ENG507 SHORT HANDOUTS

MIDTERM
Lesson 01 to 05

(ENG507) Phonetics and Phonology

Regards:Sir Zahid
Lesson-01
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE-I
Topic 001: Introduction to the Course
What does this section cover?
It covers the overall sketch of the course, including aims, objectives, and
evaluation criteria.
What is the primary focus of this section?
The primary focus of this section is to provide an overview of the course,
including its aims, objectives, and the criteria used for evaluation.
Topic 002: Importance of Studying Phonetics and Phonology
What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the study of language structure and function.
How does phonetics and phonology fit into linguistics?
Phonetics and phonology study speech sounds and their patterns within language.
Why are phonetics and phonology important in linguistics?
They help understand how speech sounds are produced and change, aiding
language description and documentation.
Define linguistics and its scope.
Linguistics is the study of language and its components, encompassing how
language is structured and functions. It delves into various aspects like sounds,
words, sentences, meanings, and their interrelationships.

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How do phonetics and phonology contribute to linguistics?
Phonetics and phonology are integral to linguistics as they explore the sounds used
in human speech and their patterns within languages. This understanding aids in
language description, preservation, and analysis.
Elaborate on the significance of phonetics and phonology.
Phonetics and phonology play a pivotal role in deciphering speech sounds'
production, transformations, and variations, contributing to language
documentation, cross-linguistic comparisons, and typological studies.
Topic 003: Focus Language - English
Which language is the main focus of this course?
English is the main focus, specifically Received Pronunciation (RP) or British
English.
Are examples from other languages used in the course?
Yes, examples from local languages like Urdu, Punjabi, etc., are used for
comparisons.
Which language serves as the main focus of this course?
The main focus of this course is the English language, particularly the Received
Pronunciation (RP) or British accent.
How are local languages integrated into the course?
While English is the main focus, the course incorporates examples from local
languages such as Urdu, Punjabi, and Sindhi for comparison and illustration
purposes.
Topic 004: Aims and Objectives of the Course
What are the objectives of this course?
Students will understand sound production, physical properties of sounds,
suprasegmental features, IPA symbols, and prepare for advanced courses.
What are the key objectives of this course?
The course aims to equip students with the ability to comprehend sound
production, understand the physical attributes of speech sounds, analyze
suprasegmental features, interpret IPA symbols, and prepare for advanced studies
in Experimental Phonology.
Topic 005: Evaluation Criteria for the Course
How will students be assessed in this course?

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Quizzes, assignments, GDB, mid-term and final-term exams, and transcription
tasks are part of the evaluation.
How will students' performance be evaluated in this course?
Students' performance will be assessed through a combination of methods,
including quizzes, assignments, Graded Discussion Board participation, mid-term
and final-term exams. Transcription tasks will also be an integral component of
the evaluation process.
Topic 006: Introduction to Vowels and Consonants
How are consonants and vowels different?
Consonants involve blocked airflow, while vowels have free airflow without
obstruction.
What determines the classification of a consonant?
Consonants are classified based on places and manners of articulation and voicing.
How are vowels classified?
Vowels are classified based on tongue position, tongue part, and lip-rounding,
leading to pure vowels and diphthongs.
Differentiate between consonants and vowels based on airflow.
Consonants involve partially or completely blocked airflow during their
production, while vowels are produced with unobstructed, free airflow through the
vocal tract.
Explain the classification of consonants in terms of articulation.
Consonants are classified based on their places of articulation (where the airflow is
obstructed) and manners of articulation (how the airflow is obstructed), along with
whether they are voiced or voiceless.
How are vowels categorized in terms of articulation?
Vowels are classified based on the position of the tongue (high, mid, low), the part
of the tongue involved (front, central, back), and whether they involve lip-
rounding. This classification leads to the distinction between pure vowels
(monophthongs) and complex vowels (diphthongs).

Lesson-02
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE-II
Topic-007: Introduction to English Vowels

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What is the total number of sounds in English RP (BBC) accent?
Answer: 44 sounds.
How many vowels are there in English RP accent?
Answer: 20 vowels.
What are the two categories in which English vowels are divided?
Pure vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs.
How many pure vowels are there, and how are they further divided?
12 pure vowels, divided into 5 long vowels and 7 short vowels.
Provide an example for each of the short vowels.
Answer:
ɪ: pit
e: pet
æ: pat
ʌ: putt
ɒ: pot
ʊ: put
ǝ: another
Provide an example for each of the long vowels.
Answer:
iː: bean
ɑː: barn
ɔː: born
uː: boon
ɜː: burn
How many sounds are present in English RP (BBC) accent, and how are they
divided?
There are a total of 44 sounds in English RP accent. These sounds are categorized
into 20 vowels, further divided into pure vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs.
Define pure vowels and provide the number of long and short pure vowels.
Pure vowels, or monophthongs, are single vowel sounds without gliding
movement. Among them, there are 12 pure vowels in total, consisting of 5 long
vowels and 7 short vowels.
Provide examples of short vowels with their respective symbols.

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Answer: Sure, here are the examples of short vowels with their IPA symbols:
ɪ: pit
e: pet
æ: pat
ʌ: putt
ɒ: pot
ʊ: put
ǝ: another
Offer examples of long vowels along with their corresponding words.
Answer: Certainly, here are the examples of long vowels:
iː: bean
ɑː: barn
ɔː: born
uː: boon
ɜː: burn
Topic-008: Introduction to English Diphthongs
How are English diphthongs categorized?
Centering diphthongs and closing diphthongs.
What is the common ending sound of centering diphthongs?
Answer: 'ǝ' sound.
What are the two possible ending sounds for closing diphthongs?
Answer: 'ɪ' or 'ʊ' sounds.
Provide examples of closing diphthongs.
Answer:
ɪǝ: peer
eɪ: bay
aɪ: buy
ɔɪ: boy
ǝʊ: no
aʊ: now
What are the two categories of English diphthongs, and how are they
distinguished?
English diphthongs are categorized into centering diphthongs (ending with 'ǝ'
sound) and closing diphthongs (ending with 'ɪ' or 'ʊ' sounds).

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Provide examples of closing diphthongs.
Certainly, here are examples of closing diphthongs:
ɪǝ: peer
eɪ: bay
aɪ: buy
ɔɪ: boy
ǝʊ: no
aʊ: now
Topic-009: Introduction to English Consonants
How many categories of English sounds are introduced, and what are they?
Five categories: Plosives, Nasals, Fricatives, Affricates, and Approximants.
How many plosive sounds are there, and provide an example for each.
6 plosive sounds.
p: pin
b: bin
t: tin
d: din
k: kin
g: gum
How many nasal sounds are there, and provide examples.
3 nasal sounds.
m: sum
n: sun
ŋ: sung
How many fricative sounds are there, and provide examples.
9 fricative sounds.
f: fine
v: vine
θ: think
ð: this
s: seal
z: zeal
ʃ: sheep
ʒ: measure

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h: how
How many affricate sounds are there, and provide examples.
2 affricate sounds.
ʧ: chain
ʤ: Jane
How many approximant sounds are there, and provide examples.
4 approximant sounds.
l: light
r: right
w: wet
j: yet
How many categories of English sounds are there, and what are they?
There are five categories of English sounds: Plosives, Nasals, Fricatives,
Affricates, and Approximants.
Provide examples of each category of consonant sounds.
Certainly, here are examples from each category:
Plosive sounds:
p: pin
b: bin
t: tin
d: din
k: kin
g: gum
Nasal sounds:
m: sum
n: sun
ŋ: sung
Fricative sounds:
f: fine
v: vine
θ: think
ð: this
s: seal
z: zeal

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ʃ: sheep
ʒ: measure
h: how
Affricate sounds:
ʧ: chain
ʤ: Jane
Approximant sounds:
l: light
r: right
w: wet
j: yet
Topic-010: IPA Transcription of English Sounds
What is the total number of sounds in English RP accent, and how are they
categorized?
44 sounds, categorized into vowels and consonants.
Provide examples of long vowels and their corresponding IPA symbols.
Answer:
Long vowels: iː, ɑː, ɔː, uː, ɜː.
Provide examples of short vowels and their corresponding IPA symbols.
Answer:
Short vowels: ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ, ǝ.
Provide examples of diphthongs and their corresponding IPA symbols.
Answer:
Diphthongs: eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, ǝʊ, aʊ, ɪǝ, eǝ, ʊǝ.
How many plosive sounds are there, and provide examples with their IPA
symbols.
Answer: 6 plosive sounds.
p: [p]
b: [b]
t: [t]
d: [d]
k: [k]
g: [g]

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How are the sounds in English RP accent categorized, and what are the
examples of each category?
The sounds in English RP accent are categorized into vowels and consonants. Here
are the examples:
Long vowels: iː, ɑː, ɔː, uː, ɜː
Short vowels: ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ, ǝ
Diphthongs: eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, ǝʊ, aʊ, ɪǝ, eǝ, ʊǝ
Plosive consonants: p, b, t, d, k, g
Nasal consonants: m, n, ŋ
Fricative consonants: f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h
Affricate consonants: ʧ, ʤ
Approximant consonants: l, r, w, j
Topic-011: Introduction to Phonology
What is phonology?
Phonology is the study of the sounds of a particular language.
What is meant by contrastive sounds in phonology?
Contrastive sounds are sounds that, when substituted for each other, result in
different meanings.
Provide an example of contrastive sounds in English.
Answer: [r] and [l], as in "road" and "load."
Apart from consonants and vowels, what else do phonologists study?
Phonologists study syllables, phrases, rhythm, tone, and intonation of a language.
Define phonology and explain the concept of contrastive sounds.
Phonology is the study of a language's sound system. Contrastive sounds are those
that, when exchanged, change the meaning of a word. For example, [r] and [l] are
contrastive in English because "road" and "load" differ in meaning based on which
sound is used.
What aspects of language do phonologists study beyond consonants and
vowels?
Phonologists study various linguistic elements, including syllables, phrases,
rhythm, tone, and intonation within a specific language's sound system.
Topic-012: Introduction to Phonetics
What does phonetics study?
Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds.

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Name the three major types of phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics, Acoustic phonetics, and Auditory phonetics.
How are physical properties of sounds analyzed in phonetics?
Physical properties, like waveform, can be analyzed using computer programs like
Praat.
What are the major organs involved in articulating speech sounds?
Mouth, nose, teeth, and tongue.
How are ears used in phonetics?
Ears are used to hear speech sounds and distinguish between them.
What is the primary focus of phonetics?
Phonetics primarily deals with the study of human speech sounds, including their
articulation, acoustic properties, and auditory perception.
What are the three main types of phonetics, and briefly explain each type.
The three main types of phonetics are:
• Articulatory phonetics: This type examines how speech sounds are
physically produced in the vocal tract.
• Acoustic phonetics: It focuses on the acoustic properties of speech sounds,
such as their frequency, amplitude, and duration.
• Auditory phonetics: This type involves the perception of speech sounds by
the human ear and how they are processed in the brain.
How are physical properties of speech sounds analyzed in phonetics?
Phonetics employs various methods, including using instruments like
spectrographs to visualize sound waves and computer programs like Praat to
analyze acoustic properties.
What are the major organs involved in the articulation of speech sounds?
The major organs involved in articulating speech sounds include the mouth, nose,
teeth, and tongue.
How does phonetics contribute to our understanding of speech sounds?
Phonetics helps us understand how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and
perceived. It provides insights into the mechanics of speech production and the
ways in which different sounds are distinguished.

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Lesson-03
INTRODUCTION TO KEY CONCEPTS IN PHONETICS
AND PHONOLOGY (P&P)-I
Topic 013: Phonetics vs. Phonology
What is the key difference between phonology and phonetics?
Phonology studies how sounds are organized in languages, focusing on patterns
and distribution. Phonetics, however, examines the actual process of sound
production, transmission, and reception.
Explain the difference between phonetics and phonology.
Phonetics and phonology are both vital subfields in linguistics that revolve around
speech sounds, yet they focus on distinct aspects. Phonology delves into the
organization of sounds within individual languages, studying speech patterns and
phonological rules specific to each language. Key terms like 'distribution' and
'patterning' are associated with phonology. Phonologists investigate questions such
as why 'cat' and 'dog' have different plurals with distinct sounds. On the other
hand, phonetics concerns itself with the actual process of producing sounds.
Phonetics encompasses various branches like acoustic phonetics, auditory
phonetics, and articulatory phonetics, which explore the sounds made during
speech production, transmission, and reception.
Topic 014: Introduction to Key Concepts in Phonetics and Phonology

Define "phone" in phonetics.

A phone is a sound or segment with specific physical features, used in a non-
technical sense.
What is a "phoneme"?
A3: A phoneme is the smallest meaningful sound unit in a language that can
change one word into another, having the ability to change meaning.
Explain the term "allophone."
An allophone is a systematic variant of a phoneme that does not change the
meaning of words. It refers to alternate sounds within a phoneme group.
Define a "phoneme" and provide examples.
A phoneme is the smallest sound unit in a language that can alter the meaning of
words. For instance, the difference between "white" and "right" (focusing on the

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sounds, not the spelling) lies in the phonemes "w" and "r," which can change the
meaning of words. Similarly, consider "cat" and "bat," where the phonemes "k"
and "b" differentiate the words. Linguists define a phoneme as a group of sounds
sharing common articulation patterns. Allophones, in turn, are variants of
phonemes that do not affect word meaning.

Topic 015: Types of Phonetic Studies

Name the three major branches of phonetics.
The three major branches of phonetics are articulatory phonetics, acoustic
phonetics, and auditory phonetics.
What does linguistic phonetics focus on?
Linguistic phonetics deals with discovering the range and variety of sounds used
in meaningful speech across different languages.
Describe the major branches of phonetics and their significance.
Phonetics is divided into three primary branches: articulatory phonetics, acoustic
phonetics, and auditory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics delves into how speech
sounds are physically produced through vocal tract movements. Acoustic
phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds during transmission
between the mouth and ear, relying on acoustics principles. Auditory phonetics
focuses on how the human ear perceives sounds and the brain's recognition of
speech units. These branches contribute to understanding speech production,
analysis, and perception.
Topic 016: Articulatory Phonetics
What does articulatory phonetics study?
Articulatory phonetics studies the production of speech sounds and how they are
formed by the vocal organs.
How is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) classification based?
The IPA classification of sounds is based on articulatory variables, which describe
how sounds are produced.
Explain the field of articulatory phonetics and its relationship to the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Articulatory phonetics explores the production of speech sounds, examining how
the vocal organs create them. This branch employs terminology from anatomy and
physiology and is sometimes referred to as physiological phonetics. The IPA's

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sound classification is based on articulatory variables, aiding in the description of
sound production. Recent advancements in techniques for observing vocal tract
movements have furthered the study of articulatory phonetics, covering aspects
such as air stream mechanism, places and manners of articulation, and phonation.
Topic 017: Acoustic Phonetics
What does acoustic phonetics focus on?
Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds as transmitted
between mouth and ear, based on the principles of acoustics.
What is the role of acoustic analysis in phonetics?
Acoustic analysis provides objective data for investigating speech sounds and can
support analyses made in articulatory or auditory terms.
Detail the scope and importance of acoustic phonetics.
Acoustic phonetics centers on studying the physical attributes of speech sounds as
they travel from mouth to ear, relying on acoustics principles. Instrumental
techniques like Praat software and electronic tools aid in this study. Acoustic
analysis offers objective data for speech sound investigation, including duration,
formants (F1, F2, F3), and more. It serves as a valuable reference when supporting
analyses conducted in articulatory or auditory phonetic terms. However, it's
important to note that acoustic analyses have limitations and potential for multiple
interpretations.
Topic 018: Auditory Phonetics
What does auditory phonetics explore?
Auditory phonetics studies how the human ear perceives speech sounds and how
the brain recognizes different speech units.
What challenges are associated with auditory phonetics?
Auditory phonetics faces difficulties in identifying and measuring psychological
and neurological responses to speech sounds.
Discuss the focus and challenges of auditory phonetics.
Auditory phonetics is concerned with understanding how the human ear perceives
speech sounds and how the brain recognizes different speech units. This branch
studies the perceptual response to speech sounds mediated by the ear, auditory
nerve, and brain. However, due to the complexity of identifying and measuring
psychological and neurological responses to speech sounds, auditory phonetics
faces challenges. While anatomical and physiological aspects of the ear are well-

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studied, pure research into speech-sound sensation and its relationship with
phonetic analyses and phonological studies remains less explored. The subject
aligns closely with psycholinguistic studies of auditory perception.

Lesson-04
INTRODUCTION TO KEY CONCEPTS IN
PHONETICS AND
PHONOLOGY (P&P)-II

Topic-019: Experimental Phonetics and Phonology

What is the goal of experimental phonetics and phonology?

The goal of experimental phonetics and phonology is to investigate phonological
phenomena using hypothesis-based experiments, integrating experimental
phonetics, experimental psychology, and phonological theory.
How does experimental phonetics differ from descriptive and prescriptive
phonetics?
Experimental phonetics focuses on quantitative research through controlled
experiments, while descriptive phonetics accounts for pronunciation variations,
and prescriptive phonetics states pronunciation norms.
Name the three fields of experimental research in phonetics and give an
example for each.
The three fields are articulatory, acoustic, and auditory. Examples: articulatory
(study of speech production), acoustic (relationship between articulation and
sound), auditory (how the brain interprets speech sounds).
What areas did Peter Ladefoged explore within experimental phonetics in
1967?
Peter Ladefoged explored stress in respiratory activity, the nature of vowel quality,
and perception and production of speech.
What is the objective of experimental phonetics and phonology?
The objective of experimental phonetics and phonology is to amalgamate research
from experimental phonetics, experimental psychology, and phonological theory

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to conduct hypothesis-based examinations of phonological phenomena, akin to the
approaches utilized in the experimental sciences.
How does experimental phonetics differ from descriptive and prescriptive
phonetics?
Experimental phonetics differentiates itself by embracing quantitative research
through controlled experiments. In contrast, descriptive phonetics focuses on
documenting pronunciation variations across languages, while prescriptive
phonetics lays out norms for how speech ought to be pronounced.
Could you elucidate the fields of experimental research in phonetics? Provide
an example for each.
Experimental phonetics encompasses three main fields: articulatory, acoustic, and
auditory. In articulatory studies, researchers measure and analyze the process of
speech production. In the acoustic realm, the relationship between articulation and
the resulting acoustic signal is explored. In the auditory domain, perceptual tests
are conducted to understand how listeners interpret speech information. For
instance, articulatory experiments involve studying how speech sounds are
produced using instruments to measure tongue and lip movements.
What were the areas of experimental phonetics that Peter Ladefoged explored
in 1967?
In 1967, Peter Ladefoged delved into three key areas of experimental phonetics:
stress in respiratory activity, the nature of vowel quality, and the interplay between
the perception and production of speech sounds. These explorations aimed to
deepen the understanding of these aspects within the realm of speech.
Topic-020: Generative Phonology
Why did a major change occur in the theory of phonology in the 1960s?
The change came about because phonologists realized that sound processes
regulated by grammar and morphology were being missed, leading to the
development of generative phonology.
What was the contribution of Morris Halle and Noam Chomsky to
phonology?
They showed that many sound processes in phonology are regulated by grammar
and morphology, leading to the development of generative phonology.
List the theories that have emerged from generative phonology.
Answer: The theories are autosegmental phonology, metrical phonology, lexical
phonology, and optimality theory.
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What spurred the significant shift in the theory of phonology during the
1960s?
The theory of phonology underwent a significant transformation in the 1960s due
to the realization that phonologists were neglecting important sound processes
regulated by grammar and morphology. This realization led to the emergence of
generative phonology.
How did Morris Halle and Noam Chomsky contribute to phonology?
Morris Halle and Noam Chomsky highlighted the presence of sound processes
governed by grammar and morphology that were being overlooked by
phonologists. This insight led to the development of generative phonology, which
focused on specific phonological rules within languages.
Enumerate the theories that emerged from the field of generative phonology.
Generative phonology gave rise to several prominent theories, including
autosegmental phonology, metrical phonology, lexical phonology, and optimality
theory. These theories offered distinct perspectives on how phonological
phenomena are structured and operate within languages.
Topic-21: Articulatory Phonetics - I
What does articulatory phonetics study?
Articulatory phonetics studies the movement of articulators and their actions in
human speech production, including the features of speech sounds like places and
manners of articulation.
Name some principal articulators in speech production.
Principal articulators include the tongue, lips, lower jaw, teeth, velum (soft palate),
uvula, and larynx.
What is the central focus of articulatory phonetics?
Articulatory phonetics centers on the study of articulators—movable speech
organs—and their actions in the production of human speech sounds. It delves into
the specific properties of speech sounds, such as their places and manners of
articulation.
Could you list some of the principal articulators in human speech
production?
The key articulators involved in human speech production include the tongue, lips,
lower jaw, teeth, velum (soft palate), uvula, and larynx. These organs contribute to

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the creation of various speech sounds by altering their positions and
configurations.
Topic-22: Speech Production
What are the main components of speech production process?
The main components are respiration, phonation, articulation, and resonance.
Differentiate speech production from speech perception.
Speech production involves the respiratory, phonatory, and articulatory systems in
generating speech, while speech perception refers to the receptive aspects of
understanding spoken language.
What are the four main components of speech according to Ladefoged?
The components are the airstream process, the phonation process, the oro-nasal
process, and the articulatory process.
What are the primary components of the speech production process?
The process of speech production encompasses four fundamental components:
respiration, phonation, articulation, and resonance. These components work in
concert to generate intelligible speech.
How does speech production differ from speech perception?
Speech production pertains to the physical mechanisms and processes involved in
generating spoken language, including respiration, phonation, and articulation.
Speech perception, on the other hand, refers to the cognitive processes by which
listeners interpret and comprehend spoken language.
According to Peter Ladefoged, what are the four main components of speech
production?
Peter Ladefoged identified four primary components of speech production: the
airstream process, the phonation process, the oro-nasal process, and the
articulatory process. These components collectively contribute to the generation of
speech sounds.
Topic-23: Sound Waves
What is a sound wave?
A sound wave is the pattern of disturbance caused by the movement of energy
through air, resulting in variations in air pressure.
How do sound waves reach the ear and affect hearing?
Sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, which is transmitted to the brain as
auditory information.

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Why is understanding the physical features of sound waves important in
phonetics?
Understanding features like amplitude, loudness, and vibration duration is
essential for phonetic analysis and acoustics.
What defines a sound wave?
A sound wave is characterized as a pattern of disturbance resulting from the
propagation of energy through the air. It manifests as variations in air pressure,
caused by the movements of the vocal organs during speech production.
How do sound waves impact hearing?
Sound waves, upon reaching the listener's ear, cause the eardrum to vibrate. This
vibration is subsequently transmitted to the brain as auditory information,
allowing for the perception and interpretation of sound.
Why is understanding the physical attributes of sound waves crucial in
phonetic studies?
A grasp of the physical properties of sound waves, including factors such as
amplitude, loudness, and duration of vibration, is vital in phonetic studies. These
attributes aid in analyzing speech sounds and contribute to insights in the field of
acoustics.
Topic-024: The Oro-Nasal Process
What is the oro-nasal process?
The oro-nasal process determines whether the airstream exits through the mouth or
nose, affecting oral and nasal sounds.
How does the soft palate influence the oro-nasal process?
Raising the soft palate leads to an oral closure, while lowering it permits air to
pass through the nose, resulting in nasal sounds.
What is the role of the oro-nasal process in speech production?
The oro-nasal process plays a pivotal role in determining whether the airstream
exits through the mouth or the nose during speech. This process influences the
distinction between oral and nasal sounds.
How does the soft palate influence the oro-nasal process?
The position of the soft palate, or velum, determines the oro-nasal process. When
the soft palate is raised, it creates an oral closure, leading to oral sounds.
Conversely, when the soft palate is lowered, air can pass through the nose,
resulting in nasal sounds.

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Lesson-05
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS-II

Topic 025: Articulatory Gestures

What are articulatory gestures in phonetics?

Articulatory gestures refer to the movements made by articulators during speech
production to create specific speech sounds.
Explain the bilabial place of articulation.
Bilabial sounds (/p/ and /b/) are produced by bringing both lips together.
How is a retroflex sound produced?
A retroflex sound is produced when the tongue tip curls against the back of the
alveolar ridge.
Define palato-alveolar articulation.
Palato-alveolar sounds are produced with the tongue blade against the back of the
alveolar ridge, as seen in words like "shy" and "she."
What is the place of articulation for velar sounds?
Velar sounds (/k/ and /g/) are produced with the back of the tongue against the soft
palate.
What are articulatory gestures, and how are they relevant to speech
production?
Articulatory gestures are specific movements made by speech articulators during
the production of speech sounds. These gestures determine the shape and
configuration of the vocal tract, leading to the creation of distinct phonemes. In
essence, they are crucial in shaping the physical characteristics of speech sounds
and differentiating one sound from another. For example, when producing bilabial
sounds like /p/ and /b/, the two lips come together, highlighting the importance of
articulatory gestures in phonetics.
Describe the articulatory process involved in producing palatal sounds.
Palatal sounds are produced by raising the front of the tongue to the hard palate.
The tongue's position and shape during articulation result in distinct speech
sounds. An example of a palatal sound is the initial sound in the word "yes."

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Topic 026: Manner of Articulation
How is the manner of articulation of a consonant determined?
The manner of articulation of a consonant is determined by the type of obstruction
it creates to the airflow in the vocal tract.
Differentiate between obstruents and sonorants in terms of manner of
articulation.
Obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricates) create more obstruction in airflow, while
sonorants (nasals, liquids, glides) create less obstruction.
What is the classification of consonants based on manner and place of
articulation?
Consonants are classified by the International Phonetic Association according to
their manner and place of articulation.
What is meant by the manner of articulation, and how does it affect
consonant sounds?
The manner of articulation refers to how the airflow is obstructed or manipulated
in the vocal tract to create different consonant sounds. It classifies consonants
based on the way airflow is constricted, determining whether the airflow is
completely blocked, partially constricted, or relatively unobstructed. This
classification helps categorize consonants into types like stops, fricatives,
affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides, each with distinct airflow characteristics and
speech sound qualities.
Differentiate between obstruents and sonorants based on their manner of
articulation.
In terms of manner of articulation, obstruents create a more significant obstruction
of airflow in the vocal tract, leading to a more pronounced constriction and often
producing louder and more distinct sounds. Examples include stops, fricatives,
and affricates. On the other hand, sonorants allow a relatively unobstructed
airflow, resulting in smoother and less noisy sounds. Sonorants encompass nasals,
liquids, and glides, producing more resonant and melodious qualities.
Topic 027: Stop: Oral and Nasal
What is a stop consonant?
A stop consonant is produced by a complete closure in the vocal tract, causing a
sudden release of air, resulting in an explosive sound.
Explain the term "plosion" in relation to stop consonants.

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"Plosion" refers to the outward movement of air that occurs when a stop consonant
is released.
Differentiate between oral and nasal stops.
Oral stops are produced with a complete closure in the oral cavity, while nasal
stops involve airflow through the nasal passage.
Explain the concept of a stop consonant, and provide examples of both oral
and nasal stops.
Stop consonants involve a complete closure of the vocal tract, which abruptly halts
the airflow. When the closure is released, a burst of sound is produced due to the
built-up air pressure. Examples of oral stops include /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/,
where the airflow is blocked in the oral cavity. Nasal stops, like /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/,
involve airflow through the nasal passage while maintaining closure in the oral
cavity.
Topic 028: Fricative
How is a fricative consonant produced?
A fricative consonant is made by forcing air through a narrow gap, resulting in a
hissing noise.
Provide examples of voiced and voiceless fricatives in English.
Answer: Examples of voiced fricatives are [z] and [ð], while examples of
voiceless fricatives are [s] and [ʃ].
Describe the process of producing fricative consonants and provide examples
of voiced and voiceless fricatives.
Fricative consonants are formed by forcing air through a narrow constriction in the
vocal tract, creating a continuous turbulent airflow that generates a hissing or
buzzing sound. Voiced fricatives, such as [z] and [ð], involve vocal fold vibration
along with the airflow, resulting in a sound like "zoo" or "this." Voiceless
fricatives, like [s] and [ʃ], lack vocal fold vibration and are produced through
turbulent airflow, seen in words like "ship" and "shoe."
Topic 029: Approximants

What characterizes an approximant consonant?

An approximant consonant allows a relatively free airflow and has less
constriction compared to other consonants.
Give examples of approximant sounds in English.

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Examples of approximant sounds include [w], [j], [l], and [r].
Explain the concept of approximant consonants and provide examples of
semivowels and liquids.
Approximant consonants are characterized by a relatively free airflow and a lesser
degree of constriction compared to other consonants. Semivowels, like [w] and [j],
are produced with a rapid glide that resembles vowels but has a slight constriction.
Liquids, including [l] and non-fricative [r], have identifiable but not overly
obstructive airflow constriction, leading to a smoother sound quality. An example
of a liquid sound is [l] in "light."
Topic 030: Additional Consonantal Gestures

Define an affricate consonant and provide examples.

An affricate is a consonant that starts with a plosive closure and transitions into a
fricative sound. Examples are [tʃ] and [dʒ] in "church" and "judge."
Define an affricate consonant and provide examples of affricate sounds.
An affricate consonant is a type of sound that begins with a plosive closure and
transitions into a fricative sound, maintaining the same place of articulation.
Examples include [tʃ] as in "church" and [dʒ] as in "judge." The debate often
arises whether to classify these as one sound or two separate phonemes, based on
the linguistic context and perception.
Topic 031: Trill, Tap and Flap
Differentiate between a tap and a flap articulation.
Answer: Both tap and flap involve a single contact, but a tap has an upward
movement of the tongue tip, while a flap involves front-back movement.
How is a trill sound produced?
A trill sound involves the articulator (usually the tongue) making continuous
contact with another articulator, causing a rapid vibration.
Elaborate on the terms "trill," "tap," and "flap" articulations and
differentiate them.
Trill, tap, and flap articulations are types of consonant productions with distinct
tongue movements. A trill involves continuous vibrations of the articulator, such
as the tongue, against another articulator. A tap involves a single, rapid contact,
typically producing a brief sound, as seen in the American English pronunciation
of [ɾ] in "pity." A flap is similar to a tap but includes front-to-back movement of

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the tongue tip against the underside of the tongue, as observed in retroflex sounds
like [ɽ] and [ɖ] in Indo-Aryan languages.

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