disturbances, that can be further processed continuous spectrum when an eigen-

and studied to determine the extent of secu- value problem is defined over an infinite do-
rity violations in the system. main, the eigenvalues bunch together to form
a continuum or a continuous spectrum. This
continuity equation axiom that charge concept is of fundamental importance for
is a conserved quantity. In point-form, the open waveguides either of electromagnetic
continuity equation is stated as or acoustic type.

∂ρ continuous speech recognition the pro-

− = ∇ · J, cess of recognizing speech pronounced natu-
∂t
rally with no pauses between different words.
where ρ is the charge density and J is the
current density. continuous system See incremental
gain.
continuous duty National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classi- continuous time signal See signal.
fication describing an application in which a
machine operates for long periods of time at continuous time system a process that
relatively constant loads. transforms continuous time input signals to
continuous time output signals. See also
continuous Hopfield network a Hop- system.
field network with the same structure as the
discrete version, the one difference being the continuous tone image coding a process
replacement of the linear threshold units by that converts a digitized continuous tone im-
neurons with sigmoidal characteristics. Any age to a binary bit stream which has fewer
initial setting of the neuron outputs leads to a bits than the original image for the purpose
motion in the network’s state space towards of efficient storage and transmission. See still
an attractor which, so long as the weights in image coding.
the network are symmetric, is a fixed point.
continuous wave (CW) periodic and usu-
This allows the network to be employed for
ally sinusoidal wave, in contrast to a pulsed
the solution of combinatorial optimization
or modulated wave.
problems (its main application) by arrang-
ing the network’s weights so that an optimal
continuous-valued logic similarity by
solution lies at a fixed point of the network’s
using the definition of the equivalence in
dynamics. Compare with discrete Hopfield
continuous-valued logic, similarity between
network.
two variables x = (x0 , . . . , xn ) and y =
(y0 , . . . , yn ), all components of which are
continuous rating term often used to re-
continuous in the open interval (0, 1), can be
fer to the manufacturer’s nameplate ratings
defined as
for an electrical machine, which are the rated
operating conditions guaranteed by the man- n

ufacturer for continuous-duty operation. See SC (x, y) = ρ

(e (xi , yi ))ρ
also continuous duty. i=1

where ρ takes real value.

continuous signal a continuous function See equivalence in continuous-valued
of one or more independent variables such logicfor definition of e(xi , yi ).
as time, that typically contains information
about the behavior or nature of some phe- contour the edge that separates an object
nomenon. from other objects and the background. It

c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

must consist of one or several closed curves, from a uniform field of the same mean lu-
one for the outer contour, and the others (if minance, and the contrast sensitivity is the
any) for the inner contours surrounding any inverse of the threshold contrast. See also
holes. See contour filling, contour following, human visual system.
edge.
control intervention, by means of appro-
contour filling an object contour is gen- priate manipulated inputs, into the controlled
erally built with an edge detector, but such process in the course of its operation; some
a contour can be open, because some of its form of observation of the actual controlled
pieces, not recognized by the edge detector, process behavior is usually being used by the
may be missing. To close the contour, miss- controller.
ing pieces can be added by an operator filling
small holes in a contour. See contour, edge control and status register (CSR) an
detection. internal CPU register that contains a packed
bit array of I/O control information. CSRs
contour following an operator which, can reside on I/O devices as well.
starting from a contour point, follows the
closed curve made by that contour. See control bus contains processor signals
contour. used to interface with all external circuitry,
such as memory and I/O read/write signals,
contrast (1) a measure of the intensity interrupt, and bus arbitration signals.
difference (ratio) between an object and the
image background. control channel the control channel
(2) the difference in the perception of vi- used to transmit network control information.
sual energy between picture white and pic- No user information is sent on this channel.
ture black. The ratio between the darkest and Compare with traffic channel.
lightest portions of a TV picture.
control chart plot of data over time in-
contrast enhancement alteration of dicating the fluctuation of the main statisti-
the contrast in an image to yield more cal characteristics applied in statistical qual-
details or more information. See also ity control. Control charts can be used to
contrast, histogram stretching, histogram determine if a process is in a state of statis-
equalization. tical control by examining past data and to
determine control limits that would apply to
contrast enhancement layer (CEL) a future data in order to check if the process
highly bleachable coating on top of the pho- maintains in this state.
toresist that serves to enhance the contrast of The individual observations are plotted
an aerial image projected through it. against three lines. The center one represents
an estimate of the process mean, standard
contrast rendition factor (CRF) the ra- deviation or other statistic, two others rep-
tio of visual task contrast with a given light- resent the lower control limit (LCL) and the
ing environment to the contrast with sphere upper control limit (UCL), respectively. If
illumination. the control charts are being used for the first
time, it is necessary to determine trial con-
contrast sensitivity the responsiveness of trol limits.These limits should be revised if
the human visual system to low contrast pat- the points outside them are traced to a special
terns. In psychophysics, the threshold con- cause which can be removed. The most fre-
trast is the minimum contrast needed to dis- quently used control charts are X̄, s (mean,
tinguish a pattern (such as a spatial sinusoid) standard deviation) and X̄, R (mean, range)

c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

charts. Control charts are used to aid in iden- control memory a semiconductor mem-
tification of special causes of variation, re- ory (typically RAM or ROM) used to hold
duction in product variability, and keeping the control data in a microprogrammed CPU.
good records. This data is used to control the operation of
the data path (e.g., the ALU, the data path
control horizon end time of the control busses, and the registers) in the CPU. If the
interval over which the operation of the con- control memory uses RAM, the CPU is said
trol system is considered; if the control inter- to be microprogrammable, which means that
val is infinite then the control horizon is also the CPU’s instruction set can be altered by
infinite. the user and the CPU can thus “emulate” the
instruction set of another computer. Same as
control input See manipulated input. control store and micromemory.

control instruction machine instruction control policy See control rule.

that controls the actions of a processor such as
setting flags to enable specific modes of oper- control problem a design problem con-
ation. Generally, control instructions do not cerned with constructing a device called the
perform computations. Sometimes control controller whose goal is to force the con-
instructions include instructions that can ef- trolled variable of the plant or process to be-
fect sequential execution of a program, such have in a desired manner. The elements of
as branch instructions. the control problem are control objective, a
model of the process to be controlled, admis-
control interval time interval over which sible controllers, and a means of evaluating
the operation of the control system is consid- the performance of a control strategy. See
ered; control interval can be finite or infinite. also controller, controlled variable.
The notion of a control interval is essential
when the controlled process features various control rod an assembly of neutron-
accumulation phenomena. absorbing material, typically boron, which is
extended into the core of a nuclear reactor to
control layer part of the controller re- dampen the chain reaction.
sponsible for performing tasks associated
with a particular aspect of the control; par- control rule decision mechanism (se-
ticular control layer results from vertical de- quence of such mechanisms), used — within
composition of the controller into a multi- the considered control layer — to specify on-
layer control structure; the layers may differ line the values of the control inputs; for ex-
in their function, or the control interval con- ample, the values of the manipulated inputs
sidered, or both. Typical examples of control in case of the direct control layer or the set-
layers would be regulation layer of a continu- point values in case of the optimizing control
ous industrial process (see direct control) and layer. Also known as control policy.
set point control layer of such process. See
also optimizing control layer. control scene initial entity, a given
“world,” which is then partitioned into the
control line in a bus, a line used in a controlled process and its (process) environ-
computer bus to administrate bus transfers. ment; control scene is the initial “world”
Examples are bus request (a device wants to which is of interest to a control engineer or a
transmit on the bus), or bus grant (the bus system analyst.
arbiter gives a device transmit access on the
bus). control store See control memory.

c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

control structure essentially the same as to uncertainty in the envisaged behavior of
the control system; this term is used when the controlled process and, eventually, there
one wants to indicate that the controller is is uncertainty concerning the internal behav-
composed of several decision units, suitably ior of the controlled process; in particular
interlinked; decision units of a control struc- when the forecasted scenarios of the future
ture usually differ in their tasks, scope of au- free input values tend to appear to be largely
thority and access to information; depending different from the actual future free input re-
on the context one speaks of a control struc- alization.
ture or of a decision structure; decentralized
control, multilayer control, hierarchical con- controllability (1) the property of a sys-
trol are examples of control structures. tem that ensures the existence of bounded
control inputs to drive any arbitrary initial
control surface any of the movable parts state to any arbitrary final state in finite time.
such as tabs, panels, or wings that control For linear systems, an algebraic condition
the depth of a submarine or the attitude of that involves system and input matrices can
a flight vehicle moving through the atmo- be used to test this property.
sphere. For example, the yaw angle of an (2) the ability to establish the required test
airplane is controlled by the rudder, the pitch stimuli at each node in a circuit by setting
angle by the elevators, while the roll angle appropriate values on the circuit inputs.
by the ailerons. In fuzzy logic community,
control surface may mean a plot of a typi- controllability at a given time a charac-
cal fuzzy logic controller output as a func- teristic of some dynamical systems. A linear
tion of its two inputs. The inputs to a typical dynamical system is said to be controllable
fuzzy logic controller are the error between at a given time if there exists a finite time t1 ,
the desired and the actual plant output, and such that it is controllable in a time interval
the change-in-error. [t0 , t1 ].

control system (1) the entity compris- controllability condition for nonstation-
ing the controlled process and the controller. ary discrete system a condition found
Control system is influenced by the environ- in some dynamical systems. A linear dy-
ment of the process both through the free in- namical nonstationary discrete-time system
puts to the process itself and through any cur- is controllable in an interval [k0 , k1 ] if and
rent information concerning the behavior of only if the controllability matrix
these free inputs that is made available to the
k1 −1
controller.
(2) an arrangement of interconnecting ele- F (k1 , j + 1) B(j )B T (j )F T (k1 , j + 1)
ments that interact and operate automatically j =k0

to maintain a specific system condition or is nonsingular. See also dynamical linear

regulate a controlled variable in a prescribed nonstationary discrete-time finite-dimensional
manner. system.

control transformer a step-down trans- controllability in a fixed interval a char-

former used to provide power to the control acteristic of some dynamical systems. A dy-
portion of a power or motor circuit. namical discrete system is said to be control-
lable in an interval [k0 , k1 ] if for any initial
control under uncertainty operation of state x(k0 ) ∈ R n and any vector x1 ∈ R n
the control system in a situation when there is there exists a sequence of admissible con-
a significant uncertainty regarding current or trols u(k), k = k0 , k0 + 1, . . . , k1 − 2, k1 − 1
future values of the free inputs, which leads such that the corresponding trajectory of the

c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

dynamical system satisfies the condition
See also dynamical linear stationary
x (k1 , x (k0 ) , u) = x1 continuous-time finite-dimensional system.

controlled process part of the control

controllability in a given time interval scene that can be influenced by the manipu-
a characteristic of some dynamical systems. lated inputs set by the controller and the free
A dynamical continuous system is said to be inputs from the (process) environment; ma-
controllable in a given time interval [t0 , t1 ] if nipulated inputs will be set (adjusted) to real-
for any initial state ize specified control objectives. Control ob-
jectives can be stated in terms of constraints
x (t0 ) ∈ R n imposed on specified quantities, in terms of
performance indices to be minimized or max-
and any vector imized, or in other form; free inputs to the
process from its environment do not depend,
x1 ∈ R n by definition, on the process behavior.

there exists an admissible control controlled process model model, usu-

ally stated in form of a set of differential or
u ∈ L2 [t0 , t1 ] , R m difference equations, describing the behavior
of the controlled process as caused by its in-
such that the corresponding trajectory of the puts; different models of the same controlled
dynamical system x(t, x(t0 ), u) satisfies the process may be used for various purposes,
following condition: for steady-state control or for model-based
predictive control.
x (t1 , x (t0 ) , u) = x1
controlled rectifier a rectifier that uses
switching elements that have forward volt-
controllability of nonstationary systems
age blocking capability to allow a variable
a characteristic of some dynamical systems.
voltage DC output. See also thyristor.
A linear dynamical nonstationary system is
controllable in time interval [t0 , t1 ] if and
only if the n × n dimensional controllabil- controlled source a voltage or current
ity matrix source whose intensity is controlled by a cir-
cuit voltage or current elsewhere in the cir-
t1 cuit. Also called dependent source.
W (t0 , t1 ) = F (t1 , t) B(t)
t0
controlled variable (1) the quantity, usu-
× B T (t)F T (t1 , t) dt ally the output of a plant or process, that is be-
ing controlled for the purpose of the desired
is nonsingular. See also dynamical linear behavior, for example, transient response or
nonstationary continuous-time finite- steady-state response.
dimensional system. (2) variable associated with the behavior
of the controlled process and such that one
controllability of stationary systems a
characteristic of some dynamical systems. A wants this variable either to follow a desired
linear dynamical stationary system is control- trajectory over a given time interval or to be
lable if and only if kept at a prescribed constant value, i.e., at a
specified set-point; introduction of a set of
rank B|AB|A2 B| . . . |Ak B| . . . |An−1 B = n controlled variables is necessary to define a
two-layer industrial controller with the reg-

c 2000 by CRC Press LLC

ulation direct control layer and the set point for n → ∞, then the sequence xn tends to x
optimizing control layer. in probability.
See also controller.
convergent state the equilibrium state of
controller (1) the entity that enforces the a dynamic system described by a first order
desired behavior — as specified by the con- vector differential equation is said to be con-
trol objectives — of the controlled process by vergent if there exists a δ = δ(t0 ), such that,
adjusting the manipulated inputs. The values
of these inputs are either predetermined or x (t0 ) − xe < δ ⇒ lim x(t) = xe
t→∞
decided upon (computed) using on-line, i.e.,
real time, decision mechanism of the con- See also stable state.
troller — based on the currently available in-
formation. See also controlled variable. converter a generic term used in the
(2) a device that generates the input to the area of power electronics to describe a recti-
plant or process. The role of the controller fier, inverter, or other power electronic device
is to force the controlled variable of the plant that transforms electrical power from one fre-
or process to behave in a desired manner. quency and voltage to another.
(3) a unit that directs the operation of a
subsystem within a computer. For instance, convex fuzzy set (1) a fuzzy set that has
a disk controller interprets data access com- a convex type of membership function.
mands from host computer (via a bus), and (2) a fuzzy set in which all α-level sets are
sends read/write, track seeking, and other convex. See also α-level set.
control signals to the drive. During this time,
the computer can perform other tasks, un- convolution the mathematical operation
til the controller signals DATA READY for needed to determine the response of a sys-
transfer via the CPU bus. tem from its stimulus signal and its weighting
function. The convolution operation is de-
convection current a current in which noted by the symbol “∗.” The convolution of
electrons are released for movement outside two continuous time signals f1 (t) and f2 (t)
of a material. is defined by
∞
convective heat transfer the process by f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) = f1 (τ )f2 (t − τ )dτ
which a moving fluid transfers heat to or from −∞
a wetted surface. t
= f1 (τ )f2 (t − τ )dτ if f1 (t), f2 (t)
0
convergence the condition when the elec- = 0, t < 0
tron beams from a multi-beam CRT meet at a
single point. For example, the correct regis- The integral on the right-hand side of the
tration of the three beams in the color picture above equation is called the convolution in-
tube. tegral, and exists for all t ≥ 0 if f1 (t) and
f2 (t) are absolutely integrable for all t > 0.
convergence in probability for some se- f1 is the weighting function that character-
quences of random numbers, the tendency to izes the system dynamics in the time domain.
a single number. It is equivalent to the response of the system
To wit, for a sequence of numbers xn , and when subjected to an input with the shape of a
a random variable x, if for all > 0, Dirac delta impulse function. Laplace trans-
formation of the weighting function yields
P {| xn − x |> } → 0 the transfer function model for the system.

c 2000 by CRC Press LLC