Using Classroom

Discussion Effectively
Jason Sikorski
Central Connecticut State University
 Using Classr oom Discussion Ef fectivel y
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‫جميع حقوق الطبع حمفوظة‬

‫عمادة تطوير املهارات‬
‫م‬2013 - ‫هـ‬1434
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 Using Classr oom Discussion Ef fectivel y

Using Classroom Discussion Effectively

Although lectures typically involve students being passive recipients of knowledge,

a classroom discussion requires students to contribute to conversations, answer
questions, raise questions, or offer opinions. Any learning that might take place in
a classroom where any of the heterogeneous forms of class discussion are being
utilized is expected to be active and interactive. In this booklet, I will define what
a class discussion entails, discuss a range of learning-based purposes for using
discussions in a college classroom, and then review a number of tips used for
planning and managing classroom discussions to help foster maximum learning
gains in students.

What is a Classroom Discussion?

Classroom discussion involves giving all students in the class an equal opportunity
to contribute their ideas, knowledge, and opinions in a verbal exchange with other
students and the teacher with the expectation that all students will participate in
the process. Though this definition is broad, it includes some key components of
an effective discussion. First, classroom discussions should involve the expectation
that all students participate. Second, actions should be taken by the professor to
ensure that all students feel comfortable sharing their thoughts and opinions during
classroom discussions. In other words, just throwing out a closed-ended question
about the material to the class, and knowing who is going to answer that question
before you ask it, is not a classroom discussion.

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Many classroom discussions do not necessarily involve vibrant and energetic

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exchanges among a number of students in the classroom. In fact, many professors

have probably seen the looks on their students’ faces as they pose a question to the
class. Most bury their heads waiting and hoping for the question to be answered by
those few students who typically speak up in class (Korn & Sikorski, 2010). Perhaps
those who bury their heads are actually hoping that the teacher is not so bold as to
ask them directly if they know the answer to the question. These types of anecdotal
thoughts about trying to generate classroom discussions are actually quite accurate
according to the literature. Nunn (1996) found that only about a quarter of students in
each class typically speak during discussions. In fact, on average, only about 2-3% of
class time is spent engaged in classroom discussions in most college classrooms.

Given that teachers in college courses do not ordinarily spend lots of time creating
and facilitating classroom discussions, an important question is what function
classroom discussion might serve.

The Purpose of Classroom Discussions

Classroom Discussions Foster Meta-Cognition

First, and probably of greatest importance, is the fact that classroom discussions
represent opportunities for students to practice their critical thinking skills (Garside, 1996;
McKeachie, 1999; Rocca, 2010). Though the Internet and other media sources offer us
mountains of information that can be obtained effortlessly, success in today’s society
undoubtedly boils down to more than just absorbing as much of this information as possible
(Halpern, 2002). Rather, being able to select the most reliable sources of information,
synthesize multiple types of evidence and information and then use this conglomerate of
knowledge to solve real-world questions is what critical thinking is all about.

Thankfully, research has shown that teachers can create classes and classroom
environments that foster the development of critical thinking skills in students that
can then be applied to novel situations that they encounter in their work and family
lives (Halpern, 2002). In particular, classroom discussions that require students to
develop hypotheses about how to respond to a problem-based scenario and then
offer a well-reasoned solution represents the essence of meta-cognitive processing.
It is these types of classroom discussions that help students to “think about how they
think” (meta-cognition) and immerse themselves in the processes that enhance their
problem solving skills.(Korn & Sikorski, 2010).

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For instance, Halpern (2002) described a classroom discussion scenario where

she told a detailed story that required students to identify a course of action they
would take if an unidentified aircraft was headed toward their ship at sea during a
time of high tension between two different countries. The exercise requires students
to identify potential solutions to the problem that would be in the best interest
of all people involved, and time is limited. Many students think quickly, and with
great confidence, and voice their opinion to fire a missile at the incoming aircraft.
Upon realizing that they would have shot down a commercial airliner with 200-300
innocent people aboard, students are engaged and interested in discussing the type
of thinking errors and situational factors that may have led to them to arrive at the
ultimately wrong decision. In this example, Halpern has undoubtedly tapped into the
students’ ability to use meta-cognition: to think about how they think.

These types of classroom discussions aimed at helping students to practice

meta-cognitive processing take a considerable amount of time. These are not brief
discussions; however, it is important to note that the time and effort devoted to these
types of classroom discussions results in critical thinking skills that transfers to novel
situations and problems (Halpern, 2002). Again, in the end, memorized facts alone
are not enough for students to succeed in the real-world. In fact, when rating teaching
effectiveness of colleagues, faculty members consider a teacher’s ability to foster
critical thinking in students as one of the most important ingredients for effective
teaching (Buskist, Sikorski, Buckley, & Saville, 2002).

Classroom Discussions Foster Increased Comprehension

In a comprehensive meta-analytic review, Murphy, Wilkinson, Soter, Hennessey

and Alexander (2009) found that multiple different types of classroom discussions
resulted in dramatic increases in students’ willingness to speak during class. More
importantly, this active involvement by students during class discussion resulted in
better comprehension of the text and lecture material. Although classroom discussions
take a considerable amount of time and effort to create and facilitate, students truly
learn from these experiences. In fact, given research in cognitive psychology over
the last several decades (Halpern, 2002), it is probably of little surprise to note that
talking about information to be learned helps students memorize and understand
concepts and utilize learned material to solve problems.

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Classroom Discussions Provide Practice in Public Speaking

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I encourage my students to talk and discuss topics in class through the

implementation of a class participation grade, and much research support this
initiative in fostering more student discussion in class (e.g., Rocca, 2010). Many
students complain about this aspect of my grading. My response to these complaints
is always the same. I know of very few occupations where an individual is expected
to remain completely silent and inactive if they wish to progress within a company
or within a graduate school program. I explain that significant salary raises are
seldom given to those individuals who sit silently at their desks, finish their work in an
adequate fashion, and rarely offer opinions on how things could change to maximize
benefits for the company, customers, or clients. Fostering classroom discussions
gives students the opportunity to practice their speaking skills and observe strategies
used by other effective speakers (Garside, 1996; Rocca, 2010). In addition, given
that we live in a diverse and global society with considerable competition for jobs and
resources, engaging in classroom discussion can also serve the purpose of helping
students feel more comfortable interacting with diverse groups (Rocca, 2010). Given
that college courses may represent the last time students will receive feedback on
their speaking, reasoning, and social skills, there is no reason why teachers should
not encourage and reward students for involvement in classroom discussions. After
all, generating a bit of discomfort in students is a small price to pay if it helps them
achieve their career goals in the globally competitive job market.

Tips for Maximizing Learning Gains Achieved Through

Classroom Discussion
Now that the value of including classroom discussions has been established,
it is important to outline useful tips for creating discussion environments suited
for maximum student learning gains. In all likelihood, given a professor’s unique
teaching philosophy and the discipline they teach, some of these recommendations
may prove more valuable than others. After all, each teacher has his or her own style
and learning goals for their students.

Establish Rules for Discussion

Your expectations for your students in regard to classroom discussions should

be established on the first day of class. For shy students, professors should stress
their willingness to support individuals in making gradual strides toward talking in

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class during discussions. Tips for managing anxiety and tension should be offered,
as well as counseling services when levels of anxiety are seen in the student to be
debilitating and impairing.

Once general expectations are established, ground rules for discussion vary from
class to class. Davis (2009) suggested a number of strategies for maximizing the learning
value of classroom discussions. For instance, assigning one member of the group to be
the recorder of opinions and thoughts and one student to be the speaker of opinions or
thoughts once the entire classroom reunites to discuss group work is advised. In fact,
in order to keep students engaged and attentive to the task, I often tell students that I
will assign the person responsible for sharing group work with the entire class about
halfway through the exercise. That way, all students stay involved in the discussion in
anticipation that any one of them could be called on to speak for their group.

Some teachers also find it worthwhile to provide education about active listening
processes, managing conflicts when viewpoints clash, staying on topic during
discussions and even how to make others feel comfortable sharing divergent views
(Davis, 2009; Sikorski & Korn, 2010). With these types of tools, students may even
feel more comfortable, even initially, participating and thinking about classroom
discussions in a critical way. Other researchers have described the value of having
a type of discussion debriefing, where groups reflect on how well the rules were
followed and what was gained from the experience (Brookfield & Preskill, 1999).
Perhaps, it is this group evaluation, coupled with education on the tools used to
succeed and benefit from classroom discussions, that can leave students feeling
more empowered and capable engaging in a process that some find disconcerting.

Forming Classroom Subgroups for Discussion

Given that research suggests that only about a quarter of students in college
classes participate actively in discussions, forming smaller subgroups within a larger
classroom can prove most useful. Korn and Sikorski (2010) suggested that forming
small subgroups of 4-6 students creates environments that are less intimidating for
students and more conducive to the active expression of opinions by all members of
the group. In addition, it is often wise to form diverse subgroups of students who may
not know one another, possess different beliefs and backgrounds or display varying
styles and amounts of talking in class. In this way, not only is a more comfortable
environment established for classroom discussions, but the opportunity for students
to learn from others who may be different from themselves is maximized.

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 Using Classr oom Discussion Ef fectivel y

Sometimes, though, it may not be feasible to break large groups of students into
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subgroups. Discussion is still possible in large classrooms and several adjustments

can be made to maximize participation and engagement with the process with large
classes. Of course, the risk of trying to generate discussions in large classrooms is
that only a few students will share their thoughts and opinions. To combat this risk,
teachers can give students a couple of minutes to write down their thoughts on a
particular issue. Then, teachers can solicit the opinions of a few volunteers regarding
what thoughts they wrote down. In this simple intervention, it is not necessarily
guaranteed that all students in a large classroom will participate in the discussion,
but it is more likely that most students considered the question and wrote down a
response. As such, though not necessarily speaking aloud every time, each student
is thinking about their thinking, using meta-cognitive processes.

Master teacher Bill McKeachie (1999) offered a couple of other useful ideas to
pursue when attempting to generate discussions in large classes. Having classroom
debates on a controversial topic can prove useful, especially when clear guidelines
are offered. For instance, some students can be assigned to record the process of the
debate and offer their opinions on the most viable arguments posited, as well as their
reasons for arriving at a particular conclusion. McKeachie also described the use of
the “fishbowl” technique, where 6-8 students in large classes are selected to discuss
and debate topics covered in class over the last week. To maximize meta-cognitive
gains, for all students, the teacher is advised to stress that students not participating
in the actual discussion or debate are responsible for recording arguments, thinking
about the process of the discussion and developing their own opinions.

Be Open to New Experiences

According to Halonen (2002), an important factor related to an effective classroom

teacher is to remain open to experiences. In planning for and managing classroom
discussions, this advice rings especially true. In allowing students to speak openly
about their opinions and the benefits they derive from exchanging ideas with
other students, instructors are essentially telling the student that they matter. For
classroom discussion, being recognized as an authority figure or the only person
who plans what is covered in each class is not important. Trusting the class, under
the established discussion rules, to create and facilitate their own learning gains is
important in establishing a sense of community and energizing students to learn in
a way that is not nearly as comfortable and effortless as listening to a lecture. Even

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when professors have high expectations for student discussion and participation in
individual classes, students will rise to the occasion when the expectation is clearly
established, effective questions are posited, the teacher is available and prepared
to facilitate the process and the professor offers affirming support and constructive
feedback (Dallimore, Hertenstein, Platt, 2004; Rocca, 2010).

Teach Students to Ask Engaging Questions

King (1995) described a unique strategy for generating useful classroom

discussions. Specific knowledge is offered to students on distinguishing between
closed-ended, factual questions and open-ended thought-provoking questions
designed to foster critical thinking. After receiving this information, students are
broken into pairs and asked to construct several critical thinking questions based
on the material covered in lecture and recently assigned outside readings. Members
of the pair then take turns asking and answering critical thinking questions. This
reciprocal peer questioning process facilitates critical thinking in individual students.
When this practice is then applied to the rest of the classroom discussions throughout
the semester, and students are graded on their ability to adhere to this model, more
lasting learning gains are possible. For instance, some professors require students
to generate viable critical thinking questions frequently and then ask students to
share their critical thinking questions with the class while a lecture on the topic is
delivered (Connor-Greene, 2005). In this way, a lecture becomes more than just
information transfer. With well conceived critical thinking questions associated with
the information transfer goals of the lecture, higher order processing, critical thinking,
and meta-cognitive processing in students becomes more likely.

Being Supportive, Understanding and Just

In terms of the success of classroom discussions with regard to student learning

and satisfaction, several personal factors of the instructor are worth noting (Rocca,
2010). Research suggests that professors should avoid sarcasm and making
negative comments about the discussion-based contributions of students. Instead,
professors should make eye contact, offer positive praise for student contributions
to discussions, and even strive to participate actively in the discussions themselves.
Although easier said than done, establishing a climate of mutual respect and positivity
helps to encourage student participation in classroom discussions and maximizes
their learning in the process.

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Using Online Discussions

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In many classes, across multiple disciplines, professors will provide students with
an online forum to engage in fruitful discussions about class material outside of
class. Whether it be Blackboard Vista discussion pages, e-mail lists, or some other
way to engage students in discussions outside of class, these types of initiatives
serve many useful purposes. Most notably, online discussion pages for classes that
meet in person can foster the development of a sense of community, much like you
might see at a work site or within a graduate program. Online forums provide a safe
and comfortable setting for shy students to share their thoughts. Finally, and not to be
underestimated, it’s a talking world. Providing more opportunities for students to get
feedback on their opinions or thought processes, and benefit from listening to and
thinking about the opinions of others, represents an invaluable learning experience
applicable to the real-world.

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Summary
• Classroom discussions can be pursued in a number of ways, but a couple of
hard and steady rules can be applied:

- Classroom discussions should involve the expectation of participation for

all students.

- Professors can do many things to create a comfortable environment for

classroom discussions to take place.

• There are many important purposes for classroom discussion that are
supported through mountains of literature:

- Classroom discussions facilitate critical thinking and meta-cognitive

processing.

- Classroom discussions foster better comprehension of text and lecture

material in students

- Classroom discussions provide opportunities for students to practice their

speaking skills, model other speakers and become more comfortable
working with diverse groups of people.

• There are many ways that one can go about improving the discussions that
take place in their classes, and these tips are readily applied across disciplines
in academia:

- Establish clear rules for classroom discussions.

- Form subgroups of students within large classes when you can.

- Be open to new experiences.

- Educate students about how to ask critical thinking questions at the start
of the semester, before classroom discussions are even initiated.

- Be supportive, understanding and just.

- Utilize supplemental online discussion boards .

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References
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- Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching. San

Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

- In the spirit of the scholarship of pedagogy and the scholarship of teaching, this
book provides a wealth of information regarding ways that college instructors
can create contexts conductive to classroom discussions. Multiple tools and
tips for creating, evaluating and managing classroom discussions are offered.
This book represents a must read for any college professor looking to include
more classroom discussions in their courses.

- Buskist, W., Sikorski, J. F., Buckley, T., & Saville, B. K. (2002). Elements
of master teaching. In S. F. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds.), The teaching of
psychology: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie and Charles L. Brewer
(pp. 27-39). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

- In one of the most influential writings in the field devoted to teaching in

college, student and professor views regarding the most important behaviors
exhibited by effective college teachers is reviewed and discussed.

- Connor-Greene, P. A. (2005). Fostering meaningful classroom discussion:

Student generated questions, quotations and talking points. Teaching of
Psychology, 32, 173-175.

- This brief article outlines a pedagogical tool designed to help students ask
questions consistent with the assessment and evaluation of critical thinking.
It is proposed that with tools to ask more thought provoking questions, it is
more likely that classroom discussions and even personal critical discourses
will be of greater learning value in facilitating meta-cognitive processing.

- Dallimore, E. J., Hertenstein, J. H., & Platt, M. B. (2004). Classroom

participation and discussion effectiveness: Student-generated strategies.
Communication Education, 53, 103-115.

- The article reviews factors identified by students that related to the increased
effectiveness of a grading policy that included the expectation for classroom
discussion in all students. Students suggested that factors like: actively

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facilitating discussions, asking useful questions, providing positive feedback

to students and creating a supportive classroom environment was related
to positive student views of the utility of class participation requirements in
college courses.

- Davis, B. G. (2009). Tools for teaching (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.

- This book represents a comprehensive guide for teachers of college courses

to utilize in delivering effective lectures, managing classroom discussions,
providing mentoring services to students and negotiating a number of other
common pitfalls of college professors.

- Garside, C. (1996). Look who’s talking: A comparison of lecture and

group discussion: Teaching strategies in developing critical thinking skills.
Communication Education, 45, 212-227.

- This article showed that students enrolled in lecture or discussion-based

courses on interpersonal communication both featured commensurate
gains in critical thinking skills. Yet, the author discussed the importance of
interpreting these findings in light of the fact that lectures are more commonly
experienced by students, and this fact may leave some students feeling
uncomfortable with new activities in active learning classrooms, potentially
hampering their learning ability. It is suggested that with more active learning
activities being pursued by college professors in the future, greater gains in
critical thinking may be seen in students enrolled in ‘active learning’ courses
who become more comfortable with active learning approaches.

- Halonen, J. S. (2002). Classroom presence. In S. F. Davis & W. Buskist

(Eds.), The teaching of psychology: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie
and Charles L. Brewer (pp. 41-55). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

- This book chapter provides a thorough review of referents associated with

the display of presence during the course of delivering lectures and guiding
discussions in college courses. Personality factors, behaviors and pedagogical
innovations consistent with the display of presence as a college professor are
examined and reviewed.

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- Halpern, D. F. (2002). Teaching for critical thinking: A four-part model to

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING SERIES

enhance thinking skills. In S. F. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds.), The teaching of

psychology: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie and Charles L. Brewer
(pp. 91-103). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

- This article attempts to guide the reader through the literature in cognitive
psychology that could prove most useful to a professor attempting to create
classroom environments most conductive to teaching meta-cognition and
other advanced thinking skills. Research reviewed suggests that specific
types of classroom discussions increase meta-cognitive potential in students.
Thinking and processing skills learned through these types of discussions
have been found to transfer to scenarios encountered outside of the class.
The chapter suggests that psychologists are in a unique position to utilize
their expertise in cognitive, emotional and behavioral factors to uncover the
most effective ways to impart knowledge to students.

- King, A. (1995). Inquiring minds really do want to know: Using questioning to

teach critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 13-17.

- In this article, the author reviews an innovative strategy for promoting critical
thinking in students through classroom discussion activities. In short, prior to
initiating the actual classroom discussion exercises, information is provided to
students regarding how best to formulate the types of questions that promote
critical analysis in others. With this knowledge, students are thought to be
better prepared to learn more during class discussions and even promote
more lasting types of synthesis and analysis skills in other students who field
their well constructed questions.

- Korn, J. R., & Sikorski, J. F. (2010). A guide for beginning teachers of

psychology. Retrieved from http://www.teachpsych.com/resources/e-books/
guide2010/index.php

- This book was designed for beginning teachers of psychology. The volume
is devoted to a number of issues important to facilitating student successes
in and out of the classroom. For instance, chapters on delivering effective
lectures, managing classroom discussions and developing a philosophy of

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teaching are featured. In addition, other chapters in this volume are devoted
to documenting the successes of the professor in order to increase their
chances of obtaining promotion and tenure. Toward this end, chapters on
developing a teaching portfolio and landing a teaching job in academia are
featured.

- McKeachie, W. J. (1999). McKeachie’s Teaching Tips: Strategies, research

and theory for College and university teachers (10th ed.). Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.

- This book, across multiple editions, is widely considered to be the most

influential work ever published to explicate the factors most closely linked with
effective college teaching. Chapters focus on assisting the college professor in
developing useful strategies for managing a number of challenging situations,
students and professional development challenges associated with being a
college professor.

- Murphy, P. K., Wilkinson, I. A. G., Soter, A. O., Hennessey, M. N., Alexander,

J. F. (2009). Examining the effects of classroom discussion on students’
comprehension of text: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology,
101, 740-764.

- Through an impressive meta-analysis, authors review the evidence regarding

whether implementing classroom discussions, across college disciplines,
leads to enhanced comprehension of text and lecture material. In general,
results revealed that classroom discussion is associated with increased
comprehension of class material, and the size of the impact varies based on
the type of discussion method pursued.

- Nunn, C. E. (1996). Discussion in the college classroom: Triangulating

observational and survey results. Journal of Higher Education, 67, 243-266.

- This article reviews a number of purposes of classroom discussions in the

college classroom. An argument is made for professors to strive to make
discussions a part of their classrooms, as research suggests that this valuable
learning tool is only utilized for about2-3% of class time across college
courses.

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- Rocca, K. A. (2010). Student participation in the college classroom: An

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extended multidisciplinary literature review. Communication Education, 59,

185-213.

- In this impressive literature review, the author outlines the value and
purposes of including classroom discussion across many different types of
college courses. In summarizing the review, the author provides a number
of concrete steps that a professor can take to implement effective classroom
discussions.

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