isc physics project

2024-25

RAY OPTICS

NAME=YASH GAUR
CLASS=XII-i
ROLL NO.=46
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who has contributed to the
completion of this project.

First and foremost, I want to thank my teacher Mr. Rupendra Gupta, for their continuous
guidance, encouragement, and expertise. I am grateful for the knowledge and skills I have
gained under their mentorship.

I want to thank my school principal for giving me this golden opportunity to working on this
project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to my classmates who have been actively involved in
this project.

I am grateful to my parents for their unwavering support and belief in my abilities.

I would also like to acknowledge the assistance provided by the school administration and
staff. Their cooperation and provision of resources have greatly contributed to the successful
execution of this project.

Lastly, I am deeply grateful for the collective efforts and support of everyone involved in this
school project. Thank you all for your valuable contributions and for making this project a
fulfilling and enriching experience.
 Unit-6, Chapter–9, Ray Optics
Ray Optics:-It is the branch of physics in which we study about the phenomenon of light without taking into
the account the nature of light. In ray optics we use the concept of the geometry so it is also known as geometric
optics. The straight Lines that show the direction of the propagation of wave of light is called ray of light.
If the size of object is sufficiently greater than the wavelength of the light then we can ignore interference and
diffraction. Hence ray optics is limiting case of wave optics.
Light: - Light is a form of energy, which gives us sense of sight.Light is a very small portion of electromagnetic
waves. It has all the properties of a transverse wave and can travel through a vacuum.
Different colours light has different wavelength.
Image: -After reflection (or refraction) the light rays actually meet at a point or appear to meet at a point then
the point is called image. OR After reflection (or refraction) the light rays converge at a point or
appear to diverge from a point then the point is called image.
Real Image: -A real image is the image which can be obtained on a screen. A real image is the image in which
the light rays actually (really) pass (meet) at some points. e.g. Image formed by concave mirror & convex lens.
Virtual Image: - A virtual image is the image which
can not be obtained on a screen. A virtual image is the
image in which after reflection (or refraction) the light
rays appear to meet at some points or light rays appear
to diverge from a point.[light rays are not actually
(really) pass (meet) at some points] .e.g. The images
appearing behind a plane mirror (concave lens) are
virtual images, because in this case light rays never pass
through the image.
Refraction: - When a light rays passes from one medium to another, the direction of light changes, this bending
of light rays when light rays pass from one medium to another is called refraction.
Cause: -Light travel with a different speed in different materials, which causes change in direction of light.
Optically Denser and Rarer Medium: -Light travels at different speeds through different types of medium.
The one in which light travels slower is called an optically denser medium; otherwise, it is an optically rarer
medium.
From Optically Denser Medium to Rarer One: -Consider a light ray that enters from an optically denser
medium to an optically rarer one then light rays moves away from normal. The angle of refraction is larger than
the angle of incidence. When angle of incidence gradually increases, the angle of refraction increases more, and
the refracted ray becomes closer and closer to the boundary surface.
From Optically Rarer Medium to Denser One: -Leta light ray that enters from an optically rarer medium
to optically denser one then light rays moves towards the normal. The angle of refraction is smaller than the
angle of incidence.
Snell's Law: -The ratio of the sine of the incident angle to the sine of the refracted angle is a constant.
sin i
 12 ( Or 1 2 Or 1 2 ) (Constant)
sin r
Refractive Index: -The refractive index of a transparent medium is a measure of the degree to which the
medium refracts (bends) a ray of light passing through it. The refractive index of a material indicates the extent
to which light is refracted when it passes from a vacuum to that material.
Dependence of Refractive index:
(i)Nature of the media of incidence and refraction. (ii) Colour of light or wavelength of light. It does not depend
on the frequency of the light because frequency remains constant when light passes from one medium to
another.
(iii)Temperature of the media : Refractive index decreases with the increase in temperature.
The refractive index determines the angles at which light rays are refracted into and out of the medium.
Refractive Indexis defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the material.
The higher the refractive index of a material, the more slowly light travels through it. Glass, for example, has a
refractive index of about 1.5, water has 1.3, ice has 1.31,
and Quartz has 1.55 & ruby 1.71. This indicates that light
travels more slowly through glass than it does through
water. Refractive index of the 2nd medium with respect to
1st medium
v Velocity oflight in first medium
12  1 
v2 Velocity of light in sec ond medium
 
Also 1 2  2  1
1 2
If first medium is air then refractive index of the medium with respect to air is called absolute refractive index
c Velocity oflight in air
  .
v Velocity of light in medium
The refractive index of a transparent medium is a measure of the degree to which the medium refracts (bends) a
ray of light passing through it, and reflects light from its surface. The refractive index of a material indicates the
extent to which light is refracted when it passes from a vacuum to that material. The refractive index determines
the angles at which light rays are refracted into and out of the medium.
Example of Refraction: - Refraction also occurs with sound and with other types of waves, including the
seismic waves produced by earthquakes.
1) Deep Water appear shallow : -Consider an object ‘O’ placed in side of water so OB is incident ray with
angle of incident ‘i’ , light moving from denser to rare medium so refracted light ray BC move away from the
normal with angle of refraction ‘r’. Another light ray incident normally at i = 0 so it will move straight. The two
refracted rays are diverging rays and we extend the refracted rays then they appear to meet at point ‘I’ forming
virtual image.
sin i
From Snell’s law of refraction   wa - - - (1)
sin r
 i =  x (Alternate interior angle) & r =  y (Corresponding angle)
sin x 1 AB / OB 1 IB 1 OB
       aw 
sin y  aw AB / IB  aw OB  aw IB
If point P is close to A then OB  OA- real depth, IB  IA- apparent depth 1 d1

OA Real depth 2 d2
 aw   3 d3
IA Apparent depth
Since  is always greater then 1 so object always seems to be raised up.
This explain why a coin inside water appear to be slightly raised OR water appear to be shallow in a tank while it
is not so.
d d d
***If a beaker contains various immiscible liquids as shown then apparent depth of bottom  1  2  3  ....
1 2 3
d AC d  d 2  ..... 21  2
 combination =  1 (In case of two liquids if d1  d 2 than   )
d App. d1 d 2 1   2
  ....
1 2
2) Early rising & late setting of sun: -Atmosphere extends up to a distance about 500 km above the surface
of the earth. The density and hence refractive index of the air decreases as we moves up. Light rays from sun
enters in the atmosphere from rarer to denser medium due to refraction bent towards normal and reaches to
the observer on earth. If we extend these refracted rays then they appear to meet at point S / i.e. the rays appear
to come from S/ and form a virtual image of sun which is above the horizon while the sun is still below horizon.
When the sun is near the horizon the thickness of the atmosphere is maximum so the size of the sun is larger
than at noon, when light has to travel minimum thickness of air.
c) A stick in water appear to be bent: - The light rays from the stick C move from water to air due to refraction
light rays move away from the normal. The refracted
rays appears to start from some another point D. the
position BC appear at position BD i.e. the stick appear
bent at B.

d) Twinkling of the stars:-The density of the

atmosphere continuously changes due to this reason the rays of light from stars undergoes reflection at different
layers and apparent image of the star S appears to be at S /. The position of the S/ also changes continuously so
the stars appear to be twinkling.
Principle of Reversibility: -Statement: -“ If light after suffering any number of reflection & refraction, has its
final path reversed then the light rays (retraces) travels back along the same path”.
Proof: -Consider AO is incident ray with angle of incident ‘i’. OB is refracted ray with angle of refraction ‘r’.
sin i
From Snell’s law of refraction  12 - - - - (1)
sin r
If the plane mirror is placed perpendicular to the refracted ray since i = o so r = 0
therefore the light ray retraces its path. Now BO is incident ray with angle of
incident ‘r’ & OA is refracted ray with angle of refraction ‘i’.
sin r
From Snell’s law of refraction   21 - - - (1) Multiplying eq1 &eq2
sin i
sin i sin r 1
  12   21 Hence 12   21  1 OR 12 
sin r sin i  21
Refraction through glass slab: - Let AO1 is incident ray in air with angle of
incident ‘i’. O 1B is refracted ray in glass with angle of refraction ‘r 1’.
sin i
From Snell’s law of refraction   ag - - - - (1)
sin r1
Now light is travelling from glass to air. O 1O2 is incident ray with angle of
incident ‘r2’, O2B is refracted ray with angle of refraction ‘e’ also called angle
of emergent.From Snell’s law of refraction
sin r2 sin i sin r2
  ga - - - (2) Multiplying eq1 & eq2    ag   ga
sin e sin r1 sin e
sin i sin r2
But r1 = r2 alternate interior angle & 12   21  1  1  sin i  sin e Hence e =
sin r2 sin e
i . Henceincident ray & emergent rays are parallel to each other in a glass slab however the emergent
get laterally displaced.
Lateral shift of the ray is the perpendicular distance between the incident and the emergent ray, and it is given
by
d = t sec r sin (i – r)
Refraction through several medium: -Consider three medium air, water & glass separated by parallel surfaces.
Consider light travelling from air to water. AO 1 is incident ray with angle of incident ‘i’O 1B is refracted ray with
angle of refraction ‘r1’.
 sin i
From Snell’s law of refraction   aw - - - - (1)
sin r1
Now light is travelling from water to glass. O 1O2 is incident ray with angle of incident ‘r 1’, O 2O3 is refracted ray
sin r1
with angle of refraction ‘r 2’. From Snell’s law of refraction   wg - - - - (2)
sin r2
Now light is travelling from glass to air. O 2 O3 is incident ray with angle of incident ‘r 2’, O 3B is refracted ray with
angle of emergent ‘e’.
sin r2
From Snell’s law of refraction   ga - - - - (3)
sin e
sin i sin r1 sin r2
Multiplying eq1 eq2 & eq3     aw   wg   ga
sin r1 sin i2 sin e
1
But  ga  & i = e so
 ag
sin e 1  ag
  aw   wg  1 Hence   wg
sin e  ag  aw
Total Internal Reflection(TIR): -If light is
travelling from denser to rarer medium it move
away from normal. As we increase the angle of
incident the angle of refraction increases. At a
particular angle of incident the angle of
refraction become 90& the light is refracted along the boundary between the materials this angle of incident is
called critical angle (ic).
sin i sin i c 1 1
  ga   Hence sin i c 
sin r sin 90   ag 
If we increase the angle of incident beyond critical angle the light ray in place of refraction, reflected back from
the boundary in the same medium with no loss of intensity the surface of the separation behaves as mirror. This
phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Condition for total internal reflection: -
1) light should travel from denser to rarer medium.
2) Angle of incident should be greater then critical angle. Then there's no refract ray at all, all the light is
reflected.
Uses of Total Internal Reflection: -Total internal reflection is extremely useful because there is no loss of
intensity due to the reflection process itself. This is unlike normal reflection, where only around 96 percent of
the light is reflected. The property of conserving the intensity of reflected light makes total internal reflection
very useful in many applications where light levels must be maintained throughout a system of optics.
2
1) Fibre-optic: -Fine fiber of glass or quartz in which light enter from one
 1 end and comes out from another end du to total internal reflection is called
optical fiber. Each fiber is made of glass of high refractive index surround by
layer of glass of lower refractive index, so that light entering the fibre at a
suitable angle (greater than critical angle) due to it undergo repeated total
internal reflection until it reaches the other end. Light finally comes out from the other end of the fiber even the
fiber is bent or twisted in any form. The reflection process involves no loss of intensity. The signal can only be
weakened by absorption or scattering of the light, but the development of extremely pure glasses has overcome
this problem.
a) In addition to sending laser signals over long distances and inside the body for surgery and cancer therapy.
b) Total internal reflection is the principle behind the endoscope, a flexible tube used for internal medical
examinations. For example, an endoscope can be inserted through your mouth and pushed down your throat.
Light is sent down it and then reflected back within optical fibres in the tube to show a picture of the inside of
your stomach on a small TV screen.c) To produce shadow free image.
d) In fiber optics. e) Used in telephone and other transmission cables. Each cable can carry nearly 2000
telephone signal without much loss of intensity.
2) Total internal reflection prisms (Porro prism), designed to bounce light through a set angle, are widely used.
In binoculars, two matched prisms in each tube reflect the light through right angles. This means the tube length
can be very short, enabling binoculars to be both compact and precise. In this prism one angle is 90 so angle of
incident is 45 which is greater than the i c = 42 (critical angle for glass) so due to total internal reflection the
light rays can bent through 90& 180.An isosceles right angled prism can be used to reflect the light at 90° and 180°.
These prisms are also called porro prisms.
(i) deviate a light ray through 900, (ii) deviate a light ray through 180°/ to obtain the inverted image
(iii) to invert an image without the deviation of the rays
Advantages:- 1) Light is totally ( 100 %) reflected. 2) The reflecting properties are permanent.3) Optical Illusions:
-Optical illusions are false images of objects – things we see that are not really there.
Mirages are examples of optical illusions. The word mirage is applied to a variety of optical phenomena.
All of them are due to unusual kinds of reflection and refraction of light by the atmosphere.
Mirages: - In desert region hot & low density air lies over sand, but higher up the air is cooler i.e. high density air.
These regions have different refractive indices: they refract (bend) the light from distant objects to different
degrees.
1) Light travelling from denser to rarer medium. 2) If Angle of incident is greater then critical angle. It satisfied
the condition for total internal reflection so the incident light rays from any object in place of refraction,
reflected back from the boundary between the two layers in the same medium with no loss of intensity. This
reflected ray appears to meet at some point form inverted image of the object. So a reflected inverted image of
the sky may be seen superimposed over the sand near the horizon, its shimmering appearance making it look
like water.
Even in temperate regions, mirages may form above hot road surfaces during the summer.
Looming: - In cold country at lower region air is cooler i.e. high density air lies over the see, but higher up the air
is hot & has low density. In this case light travelling from denser to rarer medium & If Angle of incident is greater
then critical angle then due to total internal reflection light rays appear to come from different point in the sky
forming virtual image. This can make objects such as ships over the horizon at sea “loom,” appearing nearer and
larger than they normally would.
4) Sparkling of the diamond: - Refractive index of diamond is 2.43 and the critical angle is 24.4 for air. The faces
of diamond are cut suitably so that the light rays entering the diamond from any face fall at an angle greater
than 24.4o due to multiple total internal reflections at various faces the light rays remain within the diamond for
long time and it sparkles. 5) Fountain of fire
.
6) An empty test tube is in a sloping position in a beaker contain water; if we look from the top of the tube
appear to be silvery like mirror. OB is light moving in water to glass suffer total internal reflection and the light
falling on the tube will be totally reflect back and tube will glitter. 7) Coin hanging: -A coin in a beaker filled with
water and a coin at bottom viewed at suitable angle ( i > 48 o), the coin appears to float in air. OA is incident ray in
water (denser) to air (rare), due to total internal reflection light appear to come from ‘I’ in air ands coin appear at
‘I’.
8. Field of vision of swimmer (or fish) : A fish (diver) inside the water can see the whole world through a cone
with.(a) Apex angle = 2C = 98
h 3h h 2 9
(b) Radius of base r  h tan C  ; for water r  (c) Area of base A  2 ; for water a  h 2
 2 1 7 (   1) 7

Spherical refracting Surface: -A part of a sphere of transparent refracting material is called Spherical
refracting Surface.
1) If refracting surface is convex toward rare medium is called convex refracting surface.
2) If refracting surface is concave toward rare medium is called concave refracting surface.
The centre (radius) of that sphere of which the refracting surface forms a part is called centre (radius) of
curvature of the refracting surface.
Centre of the refracting surface is called pole of the surface.
The principal axis of the refracting surface is the straight line that passes through the centres of curvature &
pole.
Refraction through Convex Spherical surface: -Let O is a point object on principle axis. OM is incident ray
with angle of incident ‘i’, MI is refracted ray with angle of refraction ‘r’. Two rays meet at I and form an image.
Angle form by incident ray
OM, refracted ray MI and
normal MC with principle
axis is , & respectively.
From laws of refraction
sin i 
 2 For small
sin r 1
angle  0 Then sin  =  ,
i 
so  2 Hence
r 1
i 1  r 2 - - -(1)
In Δ MCI , exterior angle is
equal to sum of two interior opposite angle. = r +  OR r = − - - - (2)
In Δ MOC i =  +  - - - (3) From eq1,2 & 3
(   ) 1  (    )  2   1   1    2    2
 1    2    2   1   1    2   (2  1 ) If 0 Then tan  = .
tan  1  tan   2  tan  ( 2  1 ) Putting values from Δ MLO, Δ MLI, Δ MLC.
ML ML ML
1  2  (  2  1 ) If M is close to P then P  L i.e. LC = PC = R radius of curvature.
LO LI LC
 1 1  ML
ML  1  2   (  2  1 ) . PO = LI = - u distance of object, PI = LI = v distance of image.
 LO LI  LC
1 2 (  2  1 ) ( 2  1 )  
    2  1
u v R R v u
(   1)  1
If first medium is air then 1  1 & 2   is absolute refractive index  
R v u
(1   2 )  
For refraction from denser to rarer medium  1  2
R v u
Refraction through Concave Spherical surface: -Let O is a point object on principle axis. OM is incident ray with
angle of incident ‘i’, MI is refracted ray with angle of refraction ‘r’. Two rays appear to meet at I and form an
image. Angle form by incident ray OM, refracted ray MI and normal MC with principle axis is , 
& respectively. From laws of refraction
sin i  i 
 2 For small angle  0 Then sin  =  , so  2 Hence i 1  r  2 - - - (1)
sin r 1 r 1
In Δ MCI , exterior angle is equal to sum of two interior opposite angle.
 = r +  OR r = −- - - (2)
In Δ IMO  = i + 
i =  -  - - - (3) From eq1,2 & 3
(   ) 1  (    ) 2  1   1    2    2
  1   2   2   1   2   1   ( 2  1 ) If 0 Then tan  = .
tan  2  tan  1  tan  (2  1 ) Putting values from Δ MLO, Δ MLI, Δ MLC.
ML ML ML
2  1  (  2  1 ) If M is close to P then P  L i.e. LC = PC = R radius of curvature.
LI LO LC
 1 1  ML
ML  2  1   (  2  1 ) .
 LI LO  LC
PO = LI =  u distance of object,
PI = LI = v distance of image.
2 1 ( 2  1 )
 
v u R
( 2  1 )  
 2  1
R v u
If first medium is air then 1  1 & 2  
is absolute refractive index
(   1)  1
 
R v u
(1   2 )  
For refraction from denser to rarer medium  1  2
R v u
Lateral magnification : The lateral magnification m is the ratio of the image height to the object height.
 h   1  v 
m   i      
 h0   2 u 
Lens: -A lens is a transparent medium bounded by two non parallel surfaces in which at least one is spherical.
Types of Lenses: -There are two main types of lenses.
Convex lenses–The lens which are thicker at the centre than at the edges are called convex (.converging)
lenses. They bring light rays to a focus at a single point. The lens of the human eye is convex It can change its
focal length by increasing or decreasing its thickness.
Concave lenses–The lens which are thinner at the centre than at the edges known as Concave (diverging)
lenses. They spread light rays out from a single point. Each type of lenses are of three types.
Convex lens (Converges the light rays) Concave lens (Diverges the light rays)

Double convex Plano convex Concavo double concave Plane concave Convexo
convex concave
Thick at middle. It forms real and virtual images Thin at middle. It forms only virtual images
both
The point on the principle axis in the lens where the light rays passes through un deviated is called optical
centre.
In thin lens there is no lateral displacement. In thick lens there may be small lateral displacement.
The principal axis of the lens is the straight line that passes through the centres of the two surfaces, optical
centre & focus of the lens.
The straight line other then the principle axis passes through the optical centre is called secondary axis.
Distance between optical centre & focus is called focal length ( f ).
The parallel rays of light after refraction through convex lens converge to (actually meet at) a point, F, called the
principle focus of the lens. Focal length is
positive.
The parallel rays of light after refraction
through concave lens appear to diverge
from (appear to meet at) a point, F,
called the principle focus of the concave
lens. The parallel rays leave the lens as if
they come from the focal point on the
other side of the lens. Focal length is
negative.
The focal length f of a lens depends on its refractive index and geometrical shape.
First principal focus : An object point for which image is formed at infinity. Second principal focus: An image
point for an object at infinity. Second principle focus is the principle focus of the lens
First principle focus Second principle focus

F1 F1 F2 F2
How Lenses Work: -Light is refracted – in other words, it changes direction – when it passes from air to glass, or
from glass to air. It follows that refraction of light takes place at both surfaces of a lens, which can be shaped to
alter the directions of the incident (incoming) light rays in such a way that whole groups of rays pass onward to a
single point, or in directions away from a single point.Image Formed by Convex & Concave Lens: -

b- Object at u > 2 f c- Object at u = 2 f

Real, inverted, point image at v = f. Real, inverted, small image at f <v < 2f. Real, inverted equal image at v = 2f

d- Object at f < u < 2 f e- Object at u = f f- Object at u < f

Real, inverted, large image at v > 2f. Real, inverted very large image at v = f. Virtual erect magnified image.

Virtual, erect point image. At v = f . Virtual, erect small image. at v < f The power of a lens: -It is
its ability to refract or bend
light. The degree up to which a lens converge or diverge light rays is called
power of lens.OR-The ability of lens to converge or diverge light rays is called
power of lens. It is equal to reciprocal of focal length in metre.
.
1 100
Power of lens P  Dioptre (Focal length in metre). P 
f f
Dioptre (Focal length in centimetre).
If f =1 m then P = 1 D. If focal length of a lens is 1m then its power is called one Dioptre.
For convex lens focal length is positive so its power is positive. Smaller the focal length, greater the power of lens
(more ability to converge) and vice-versa. Pconvex  positive, Pconcave  negative, Pplane  zero
For concave lens focal length is negative so its power is negative. Greater the focal length, less light rays diverge
so greater the power of lens (more ability to converge) and vice-versa.
Lens maker’s Formula: -The lens maker’s (or thin lens) formula specifies what size of lens is needed to
achieve particular object
and image distances (that
is, a particular
magnification) with glass
of a known refractive
index. The relation
between radius of
curvature of the surfaces
of the lens & focal length is known as focal length.
Consider a thin lens of refractive index  2 whose thickness is negligible compared to its radius of curvature. An
object O is placed in a medium of refractive index 1 at a distance u from the lens.C1& C2 are centre of
curvature; C1& C2 are radius of curvature of the surface of lens. OA is incident ray for first surface P 1A light ray
refract along AB which will form an image I at a distance v /.
( 2  1 )  
Refraction from spherical surface  2/  1 - - - (1) In this case v  v / , u  u
R1 v u
/
But for second surface BP2 , I act as object & its image formed at I. The light ray refract AB suffer further
refraction & move along BI which will form an image I at a distance v . Now I/ act as object and I is image.
( 1   2 )  
 1  2/ - - - (2) In this case u  v / , v  v .
R2 v v
(  2  1 ) (  2  1 ) 2 1 1 2
Adding eq1 &2.   /
  
R1 R2 v u v v/
( 2  1 ) ( 2  1 ) 1 1  1 1  1 1
     (  2  1 )    1   
R1 R2 u v  R1 R2  v u
 2  1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1
  1     Hence (   1)      - - - (3)
 1  R 1 R2  v u  R1 R2  v u
If object is placed at infinite i.e. u =  then image is formed at focus v = f.
 1 1  1 1 1 1  1 1 
(   1)        0 Hence  (   1)   
 1
R R 2 f  f f  1R R 2
1 1 1
This is known as lens maker’s formula. Comparing eq3 & 4.   This is called lens formula.
f v u
Combination of thin lenses in contact: -Consider two lenses L1& L2 of focal length f1& f2 placed in contact.
O is a pointobject, OA is incident rays of light for first lens L1 and it refract along AB which will form an image
1 1 1
I/ at a distance v /. From lens formula  /  - - - (1) In this case v  v / , u  u
f1 v u
/
But for second lens L 2, I act as object with incident ray AB. The light ray refract AB suffer further refraction
& move along BI which will form an image I at a distance v. Now I/ act as object and I is image.
1 1 1
  / - - -(2) In this case u  v / , v  v . Adding eq1 &2.
f2 v v
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  /    /    But From lens formula   so
f1 f2 v u v v f1 f2 v u f v u
1 1 1
  In general
f1 f2 f
focal length of combination
1 1 1 1
     
f f1 f2 f3
Hence power of this combination
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + - - - -
-
Magnification of the
combination m = m 1 m2 m3
m4 - - - - -
Lens Formula (Convex Lens):- Consider a convex lens of focal length ‘f’. AD is incident ray parallel to the
principle axis after refraction passes through focus along
DF. AO is another incident ray incident on optical centre
O so it will move un deviated along same path. The two
refracted rays intersect each other at A/ & a real inverted
image A/B/ formed at B/.
Since Δ ABO  Δ A/ B/ O (Because all the angles are equal)
. Ratio of corresponding sides of the similar triangles are
equal so
Perpendicu lar of ABO Base of ABO

Perpendicu lar of A B O/ /
Base of A / B / O
AB BO AB u
Hence / /
 / OR / /  - - - (1)
A B BO AB v
Since Δ DOF  Δ A/ B/ F (Because all the angles are equal) Ratio of corresponding sides of the similar triangle s
DO OF
are equal so  But OF = f. &AD  BO so AB = DO ,
/ /
AB FB/
AB OF AB f  u f
   - - - (2)Comparing eq1 & 2 
A / B/ OB/  OF A / B/ v f v v f
-u v +u f = fv  uv= uf–fv Dividing eq by uvf.
uv uf f v 1 1 1
  Hence   This is lens formula.
u vf u vf u vf f v u
Linear Magnification: -the ratio of the size of the image formed by mirror to the size of object is called
magnification (m). m is positive for real image & m is negative for real image.
Size of the image I v
m m   
Size of the object O u
Lens Formula (Concave Lens):- Consider a concave lens of focal length ‘f’. AD is incident ray parallel
to the principle axis after refraction along DE. If we extend this light ray it appears to diverge from focus.
AO is another incident ray incident on optical centre O so it will move un deviated along same path.
The two refracted rays appear to intersect each other at A / & a virtual erect image A/B/ formed at B/.Since
Δ ABO  Δ A/ B/ O (Because all the angles are equal) so Ratio of corresponding sides of the similar triangles are
equal
Perpendicu lar of ABO Base of ABO AB BO AB u
 Hence  OR  - - (1)
Perpendicu lar of A / B / O Base of A / B / O A / B/ B/ O A / B/ v
Since Δ DOF  Δ A/ B/ F (Because all the angles are equal) Ratio of corresponding sides of the similar triangles

DO OF AB OF AB f
are equal so  But OF = f &AD  BO so AB = DO ,  
/
AB /
FB / /
A B /
OF  OB / /
A B /  f  (  v)
u f
- - - (2)Comparing eq1 & 2 
v f v
u f  u v= fv 
uf  fv = uv
Dividing eq by uvf.
 uv uf f v 1 1 1
  Hence   This is mirror formula.
u vf u vf u vf f v u
Magnification:The ratio of the size of the image to the size of object is called magnification
I v f f v
(a) Transverse magnification: m     (use sign convention while solving the problem)
O u f u f
2 2 2
I v  v1 dv  v   f   f v
(2) Longitudinal magnification: m   2 . For very small object m          
O u 2  u1 du  u   f u   f 
2
A  f 
(3) Areal magnification: m s  i  m 2    , (Ai = Area of image, Ao = Area of object)
Ao  f u
(4) Relation between object and image speed: If an object moves with constant speed (Vo ) towards a convex lens
2
 f 
from infinity to focus, the image will move slower in the beginning and then faster. Also Vi    .Vo
 f u
(6) Lens Immersed in a Liquid:If a lens (made of glass) of refractive index  g is immersed in a liquid of refractive
1  1 1 
index  l, then its focal length in liquid, fl is given by  ( l  g  1)    ......(i)
fl  R1 R2 
1  1 1  f ( a μ g  1)
If fa is the focal length of lens in air, then  ( a  g  1)    ......(ii)  l 
fa  R1 R2  f a ( l μ g  1)
(a) If g  l , then fl and fa are of same sign and fl  fa .
That is the nature of lens remains unchanged, but it’s focal length increases and hence power of lens decreases.
(b) If g  l , then fl   . It means lens behaves as a plane glass plate and becomes invisible in the medium.

(3) If g  l , then fl and fa have opposite signs and the nature of lens changes i.e. a convex lens diverges the
light rays and concave lens converges the light rays.
Aberrations of Lenses: - a simple lens will not focus every ray of light from a point on an object to a single
point on the image so the image is sometimes not an exactly correct depiction of the object.. Any deviations
from a completely accurate depiction are called aberrations.
1) Chromatic Aberration of a Lens: -The power of a lens (its ability to refract or bend light) depends on its
refractive index. But the index itself decreases as the light wavelength increases. So a single, simple lens (singlet)
will focus shorter-wavelength blue rays closer than longer-wavelength red light rays so a coloured image is
formed this defect in image is called chromatic aberration. It produces colured fringes around an image.
Image of a white object is coloured and blurred because  (hence f) of lens is different for different colours. This
defect is called chromatic aberration.
From Cauchy’s formula  1/ and f  Since r>v so fr> fv. Hence focal length of red is maximum &
focal length of violet is minimum while the remaining colour lies in between the two.
The effect can be countered by using an achromatic doublet (a double lens). This is a combination of two lenses,
one convex, the other concave, whose combined power is the same as that of the single lens. However, their
refractive indices are different, and produce chromatic aberrations that cancel each other out almost
completely.
2) Spherical Aberrations: -Radius of curvature at the edges of lens is smaller as compare to the other part of
lens.Due to this rays passing through a lens near the centre focus at a different distance to rays passing through
near the edge due to this multiple images are formed This defect is called spherical aberration. The effect can be
reduced by using a lens ground to the shape of a parabola, rather than the shape of a sphere.
Application of Lenses: -1) As magnifying glass (Simple microscope). 2) In photographic camera. 3) Spectacles. 4)
In microscope, telescope & Binoculars. 5) In Cinema projectors. 6) In human eyes.
Real Violet
White
Lens Focal For light FV FR
length  = 1.5
Biconvex lens fV
fR
R1  R R
f  fR
2(  1)
R2   R Marginal rays Marginal rays

Paraxial ray F F F F
Plano-convex
Paraxial rays
lens
R
R1   f  f  2R
(  1)
R2   R

Biconcave
R
R1   R f  f  R
2(  1)
R2   R

Plano-concave
R1   R
f f  2 R
R2  R
(  1)

Prism: - A prism is a transparent medium bounded by three rectangular plane-refracting surfaces inclined to
each other at some angle
The line along which the two refracting faces of a prism meet is called the refracting edge of the prism.
The angle between the two refracting faces is called the angle of the prism. In above figure, a glass prism has
three rectangular faces meeting along the edges BQ, AP and CR. The end faces ABC and PQR are equilateral
triangles. In the diagram, ABQP and ACRP are the refracting surfaces and AP is the refracting edge. Angle A
between them is the refracting angle called the angle of prism.On passing through a prism, a ray of light
undergoes two refractions and hence deviates through a certain angle from its original path called Angle of
deviation.
Angle between incident ray and emergent ray is calledAngle of deviation.
Refraction of light due to a prism:- Fig. shows the phenomenon of refraction of light through a prism ABC
with an angle of prism = A. A ray PQ of monochromatic light is incident on face AB of the prism at an angle i. This
ray is refracted towards the normal NQE and travels in the prism along QR; the angle of refraction r1 is less than i.
The refracted ray QR is incident at angle r2 on the face AC of the prism. The ray QR again suffers refraction and
emerges out of face AC at an angle e (angle of emergence). The angle δ (i.e. angle between the direction of the
incident ray and the emergent ray) is called the angle of deviation.
(i) Angle of deviation (δ):In triangle QDR , exterior angle is equal to sum of interior opposite angle.
δ = DQR + DRQ δ= (i – r1) + (e – r2) δ = (i + e) – (r1 + r2)-------(1)
This is the expression for the angle of deviation in a prism.
(ii) To prove that A = r1 + r2:In the triangle,A+AQR + ARQ=180.
A+ (90 – r1) + (90 – r2)=180. Hence A = r1 + r2 -------------(2) From equation (1) and (2)
δ = (i + e) – A Or δ +  A = i + e -------------(3)
(iii) MINIMUM DEVIATION:-The deviation produced by a prism depends upon (I) the angle of incidence (II) the
angle of prism and (III) therefractive index of the prism material w.r.t. the surrounding.It is found experimentally
that as the angle of incidence changes,the angle of deviation also changes. If we plot a graph between anglesof
incidence (i) and the corresponding angle of deviation (δ), we getthe curve shown in Fig.
(a) As the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation first decreases, becomes minimum for a
particular angle of incidence and then again increases.
(b) The angle of incidence for which the deviation produced by the prism is minimum is called the angle of
minimumdeviation (δm). In the position of minimum deviation, a ray of light passes symmetrically through the
prism i.e.
the refracted ray QR (Fig.2) is parallel to the base of the prism. In this position, i = e and r1 = r2 = r (let)
So from eq2 A = r + r Hence r = A /2--------(4)
So from eq3 δm +  A = i + i Hence i = (δm +  A) /2--------(5)
(c) Note that a prism can deviate incident ray through the same angle δ for two different angles of incidence x
and y (Fig. 2). However, for one and only one particular angle of incidence, theprism produces minimum
deviation.
sin 𝑖
(iv) REFRACTIVE INDEX OF PRISM MATERIAL from Snell’s law 𝜇 = . From equation 4 & 5.
sin 𝑟
sin (δm+𝐴)/2
𝜇=
sin 𝐴/2

Optical Instruments:- Optical instruments are those devices, which are designed to assist, extend or amplify
the abilities of the human eye. By these devices, one can observe highly magnified images of small objects and
very far–off objects e.g. eye, camera, microscope & telescope and prism binocular etc.

Angular magnification:-The angular magnification (or magnifying power) of an optical instrument is defined as
the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the image to that subtended at the unaided eye by the object, i.e.
Angular magnification, M = β/α
Where β = angle subtended at the eye by the image & α = angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object.
MICROSCOPE:-A microscope is an instrument which forms an enlarged image of a small object placed close to
the eye. With naked eye, the object subtends a small angle at the eye. However, when the object is viewed
through the microscope, the image of the object subtends a large angle at the eye. The eye uses this enlarged
image as the object. The retinal image (i.e. image formed at the retina) will be much larger than it would be if the
actual small object were being viewed with the naked eye.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE (MAGNIFYING GLASS):- A simple microscope or magnifying glass is a single convex
(converging) lens of very small focal length.
Principle:-When the object is inside (or at) the focallength of the lens, a virtual, erect w.r.t. object and enlarged
image of the object is formed. The position of the imagedepends upon the position of the object relative to that
of the lens. The image formed is very bright and sharpbecause object is held very close to the lens.
Working :-(i) When image is formed at the near point v = D: an object AB is placed between C and F such that a
magnified erect image A/B/ is formed behind the object. The lens is adjusted so that the image is at the near
point. The image is seen most clearly when it is at the near point. This is the normal use of the microscope. If the
observer’s eye is close to the lens; then the distance CB / is equal to the least distance of distinct vision.
Magnifying power (M) of a simple microscope is the ratio of the angles subtended by the image and the object
on the eye, when both are at the least distance of distinct vision from the eye. If the angle subtended by the
object and the image on the eye is and , respectively, then according to definition of Magnifying power 𝑀 =
𝛽
𝛼
where β = angle subtended at the eye by the image at the near point
α = angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object at the near point
Since the angles are very small, 0 then tan=  Therefore for small
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
angle, tan& tan, so 𝑀 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝐴𝐵/𝐶𝐵
From Triangle A 1B/C & ABC , 𝑀 =
𝐴𝐵/𝐶𝐵 /
𝐶𝐵 / −𝑣
Therefore, 𝑀 = Hence 𝑀 =
𝐶𝐵 −𝑢
Since CB = –u, distance of the object from the lens’ CB /= –v, distance of
the image from the lens. Now, using lens formula
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − OR = − or + =
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 −𝑣 −𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1
Now, magnifying power of the microscope, 𝑀 = 𝑣 ( + )
𝑓 𝑣
𝑣
Hence 𝑀 = 1 + ..(v)
𝑓
From the concept of visual angle, the image would appear tallest,
if it is nearest to the eye. For the eye, the nearest an object can be
brought so that vision remains distinct is called the least distance
of distinct vision D and the image is adjusted to be formed at D ( =
15 cm)so that the magnifying power becomes the largest.
𝐷
Since, v = – D Therefore 𝑀 = 1 + ...(vi)
𝑓
(ii) When image is formed at infinity: This situation is shown in Fig. In this case, the object is placed at the focus
of the lens. This is not the normal use of microscope. The advantage of this is that the eye is relaxed
(unaccommodated).
Magnifying power:-  = angle subtended at the eye by the image,  = angle subtended at the unaided eye by
the object when it is at the near point. Magnifying power,

Note:The maximum angular magnification is produced when the image is at the near point and minimum
angular magnification is produced when the image is at infinity.
Application:- (a) Jewellers and watch markers use the magnifying glass to obtain a magnified view of
tiny parts of jewellery and watch parts. (b).A simple microscope can be used for magnifying tiny parts of watch
and in taking vernier scale readings etc.
Limitation: -Since magnification M  1/f so for larger magnification focal length must be small. A simple
microscope can produce magnification only within a limit since lens defects become considerable for
magnifications greater than 5. A compound microscope is used when larger magnifications are required and for
images free from aberrations.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE:-A compound microscope makes use of two converging lenses. Therefore, its
magnifying power is muchgreater than that of the simple microscope or magnifying glass.
Principle:A compound microscope is based on the principle that a converging lens can form magnified images in
the following two ways : (i) With the object is inside the focal length of the lens, the image formed is virtual,
erect w.r.t. object and magnified as in a simple microscope. (ii) When the object is between the focal length f
and 2f from the lens, the image formed is real, inverted w.r.t. object and magnified.
As we shall see, a compound microscope combines both these effects to achieve greater magnification.
Construction:- It consists of a system of two coaxially, converging lenses. The lens nearer to the object is called
theobjective lens. The lens through which the final image is viewed is near eyes called the eyepiece.
Theeyepiece behaves as a magnifying glass and produces enlarged virtual image of it.
The objective lens & the eyepiece aremounted at the outer ends of two metal tubes which can be made to slide
into one another with thehelp of thumb screw. The focal length of each lensshould be small in order to achieve a
high overall magnification. Eyepiece has a normal (or moderate) focal length while the objective lens has a very
short focal length.
(a) When image is formed at near point:- (i) Ray diagram The ray diagram of a compound microscope is given in
the figure below. The object AB is placed at a distance slightly greater than the focal length of the objective ‘O’
(between Fo and 2Fo where Fo is the focus of the objective lens.). A real and inverted image A / B / is formed at A /.
It will act as an object for the eye lens. The eyepiece is adjusted so that the distance of A / from it is less than its
focal length. As the eyepiece acts as a simple magnifying glass, the final image A //B // is formed at A// which is
magnified and virtual. The adjustments are so made that A //B // is at the least distance of distinct vision ‘D’ from
the eye. Thus,C2B// = D
(ii) Magnifying power (m):-It is the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by final image to the angle subtended
at the eye by the object, when both the final image and the object are situated at the least distance of the
distant vision from the eye. In other words, it is the product of magnifications produced by the objective and the
eyepiece separately.
Assume that the object AB is to be shifted to A 1B // such that it is
at a distance D from the eye. By the definition of magnifying
𝛽
power, 𝑀 =
𝛼
Where  A//C2B// =  = angle subtended at the eye by the image
at the near point and  A1C2B // =  = angle subtended at the
unaided eye by the object at the near point
Since the angles are very small, 0 then tan=  Therefore for
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
small angle, tan& tan , so 𝑀 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼

From A//B// C2 and  A1B //C2 In ,

Substituting the values

Hence ...(iii)

𝐴 /𝐵/
,𝑚𝑜 = = Magnification produced by objective lens,
𝐴𝐵

=
𝐴//𝐵 //
Where 𝑚𝑒 = = Magnification produced by eye lens,
𝐴/ 𝐵 /
𝐷
𝑚𝑒 = 1 + ; D (C2B// = D, least distance of distinct vision Substituting in equation
𝑓𝑒
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
𝑀= (1 + )(iv)
−𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒
Since object AB lies very close to Fo, the focus of lens O, therefore, uo = fo focal length of objective lens.
Also A / B/ is formed very close to eye lens. Therefore, uo = C1B / L C1C2= length of microscope tube
𝐿 𝐷
Substituting in equation (iv), 𝑀𝑒 = − (1 + )...(v)
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
In compound microscope, objective lens & eye lens are fixed. Moving it, either towards object or away from the
object, focuses it.
(b) When image is formed at infinity:-(i) Ray diagram

𝐿 𝐷 𝑣𝑜 𝐷 −𝐿 𝐷
(ii) Magnifying power 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑚𝑒 = − (1 + )OR𝑀 = Hence 𝑀 =
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 −𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
(c) General remarks:-(i) To focus over an object, the distance of the objective lens from the object is adjusted
with the help of rack and pinion arrangement. (ii) Since the apertures of both the lenses are small, spherical
aberration (i.e. distortion of image) is minimised. (iii) In order to minimise chromatic aberration, both objective
lens and eyepiece are formed by a number of lenses.
Telescope:-A telescope is an optical instrument to observe distant stars. It increases the angular size of the final
image many times the angular size of the object, which is far away. When a distant object is viewed through a
telescope, it appears closer and, therefore, larger. A telescope increases the visual angle; it does not make the
image bigger than the object. Jan Lippershy invented the first telescope in 1608. But in 1602, Galileo was the first
man who made a telescope.
The most commonly used refracting telescopes are:
(A) Refracting telescope: - It is an optical instrument used for observing distinct images of heavenly bodies (like
stars, planets, etc.) These telescopes consist of two lenses, one objective of long focal length, which forms a real
image of the distant object and the other eyepiece of small focal length. (i) Astronomical telescope, (ii)
Terrestrial telescope (not in syllabus).
ASTRONOMICAL (REFRACTING) TELESCOPE:- An astronomical telescope is used for seeing heavenly
astronomical bodies such as sun and stars.
Principal:-The objective lens produces a real image of the object beingviewed. This (intermediate) image at as an
object for the eyepiece lens which behaving as a magnifyingglass produces a virtual image of it.
Construction:- It consists of a system of two coaxially, converging lenses. The lens of large focal length (fo)
nearer to the object is called the objective lens. The lens of short focallength (fe) through which the final image is
viewed is near eyes called the eyepiece. Theeyepiece behaves as a magnifying glass.
The objective lens and the eyepiece aremounted at the outer
ends of two metal tubes which can be made to slide into one
another with thehelp of thumb screw.
Construction:- It consists of a system of two coaxially,
converging lenses. The lens nearer to the object is called the
objective lens. The lens through which the final image is
viewed is near eyes called the eyepiece. Theeyepiece behaves
as a magnifying glass & produces enlarged virtual image of it.
The objective lens and the eyepiece aremounted at the outer
ends of two metal tubes which can be made to slide into one
another with thehelp of thumb screw. The focal length of each lensshould be small in order to achieve a high
overall magnification. The eyepiece has a normal (or moderate) focal length while the objective lens has a very
short focal length.
(i) Final image at the near point: The final can be formed at the near point. A parallel beam of light from an
astronomical object (which is at infinity) is made to fall on the objective lens O of the telescope. This forms an
inverted image A/B / of the object near its focus Fo. The eyepiece is so adjusted that A /B/ lies between the focus
of the eyepiece Fe and its optical centre. The telescope is adjusted so that the final image A//B//is at the near
point.
Magnifying power:- Since it is the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle
subtended at eye by the object, when the final image and the object both lie at infinity. Suppose the object is at
a large distance and the angle subtended by the object at eye lens is almost the same as the angle subtended by
the object at objective lens.
Suppose the object is very far–off, and the angle subtended by the object on the eye is almost the same as the
𝛽
angle subtended by it at the objective lens If it is . The magnifying power 𝑀 =
𝛼
Where  C2 A/B/ =  = angle subtended at the eye by the image at the near point and  A/1C1B / =  = angle
subtended at the unaided eye by the object at the near point
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Since the angles are very small, 0 then tan=  Therefore for small angle, tan& tan , so 𝑀 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼

Now from and Therefore,

Where, C1B / = fo = focal length of objective lens, C 2B / = –ue = distance of A /B/ from eye lens.
Since ve = –D, u = –ue and f = +fe, Now using lens formula for eye lens we will get,
This shows that magnifying power is negative. It means that the final image of an astronomical telescope is
inverted.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑓
Now, using lens formula = − OR = + OR = [ 1 + 𝑒]
𝑓𝑒 −𝐷 −𝑢𝑒 𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝐷 𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝐷
−𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
Now, magnifying power of the microscope, 𝑀 = [ 1 + 𝐷]
𝑓𝑒
(ii) Final image at infinity (i.e. normal adjustment): The telescope is said to be in normal adjustment when the
final image is formed at infinity. The eye is then relaxed when viewing the image so the image is not seen
distinctly. Fig. shows the situation when the
astronomical telescope is in normal adjustment.
The objective lens O collects parallel rays from
the distant object and forms an intermediate
image I at its focus Fo. The separation of the
lenses is so adjusted that Fo(focus of objective)
and Fe(focus of eyepiece) coincide.
Since the intermediate image Iis at Fe, the
eyepiece lens acting as a magnifying glass
produces a final image at infinity. It may be seen
that when the telescope is in normal
adjustment, the separation of the lenses = fo+ fe.
𝛽
Magnifying power:- The magnifying power 𝑀 =
𝛼
Where  A/1C1B/ =  and  A/ C2 B/ = are angle subtended at the unaided eye by the object and angle
subtended at the eye by the final image.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Since the angles are very small, 0 then tan =  Therefore for small angle, tan& tan , so 𝑀 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
Now, considering and considering

−𝑓𝑜
Therefore, Hence 𝑀 =
𝑓𝑒
Since, from the figure, C1B/ = fo = focal length of objective lens C 2B/ = –fe = focal length of eye lens
Here, negative sign indicates that final image is inverted.
Thus, (a) magnifying power of an astronomical telescope can be increased by keeping focal length of objective
lens larger and that of eye lens smaller. (b) The aperture of objective lens is made large to increase magnifying
power and resolving power ofthe telescope and to produce bright image.

(B) Reflecting type telescope: -In such type of telescope, objective lens is replaced by a concave parabolic mirror
of large aperture, which is free from chromatic and spherical aberrations. The resolving power of reflecting type
telescope is higher than the refracting type telescope. Reflecting type telescope was designed by Newton for
observing distant stars. The following figure shows a cassegrain type telescope. It has parabolic concave reflector
C. Rays from distant star entering the telescope in a direction parallel to principal axis of the mirror tend to
collect at focus F of the mirror. However, these reflected rays encounter a convex mirror B before meeting at F.
They are reflected by convex mirror. These pass through the hole in the C, and form an image at I, at the back of
C, and it is observed through the eyepiece E. R being the radius of curvature of concave reflector.
Newtonian (reflecting type) telescope: - In this type of telescope, a concave mirror of large aperture is used as
objective instead of a convex lens.

𝑓𝑜 𝑅/2
In normal adjustment, magnifying power of a reflecting type telescope is 𝑀 = = ;
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑒
Advantages:-The purpose of the objective lens of a refracting telescope is to produce an image which can be
examined by the eyepiece. In the reflecting telescope, a concave mirror is used for the same purpose.
Mirrors have a number of advantages over lenses viz.
(i) Mirros are easier to manufacture and cheaper than lenses. (ii) Mirrors are less liable to flaws or imperfections.
(iii) A mirror is lighter than an equivalent lens. (iv) A mirror has only one surface to be ground and can be
supported along its entire surface. A large lens, supported at its edges, would sag under its own weight.
(v) Since mirrors are used instead of lenses, a reflecting telescope is free from spherical and chromatic
aberrations.
(vi) The light gathering power of a reflecting type telescope is large so that the final image formed is brighter.
(vii) A reflecting telescope has a high resolving power than that of a refracting telescope.
(viii) Since the aperture of objective is large, high resolution is achieved in a reflecting telescope.
(ix) As the mirror is an objective mirror, there is no chromatic aberration. (x) Spherical aberration is reduced
using mirror objective in the form of a paraboloid.
Disadvantages:(i) It is inconvenient to use because of frequent adjustments. (ii) It cannot be used for general
purposes.
1Mark questions
 Bibliography
To make this project, I took help from the following sources:
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.britannica.com
 www.byjus.com
 www.physicswallah.com
 www.slideshare.net
 www.ncert.nic
 NCERT Physics Textbook-Class XII