output – , , 1 Output – , , 2
>v2 <- c(10,11,12,13,14,15) [,1] [,2] [,3] [,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,] 5 10 13 [1,] 5 10 13
>result<- array(c(v1,v2),dim = c(3,3,2))
[2,] 9 11 14 [2,] 9 11 14
>result [3,] 3 12 15 [3,] 3 12 15
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Data Objects in R

Factors: Factors are the data objects which are used to categorize the data and store it
as levels. They can store both strings and integers.
➢ They are useful in data analysis for statistical modeling.
➢ Factors are created using the factor() function. The n-levels functions gives the count of
levels.
➢ Example: # Create a factor object from vector:
apple_colors<- c('green','green','yellow','red','red','red','green')
# Create a factor object.
factor_apple<- factor(apple_colors) Output –
# Print the factor. [1] green green yellow red red red green
print(factor_apple) Levels: green red yellow
print(nlevels(factor_apple)) [1] 3
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Data Objects in R

Data Frames: A data frame is a table or a two-dimensional array-like structure in

which each column contains values of one variable and each row contains one set of
values from each column.
➢ Data frames are tabular data objects. Unlike a matrix in data frame each column can
contain different modes of data.
➢ The first column can be numeric while the second column can be character and third
column can be logical. It is a list of vectors of equal length.
➢ Data Frames are created using the data.frame() function.
➢ Example: Create the data frame. Output –
BMI <- data.frame( gender = c("Male", "Male", "Female"), gender height weight Age
height = c(152, 171.5, 165), 1 Male 152.0 81 42
weight = c(81,93, 78), 2 Male 171.5 93 38
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha Age = c(42,38,26) ) 3 Female 165.0 78 26
 20
Variables in R

Variables: A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can
manipulate.
➢ A variable in R can store an atomic vector, group of atomic vectors or a combination of
many R objects.
➢ A valid variable name consists of letters, numbers and the dot or underline characters.
➢ The variable name starts with a letter or the dot not followed by a number.
➢ The variables can be assigned values using leftward, rightward and equal to operator.
➢ The values of the variables can be printed using print() or cat()function.
➢ Example: var_name2. is valid it has letters, numbers, dot and underscore.
var_name% is Invalid it has the character '%'. Only dot(.) and underscore allowed.
# Assignment using equal operator. var.1 = c(0,1,2,3)
# Assignment using leftward operator. var.2 <- c("learn","R")
# K.Assignment
Prof. Dr. Adisesha using rightward operator. c(TRUE,1) -> var.3
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Variables in R

Data Type of a Variable: In R, a variable itself is not declared of any data type,
rather it gets the data type of the R - object assigned to it.
➢ So R is called a dynamically typed language, which means that we can change a
variable’s data type of the same variable again and again when using it in a program.
➢ To know all the variables currently available in the workspace we use the ls() function.
print(ls())
➢ Variables can be deleted by using the rm() function. rm(var.1)
➢ Example:
> var_x<- "Hello"
> cat("The class of var_x is ",class(var_x),"\n")
> var_x<- 34.5
> cat(" Now the class of var_x is ",class(var_x),"\n")
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Keywords in R

R – Keywords: Keywords are specific reserved words in R, each of which has a specific
feature associated with it.
➢ Almost all of the words which help one to use the functionality of the R language are
included in the list of keywords.
➢ In R, one can view these keywords by using either help(reserved) or ?reserved.
➢ Example: if in NaN
else next NA
while break NA_integer
repeat TRUE NA_real
for FALSE NA_complex_
function NULL NA_character_
Inf
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Operators: An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific

mathematical or logical manipulations.
➢ R language is rich in built-in operators and provides following types of operators
➢ Types of Operators in R programming −
❖ Arithmetic Operators
❖ Relational Operators
❖ Logical Operators
❖ Assignment Operators
❖ Miscellaneous Operators
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Arithmetic Operators: Arithmetic operations in R simulate various math operations,

like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulo using the specified
operator between operands
➢ The R operators are performed element-wise at the corresponding positions of the
vectors. −
❖ Addition operator (+): The values at the corresponding positions of both operands are added.
❖ Subtraction Operator (-): The second operand values are subtracted from the first.
❖ Multiplication Operator (*): The multiplication of corresponding elements of vectors and Integers are
multiplied with the use of the ‘*’ operator.
❖ Division Operator (/): The first operand is divided by the second operand with the use of the ‘/’ operator.
❖ Power Operator (^): The first operand is raised to the power of the second operand.
❖ Modulo Operator (%%): The remainder of the first operand divided by the second operand is returned.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Arithmetic Operators: Arithmetic operations in R simulate various math operations,

like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulo using the specified
operator between operands
➢ Example −
# R program to illustrate the use of Arithmetic operators
vec1 <- c(0, 2)
vec2 <- c(2, 3)
# Performing operations on Operands Output
cat ("Addition of vectors :", vec1 + vec2, "\n") Addition of vectors : 2 5
cat ("Subtraction of vectors :", vec1 - vec2, "\n") Subtraction of vectors : -2 -1
cat ("Multiplication of vectors :", vec1 * vec2, "\n") Multiplication of vectors : 0 6
cat ("Division of vectors :", vec1 / vec2, "\n") Division of vectors : 0 0.6666667
cat ("Modulo of vectors :", vec1 %% vec2, "\n") Modulo of vectors : 0 2
cat
Prof. Dr. ("Power operator :", vec1 ^ vec2)
K. Adisesha Power operator : 0 8
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Operators in R

Logical Operators: Logical operations in R simulate element-wise decision operations,

based on the specified operator between the operands, which are then evaluated to either
a True or False boolean value.
➢ Any non-zero integer value is considered as a TRUE value, be it a complex or real
number.
❖ Logical AND operator (&): Returns True if both the operands are True.
❖ Logical OR operator (|): Returns True if either of the operands is True.
❖ NOT operator (!): A unary operator that negates the status of the elements of the operand.
❖ Logical AND operator (&&): Returns True if both the first elements of the operands are
True.
❖ Logical OR operator (||): Returns True if either of the first elements of the operands is True.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Logical Operators: Logical operations in R simulate element-wise decision operations,

based on the specified operator between the operands, which are then evaluated to either
a True or False boolean value.
➢ Example −The following R code illustrates the usage of all Logical Operators in R
# the use of Logical operators
vec1 <- c(0,2)
vec2 <- c(TRUE,FALSE)
Output
# Performing operations on Operands
Element wise AND : FALSE FALSE
cat ("Element wise AND :", vec1 & vec2, "\n")
Element wise OR : TRUE TRUE
cat ("Element wise OR :", vec1 | vec2, "\n")
Logical AND : FALSE
cat ("Logical AND :", vec1 && vec2, "\n")
Logical OR : TRUE
cat ("Logical OR :", vec1 || vec2, "\n")
Negation : TRUE FALSE
cat ("Negation :", !vec1))
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Relational Operators: The relational operators in R carry out comparison operations

between the corresponding elements of the operands.
➢ Returns a Boolean TRUE value if the first operand satisfies the relation compared to the second.
A TRUE value is always considered to be greater than the FALSE.
❖ Less than (<): Returns TRUE if the corresponding element of the first operand is less than that of the
second operand. Else returns FALSE.
❖ Less than equal to (<=): Returns TRUE if the corresponding element of the first operand is less
than or equal to that of the second operand. Else returns FALSE.
❖ Greater than (>): Returns TRUE if the corresponding element of the first operand is greater than
that of the second operand. Else returns FALSE.
❖ Greater than equal to (>=): Returns TRUE if the corresponding element of the first operand is
greater or equal to that of the second operand. Else returns FALSE.
❖ Not equal to (!=): Returns TRUE if the corresponding element of the first operand is not equal to the
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
second operand. Else returns FALSE
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Operators in R

Assignment Operators: Assignment operators in R are used to assigning values to

various data objects in R. The objects may be integers, vectors, or functions. These values
are then stored by the assigned variable names.
➢ There are two kinds of assignment operators: Left and Right.
❖ Left Assignment (<- or <<- or =): Assigns a value to a vector.
vec1 = c("ab", TRUE)
print (vec1)
Output : "ab" "TRUE"
❖ Right Assignment (-> or ->>): Assigns value to a vector.
c("ab", TRUE) ->> vec1
print (vec1)
Output : "ab" "TRUE"
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Assignment Operators: : Assignment operators in R are used to assigning values to

various data objects in R. The objects may be integers, vectors, or functions.
➢ Example −The following R code illustrates the usage of all Assignment operators:
vec1 <- c(2:5)
c(2:5) ->> vec2
vec3 <<- c(2:5)
vec4 = c(2:5) Output
c(2:5) -> vec5 vector 1 : 2 3 4 5
cat ("vector 1 :", vec1, "\n") vector 2 : 2 3 4 5
cat("vector 2 :", vec2, "\n") vector 3 : 2 3 4 5
cat ("vector 3 :", vec3, "\n") vector 4 : 2 3 4 5
cat("vector 4 :", vec4, "\n") vector 5 : 2 3 4 5
cat("vector 5 :", vec5)
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Operators in R

Miscellaneous Operators: These are the mixed operators in R that simulate the
printing of sequences and assignment of vectors, either left or right-handed.
➢ There are two kinds of Miscellaneous Operators:
❖ %in% Operator: Checks if an element belongs to a list and returns a boolean value TRUE if
the value is present else FALSE.
val <- 0.1
list1 <- c(TRUE, 0.1,"apple")
print (val %in% list1)
Output : TRUE Checks for the value 0.1 in the specified list. It exists, therefore, prints TRUE.
❖ %*% Operator: This operator is used to multiply a matrix with its transpose. Transpose of
the matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows to columns and columns to rows.
pro = mat %*% t(mat)
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
print(pro)
 32
Operators in R

Miscellaneous Operators: These are the mixed operators in R that simulate the
printing of sequences and assignment of vectors, either left or right-handed.
❖ %*% Operator: This operator is used to multiply a matrix with its transpose. Transpose of
the matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows to columns and columns to rows.
# R program to illustrate the use of Miscellaneous operators
mat <- matrix (1:4, nrow = 1, ncol = 4) Output
print("Matrix elements using : ") [1] "Matrix elements using : "
print(mat) [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4]
product = mat %*% t(mat) [1,] 1 2 3 4
print("Product of matrices")
[1] "Product of matrices"
print(product,) [,1]
cat ("does 1 exist in prod matrix :", "1" %in% product) [1,] 30
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
does 1 exist in prod matrix : FALSE
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Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ if condition: This control structure checks the expression provided in parenthesis is true
or not. If true, the execution of the statements in braces {} continues.
➢ Syntax: Example:
if(expression) x <- 100
{ statements if(x > 10){
print(paste(x, "is greater than 10"))
.... }
....
} Output:
[1] "100 is greater than 10"
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ if-else condition: It is similar to if condition but when the test expression in if condition
fails, then statements in else condition are executed.
➢ Syntax: Example: Check value is less than or greater than 10
if(expression){ x <- 5
statements if(x > 10){
.... } print(paste(x, "is greater than 10"))
}else{
else{ statements
print(paste(x, "is less than 10"))
.... }
.... } Output:
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha [1] "5 is less than 10"
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Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ for loop: It is a type of loop or sequence of statements executed repeatedly until exit
condition is reached.. Example: Print letters range from 4 to 10
➢ Syntax: x <- letters[4:10]
for(i in x){ print(i) }
for(value in vector){
Output:
statements [1] "d"
.... [1] "e"
.... [1] "f"
} [1] "g"
[1] "h"
[1] "i"
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
[1] "j"
 36
Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ Nested loops: Nested loops are similar to simple loops. Nested means loops inside loop.
Moreover, nested loops are used to manipulate the matrix...
➢ Syntax: Output:
# Defining matrix [1] 2 [1] 3
m <- matrix(2:15, 2) [1] 4 [1] 5
[1] 6 [1] 7
for (r in seq(nrow(m))) {
[1] 8 [1] 9
for (c in seq(ncol(m))) { [1] 10 [1] 11
print(m[r, c]) [1] 12 [1] 13
} [1] 14 [1] 15
}
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
 37
Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ while loop: while loop is another kind of loop iterated until a condition is satisfied. The
testing expression is checked first before executing the body of loop.
➢ Syntax:
while(expression){ Example: x = 1 Output: [1] 1
statement # Print 1 to 5 [1] 2
.... while(x <= 5){ [1] 3
.... print(x) [1] 4
x=x+1} [1] 5"
}

Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha

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Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ repeat loop and break statement: repeat is a loop which can be iterated many number of
times but there is no exit condition to come out from the loop.
➢ So, break statement is used to exit from the loop. break statement can be used in any type
of loop to exit from the loop. Example: x = 1 Output:
➢ Syntax: # Print 1 to 5 [1] 1
repeat{ [1] 2
repeat { statements
print(x) [1] 3
.... x=x+1 [1] 4
if(expression) { if(x > 5){ [1] 5
break break
} }
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha } }
 39
Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ return statement: return statement is used to return the result of an executed function and
returns control to the calling function.
➢ Syntax: Example: func(1)
return(expression) func <- function(x){ func(0)
if(x > 0){ func(-1)
return("Positive")
}else if(x < 0){ Output:
return("Negative") [1] "Positive"
}else{ [1] "Zero"
return("Zero") [1] "Negative"
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha } }
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Control Statements

Control Statements in R Programming: Control statements are expressions used to

control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the
statements.
➢ next statement: next statement is used to skip the current iteration without executing the
further statements and continues the next iteration cycle without terminating the loop.
➢ Example: # Defining vector
x <- 1:10 Output:
# Print even numbers [1] 2
for(i in x){ [1] 4
if(i%%2 != 0){ [1] 6
next #Jumps to next loop [1] 8
} print(i) [1] 10
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
}
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R Programming

Classes in R Programming:
Classes and Objects are basic concepts of Object-Oriented Programming that revolve
around the real-life entities. Everything in R is an object.
➢ An object is simply a data structure that has some methods and attributes. A class is just
a blueprint or a sketch of these objects.
➢ It represents the set of properties or methods that are common to all objects of one type.
➢ Unlike most other programming languages, R has a three-class system.
❖ S3 Classes
❖ S4 Classes
❖ Reference Classes

Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha

 42
R Programming

Classes in R Programming:
S3 Class : S3 is the simplest yet the most popular OOP system and it lacks formal
definition and structure..
➢ An object of this type can be created by just adding an attribute to it.
➢ In S3 systems, methods don’t belong to the class. They belong to generic functions.
Example:
# create a list with required components
Course <- list(name = “K. Adi", Dept = “Computers") Output:
$name
# give a name to your class [1] “K. Adi"
class(BCA) <- Course $Dept
print(BCA) [1] “Computers"
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
 43
R Programming

Classes in R Programming:
S4 Class : Programmers of other languages like C++, Java might find S3 to be very
much different than their normal idea of classes as it lacks the structure that classes are
supposed to provide.
➢ S4 is a slight improvement over S3 as its objects have a proper definition and it gives a
proper structure to its objects.
➢ setClass() is used to define a class and new() is used to create the objects.
➢ Example: Output:
An object of class “Course"
library(methods) # definition of S4 class
Slot "name":
setClass(“Course", slots=list(name="character", Subject = "character"))
[1] “Adi"
# creating an object using new() by passing class name and slot values
Slot “Subject":
Course <- new(“Dept", name=“Adi", Subject = “R Programming")
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
[1] “R Programming"
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R Programming

Classes in R Programming:
Reference Class: Reference Class is an improvement over S4 Class. Here the methods
belong to the classes. These are much similar to object-oriented classes of other
languages.
➢ Defining a Reference class is similar to defining S4 classes. We use setRefClass()
instead of setClass() and “fields” instead of “slots”.
Example: library(methods)
# setRefClass returns a generator Output:
Course <- setRefClass(“Course", fields = list(name = "character", Reference class object of class “Course"
Subject = "character",)) Field "name":
#now we can use the generator to create objects [1] “Adi"
Field “Subject":
Dept <- Course(name = “Adi", Subject = “R Pgm", )
[1] “R Prog"
Dept
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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R Programming

Input from User in R Programming:

Developers often have a need to interact with users, either to get data or to provide some
sort of result.
➢ R two methods to take input from the user.
❖ Using readline() method
❖ Using scan() method.
➢ readline() method: In R language readline() method takes input in string format. If one
inputs an integer then it is inputted as a string.
➢ To convert the inputted value to the desired data type, there are some functions in R.
❖ as.integer(n); —> convert to integer
❖ as.numeric(n); —> convert to numeric type (float, double etc)
❖ as.complex(n); —> convert to complex number (i.e 3+2i)
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❖ as.Date(n) —> convert to date …, etc
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R Programming

Input from User in R Programming:

Developers often have a need to interact with users, either to get data or to provide some
sort of result.
➢ scan() method: This method takes input from the console. This method is a very handy
method while inputs are needed to taken quickly for any mathematical calculation or
for any dataset.
➢ This method reads data in the form of a vector or list. This method also uses to reads
input from a file also.
➢ Syntax: x = scan()
scan() method is taking input continuously, to terminate the input process, need to press Enter
key 2 times on the console.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
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R Programming

Printing Output of an R Program:

In R there are various methods to print the output. Most common method to print output
in R program, is a function called print() is used.
➢ Also if the program of R is written over the console line by line then the output is
printed normally, no need to use any function for print that output.
❖ Print output using print() function.
Syntax: print(“any string”) or, print(variable)
❖ Print output using paste() function inside print() function.
Syntax: print(paste(“any string”, variable)) or, print(paste0(variable, “any string”))
❖ Print output using sprintf() function.
Syntax: sprintf(“any string %d”, variable) or, sprintf(“any string %s”, variable)
❖ Print output using cat() function.
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Syntax: cat(“any string”) or, cat(“any string”, variable)
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R Programming

Data Visualization in R:
Data visualization is the technique used to deliver insights in data using visual cues such
as graphs, charts, maps, and many others.
➢ This is useful as it helps in intuitive and easy understanding of the large quantities of
data and thereby make better decisions regarding it.
➢ Some of the various types of visualizations offered by R are:
❖ R Plotting: The plot() function is used to draw points (markers) in a diagram.
❖ R Line: To create a line, use the plot() function and add the type parameter with a value "l":
❖ R Scatter Plot: A "scatter plot" is a type of plot used to display the relationship between two
numerical variables, and plots one dot for each observation along x-axis and y-axis.
❖ R Pie Charts: A pie chart is a circular graphical view of data using the pie() function.
❖ R Bar Charts: A bar chart uses rectangular bars to visualize data using the barplot() func.
Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha
 49
R Programming

Data Visualization in R:
Data visualization is the technique used to deliver insights in data using visual cues such
as graphs, charts, maps, and many others.

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 50
Discussion

Queries ?
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Prof. Dr. K. Adisesha