2, Tokunbo Alli Street, Ikeja, Lagos

Website: www.jptsonline.org

E-mail: inquiries@jptsonline.org, chrisafety@jptsng.org

Tel: 01- 3427217, 08132733378

COMPUTER AND STATISTICS I

JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
CHAPTER TWO: CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
CHAPTER THREE: APPLICATION OF COMPUTER
CHAPTER FOUR: ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
CHAPTER FIVE: LMITATIONS OF COMPUTER
CHAPTER SIX: COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
CHAPTER SEVEN: UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

2
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the
other. It finds applications in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial,
research and others. Not only in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily
lives, computers have become indispensable. They are present everywhere, in all
the devices that we use daily like cars, games, washing machines, microwaves etc.
and in day to day computations like banking, reservations, electronic mails,
internet and many more.

The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to
calculate. The computer was originally defined as a superfast calculator. It had the
capacity to solve complex arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed.
But nowadays, in addition to handling complex arithmetic computations,
computers perform many other tasks like accepting, sorting, selecting, moving,
comparing various types of information. They also perform arithmetic and logical
operations on alphabetic, numeric and other types of information. This
information provided by the user to the computer is data. The information in one
form which is presented to the computer is the input information or input data.

Information in another form is presented by the computer after performing a

process on it. This information is the output information or output data.

The set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is

known as the computer program. The process of converting the input data into
the required output form with the help of the computer program is known as
data processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data processors.

Therefore, a computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing
system that accepts data, performs various operations on the data, has the
capability to store the data and produce the results on the basis of detailed step
by step instructions given to it.

The terms hardware and software are almost always used in connection with the
computer.

3
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

• The Hardware:
The hardware is the machinery itself. It is made up of the physical parts or devices
of the computer system like the electronic Integrated Circuits (ICs), magnetic
storage media and other mechanical devices like input devices, output devices
etc. All these various hardware are linked together to form an effective functional
unit. The various types of hardware used in the computers, has evolved from
vacuum tubes of the first generation to Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits of the
present generation.

Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a

computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components
of a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage,
hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory,
motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can be
touched.

• The Software:
The computer hardware itself is not capable of doing anything on its own; it has
to be given explicit instructions to perform the specific task. The computer
program is the one which controls the processing activities of the computer. The
computer thus functions according to the instructions written in the program.

4
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Software mainly consists of these computer programs, procedures and other

documentation used in the operation of a computer system. Software is a
collection of programs which utilize and enhance the capability of the hardware.

Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and

instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software that
provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer, and application
software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks.

Software Types

A. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing

the individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software
and the users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be
concerned with the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to
disk, or rendering text onto a display. Generally, system software consists of an
operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file
managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and
management tools, and networking and device control software.

B. Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just

running the computer system. Application software may consist of a single
program, such as an image viewer; a small collection of programs (often called a
software package) that work closely together to accomplish a task, such as a
spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger collection (often called a software
suite) of related but independent programs and packages that have a common
user interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which consists of
closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software
system, such as a database management system, which is a collection of
fundamental programs that may provide some service to a variety of other
independent applications.

5
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Comparison Application Software and System Software

System Software Application Software
Computer software, or just Application software, also
software is a general term known as an application or an
primarily used for digitally "app", is computer software
stored data such as computer designed to help the user to
programs and other kinds of perform specific tasks.
information read and written by
computers. App comes under
computer software though it has
a wide scope now.
Example: 1) Microsoft Windows 1) Opera (Web Browser)
2) Linux 2) Microsoft Word (Word
3) Unix Processing)
4) Mac OSX 3) Microsoft Excel
5) DOS (Spreadsheet software)
4) MySQL (Database Software)
5) Microsoft PowerPoint
(Presentation Software)
6) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics
Software)
Interaction: Generally, users do not interact Users always interact with
with system software as it works application software while
in the background. doing different activities.
System software can run Application software cannot
Dependency: independently of the application run without the presence of
software. the system software.

The computers of today are vastly different in appearance and performance as

compared to the computers of earlier days. But where did this technology come
from and where is it heading? To fully understand the impact of computers on
today’s world and the promises they hold for the future, it is important to
understand the evolution of computers.

The First Generation:

The first generation computers made use of:

6
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

 Vacuum tube technology,

 Punched cards for data input,
 Punched cards and paper tape for output,
 Machine Language for writing programs,
 Magnetic tapes and drums for external storage.

The computers of the first generation were very bulky and emitted large amount
of heat which required air conditioning. They were large in size and cumbersome
to handle. They had to be manually assembled and had limited commercial use.
The concept of operating systems was not known at that time. Each computer
had a different binary coded program called a machine language that told it how
to operate.

The Abacus, which emerged about 5000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use
today, allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads
arranged on a rack. Early merchants used Abacus to keep trading transactions.

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first mechanical machine, a

rectangular brass box, called Pascaline which could perform addition and
subtraction on whole numbers. This was in the seventeenth century. Colmar, a
Frenchman invented a machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic
functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Colmar’s
mechanical calculator, “Arithmometer”, presented a more practical approach to
computing. With its enhanced versatility, the “Arithmometer” was widely used
until the First World War, although later inventors refined Colmar’s calculator,
together with fellow inventors, Pascal and Leibniz, he helped define the age of
mechanical computation.

Charles Babbage a British mathematician at Cambridge University invented the

first analytical engine or difference engine. This machine could be programmed
by instructions coded on punch cards and had mechanical memory to store the
results. For his contributions in this field Charles Babbage is known as ‘the father
of modern digital computer.

Some of the early computers included:

Mark I –
This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was designed by Howard
Aiken of Harvard University in collaboration with IBM. This machine was an

7
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

electronic relay computer. Electromagnetic signals were used for the movement
of mechanical parts. Mark I could perform the basic arithmetic and complex
equations. Although this machine was extremely reliable, it was very slow (it took
about 3-5 seconds per calculation) and was complex in design and large in size.

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) –

This computer developed by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry was the world’s
first general purpose electronic digital computer. It made use of vacuum tubes for
internal logic and capacitors for storage.

ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) –

The first of all electronic computer was produced by a partnership between the
US Government and the University of Pennsylvania. It was built using 18,000
vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 1,500 relays and consumed 160 kilowatts of
electrical power. The ENIAC computed at speed about thousand times faster than
Mark I. However, it could store and manipulate only a limited amount of data.
Program modifications and detecting errors were also difficult.

EDVAC –
In the mid 1940’s Dr. John von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer with a memory to store both program and data.
This was the first machine which used the stored program concept. It had five
distinct units - arithmetic, central control, memory, input and output. The key
element was the central control. All the functions of the computer were co-
ordinate through this single source, the central control. The programming of the
computers was done in machine language

UNIVAC –
Remington Rand designed this computer specifically for business data processing
applications. The Universal Automatic Computer was the first general purpose
commercially available computer.

The Second Generation:

In the second generation computers:

 Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistorized technology,
 Size of the computers started reducing,
 Assembly language started being used in place of machine language,

8
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

 Concept of stored program emerged,

 High level languages were invented.

This was the generation of Transistorized Computers. Vacuum tubes were

replaced by transistors. As a result, the size of the machines started shrinking.
These computers were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy efficient.
The first transistorized computer was TX-0. The first large scale machines that
took advantage of the transistor technology were the early supercomputers,
Stretch by IBM and LARC by Sperry Rand. These machines were mainly developed
for atomic energy laboratories. Typical computers of the second generation were
the IBM 1400 and 7000 series, Honeywell 200 and General Electric.

IBM 1401 was universally accepted throughout the industry and most large
businesses routinely processed financial information using second generation
computers. The machine language was replaced by assembly language. Thus the
long and difficult binary code was replaced with abbreviated programming code
which was relatively easy to understand.
The stored program concept and programming languages gave the computers
flexi bility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored
program concept implied that the instructions to run a computer for a specific
task were held inside the computer’s memory and could quickly be modified or
replaced by a different set of instructions for a different function. High level
languages like COBOL, FORTRAN and AL- GOL were dev eloped. Computers
started finding vast and varied applications. The entire software industry began
with the second generation computers.

The Third Generation:

The third generation computers were characterized by:
 Use of Integrated circuits,
 Phenomenal increase in computation speed,
 Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the machines,
 Use of magnetic tapes and drums for external storage,
 Design of operating systems and new higher level languages,
 Commercial production of computers.

This generation was characterized by the invention of Integrated Circuits (ICs).

The 1C combined electronic components onto a small chip which was made from
quartz. Semi-conductor: This reduced the size even further. The weight and

9
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

power consumption of computers decreased and the speed increased

tremendously. Heavy emphasis was given to the development of software.
Operating systems were designed which allowed the machine to run many
different programs at once. A central program monitored and co-ordinate the
computer s memory. Multiprogramming was made possible, whereby the
machine could perform several jobs at the same time. Computers achieved
speeds of executing millions of instructions per second. Commercial production
became easier and cheaper. Higher level languages like Pascal and Report
Program Generator (RPG) were introduced and applications oriented languages
like FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1 were developed.

The Fourth Generation:

The general features of the fourth generation computers were:

 Use of very large scale integration,
 Invention of microcomputers,
 Introduction of Personal Computers,
 Networking,
 Fourth Generation Languages.

The third generation computers made use of ‘Integrated Circuits that had 10-20
components on each chip, this was Small Scale Integration (SSI).

The Fourth Generation realized Large Scale Integration (LSI) which could fit
hundreds of components on one chip and Very Large Scale integration (VLSI)
which squeezed thousands of components on one chip. The Intel 4004 chip,
located all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, input
and output controls) on a single chip and microcomputers were introduced.
Higher capacity storage media like magnetic disks were developed. Fourth
generation languages emerged and applications softwares started becoming
popular.

Computer production became inexpensive and the era of Personal Computers

(PCs) commenced. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer for use in
office, home and schools. In direct competition, the Macintosh was introduced by
Apple in 1984. Shared interactive systems and user friendly environments were
the features of these computers.

10
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

As the computers started becoming more and more powerful, they could be
linked together or networked to share not only data but also memory space and
software. The networks could reach enormous proportions with local area
networks. A global web of computer circuitry, the Internet, links the computers
worldwide into a single network of information.

The Fifth Generation:

Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is
still in its infancy. The computers of tomorrow would be characterized by Artificial
Intelligence (AI). An example of Al is Expert Systems. Computers could be
developed which could think and reason in much the same way as humans.
Computers would be able to accept spoken words as input (voice recognition).

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming
together to enable the creation of fifth generation computers. Two such advances
are parallel processing where many CPUs work as one and advance in
superconductor technology which allows the flow of electricity with little or no
resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.

11
 JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER TWO
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are broadly classified into two categories depending upon the logic
used in their design as:

 Analog computers:
In analog computers, data is recognized as a continuous measurement of a
physical property like voltage, speed, pressure etc. Readings on a dial or graphs
are obtained as the output, ex. Voltage, temperature; pressure can be measured
in this way.

 Digital Computers:
These are high speed electronic devices. These devices are programmable. They
process data by way of mathematical calculations, comparison, sorting etc. They
accept input and produce output as discrete signals representing high (on) or low
(off) voltage state of electricity. Numbers, alphabets, symbols are all represented
as a series of 1s and Os.

Digital Computers are further classified as General Purpose Digital Computers and
Special Purpose Digital Computers. General Purpose computers can be used for
any applications like accounts, payroll, data processing etc. Special purpose
computers are used for a specific job like those used in automobiles, microwaves
etc.
Another classification of digital computers is done on the basis of their capacity to
access memory and size like:

• Small Computers:
I) Microcomputers: Microcomputers are generally referred to as Personal
Computers (PCs). They have smallest memory and less power. They are
widely used in day to day applications like office automation, and
professional applications, ex. PCAT, Pentium etc.
II) Note Book and Laptop Computers: These are portable in nature and are
battery operated. Storage devices like CDs, floppies etc. and output devices
like printers can be connected to these computers. Notebook computers

12
 JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

are smaller in physical size than laptop computers. However, both have
powerful processors, support graphics, and can accept mouse driven input.
III) Hand Held Computers
These types of computers are mainly used in applications like collection of
field data. They are even smaller than the note book computers.

• Hybrid Computers: Hybrid Computers are a combination of Analog and

Digital computers. They combine the speed of analog computers and
accuracy of digital computers. They are mostly used in specialized
applications where the input data is in an analog form i.e. measurement.
This is converted into digital form for further processing. The computers
accept data from sensors and produce output using conventional
input/output devices.
• Mini Computers: Mini computers are more powerful than the micro-
computers. They have higher memory capacity and more storage capacity
with higher speeds. These computers are mainly used in process control
systems. They are mainly used in applications like payrolls, financial
accounting, Computer aided design etc. ex. VAX, PDP-11
• Mainframe Computers: Main frame computers are very large computers
which process data at very high speeds of the order of several million
instructions per second. They can be linked into a network with smaller
computers, micro-computers and with each other. They are typically used
in large organizations, government departments etc. ex. IBM4381, CDC
• Super Computers: A super computer is the fastest, most powerful and most
expensive computer which is used for complex tasks that require a lot of
computational power. Super computers have multiple processors which
process multiple instructions at the same time. This is known as parallel
processing. These computers are widely used in very advanced applications
like weather forecasting, processing geological data etc. ex. CRAY-2, NEC -
500, PARAM.

13
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER THREE
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern
world. Some of the major application areas include:

Scientific, Engineering and Research

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in
areas which require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather
forecasting, and complex mathematical and engineering applications. Computer
Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing
robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic process control dev ices etc.

Business:
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all
the areas of business and industry where computers are used to a great extent.
Database management is one of the major area where computers are used on a
large scale. The areas of application here include banking, airline reservations,
etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated, edited, sorted, searched
from large databases.

Medicine:
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like
pulse rate, blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern
day medical equipment are highly computerized today. Computers are also widely
used in medical research.

Information:
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet,
networks are all based on computers.

Education:
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop
the habit of thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving
techniques. CDs on a variety of subjects are available to impart education. On line
training programs for students are also becoming popular day by day. All the
major encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now available in the digital form

14
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

and therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity in drawing,
painting, designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.

Games and Entertainment:

Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are
nowadays also used in entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.

15
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER FOUR
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Speed:

The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of instructions that

it can perform or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are measured in
milliseconds (10~3 sec), micro-seconds (10*6 sec), and nano-seconds (10~9sec).
Computers are superfast machines and can process millions of instructions per
second. Smaller computers can execute thousands of instructions per second,
while the more complex machines can execute millions of instructions per
second.

Accuracy:
Computers are very accurate. They are capable of executing hundreds of
instructions without any errors. They do not make mistakes in their computations.
They perform each and every calculation with the same accuracy.

Efficiency
The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computers can
perform repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without
exhausting there selves. Even if they are instructed to execute millions of
instructions, they are capable of executing them all with the same speed and
efficiency without exhaustion.

Storage Capability
Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their storage devices.
These dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in
condensed forms. These storage devices typically include floppy disks, tapes, hard
disks, CDs etc, the data stored on these devices can be retrieved and reused
whenever it is required in future

Versatility
Computers are very versatile. They are capable not only of performing complex
mathematical tasks of science and engineering, but also other non-numerical
operations fielding air-line reservation, electricity bills, data base management
etc.

16
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CAHPTER FIVE
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated they
have their own limitations. The computer cannot think on its own, since it does
not have its own brain. It can only do what is has been programmed to do. It can
execute only those jobs that can be expressed as a finite set of instructions to
achieve a specific goal. Each of the steps has to be clearly defined. The computers
do not learn from previous experience nor can they arrive at a conclusion without
going through all the intermediate steps. However the impact of computers on
today’s society in phenomenal and they are today an important part of the
society.

A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Any system is defined as a group of integrated parts which are designed to
achieve a common objective. Thus, a system is made up of more than one
element or part, where each element performs a specific function and where all
the elements (parts) are logically related and are controlled in such a way that the
goal (purpose) of the system is achieved.

A computer is made up of a number of integrated elements like

- The central processing unit,
- The input and output devices and
- The storage devices.

Each of these units performs a specific task. However, none of them can function
independently on their own. They are logically related and controlled to achieve a
specific goal. When they are thus integrated they form a fully-fledged computer
system.

17
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER SIX
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
The basic parts of computer system are:
 Input Unit
 The Central Processing Unit
 Output Unit

The Input Unit:

Input devices are the devices which are used to feed programs and data to the
computer. The input system connects the external environment with the
computer system. The input devices are the means of communication between
the user and the computer system. Typical input devices include the keyboard,
floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen, joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way
in which the data is fed into the computer through each of these devices is
different. However, a computer can accept data only in a specific form. Therefore
these input devices transform the data fed to them, into a form which can be
accepted by the computer. These devices are a means of communication and
inter1 station between the user and the computer systems.

Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide

data and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer
or other information appliance. Input device translates data from form that
humans understand to one that the computer can work with. Most common are
keyboard and mouse

Thus the functions of the input unit are:

 accept information (data) and programs.
 convert the data in a form which the computer can accept.
 provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

Examples of Input Device

Keyboard Mouse (Pointing Device) Microphone
Touch Screen Scanner Webcam
Touchpads MIDI Keyboard Graphic s Tablets
Cameras Pen Input Video Capture Hardware
Microphone Trackballs Barcode Reader

18
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Digital Camera Joystick Gamepad

Electronic Whiteboard

The Central Processing Unit:

This is the brain of any computer system. The central processing unit or CPU is
made of three parts:
 The control unit.
 The arithmetic logic unit
 The primary storage unit

The Control Unit :

The Control Unit controls the operations of the entire computer system. The
control unit gets the instructions from the programs stored in primary storage
unit interprets these instruction and subsequently directs the other units to
execute the instructions. Thus it manages and coordinates the entire computer
system.

The Arithmetic Logic Unit:

The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) actually executes the instructions and performs
all the calculations and decisions. The data is held in the primary storage unit and
transferred to the ALU whenever needed. Data can be moved from the primary
storage to the arithmetic logic unit a number of times before the entire
processing is complete. After the completion, the results are sent to the output
storage section and the output devices.

The Primary Storage Unit:

This is also called as Main Memory. Before the actual processing starts the data
and the instructions fed to the computer through the input units are stored in this
primary storage unit. Similarly, the data which is to be output from the computer
system is also temporarily stored in the primary memory. It is also the area where
intermediate results of calculations are stored. The main memory has the storage
section that holds the computer programs during execution. Thus the primary
unit:
 Stores data and programs during actual processing
 Stores temporary results of intermediate processing
 Stores results of execution temporarily

19
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Output Unit:
The output devices give the results of the process and computations to the
outside world. The output units accept the results produced by the computer,
convert them into a human readable form and supply them to the users. The
more common output devices are printers, plotters, display screens, magnetic
tape drives etc.

An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to

communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information
processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically
generated information into human-readable form.
Monitor LCD Projection Panel Printers (All Types)
Computer Output Microfilm (COM) Plotters Speaker(s)
Projector

20
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER SEVEN
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Unit of Measurements
Storage Measurements: The basic unit used in computer data storage is called a
bit (binary digit). Computers use these little bits, which are composed of ones and
zeros, to do things and talk to other computers. All your files, for instance, are
kept in the computer as binary files and translated into words and pictures by the
software (which is also ones and zeros). This ‘two-number’ system is called a
“binary number system” since it has only two numbers in it. The decimal number
system in contrast has ten unique digits, zero through nine.

Computer Storage Units

Bit BIT 0 or 1
Kilobyte KB 1024 Byte
Megabyte MB 1024 Kilobyte
Gigabyte GB 1024 Megabyte
Terabyte TB 1024 Gigabyte

Size example
• 1 bit - answer to an yes/no question
• 1 byte - a number from 0 to 255.
• 90 bytes: enough to store a typical line of text from a book.
• 4 KB: about one page of text.
• 120 KB: the text of a typical pocket book.
• 3 MB - a three minute song (128k bitrate)
• 650-900 MB - an CD-ROM
• 1 GB -114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s
• 8-16 GB - size of a normal flash drive

Speed Measurement: The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by

Hertz (Hz), which represents a CPU cycle. The speed of CPU is known as Computer
Speed.

21
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CPU SPEED MEASURE

1 Hertz or Hz 1 cycle per second
1 MHz 1 million cycle per second or 1000 Hz
1 GHz 1 billion cycle per second or 1000 MHz

22
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

STATISTICS

23
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING METHODS
CHAPTER THREE: COLLECTION OF DATA: CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION
CHAPTER FOUR: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
CHAPTER FIVE: DIAGRAMMATIC AND GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
CHAPTER SIX: MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
CHAPTER SEVEN: MEASURE OF DISPERSION: SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS
CHAPTER EIGHT: CORRELATION
CHAPTER NINE: REGRESSION
CHAPTER TEN: INDEX NUMBERS

24
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITIONS, SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
1.1 Introduction
In the modern world of computers and information technology, the importance of
statistics is very well-recognized by all the disciplines. Statistics has originated as a
science of statehood and found applications slowly and steadily in Agriculture,
Economics, Commerce, Biology, Medicine, Industry, planning, education and so
on. As of date, there is no other human walk of life, where statistics cannot be
applied.

1.2. Origin and Growth of Statistics

The word ‘Statistics’ and ‘Statistical’ are all derived from the Latin word Status,
means a political state. The theory of statistics as a distinct branch of scientific
method is of comparatively recent growth. Research particularly into the
mathematical theory of statistics is rapidly proceeding and fresh discoveries are
being made all over the world.

Meaning of Statistics
Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for collecting, organizing,
summarizing, presenting and analyzing data as well as deriving valid conclusions
and making reasonable decisions on the basis of this analysis. Statistics is
concerned with the systematic collection of numerical data and its interpretation.

The word ‘statistic’ is used to refer to:

1. Numerical facts, such as the number of people living in particular area.

2. The study of ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting the facts.

Definitions
Statistics is defined differently by different authors over a period of time. In the
olden days statistics was confined to only state affairs but in modern days it
embraces almost every sphere of human activity. Therefore, a number of old
definitions, which was confined to narrow field of enquiry were replaced by more

25
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

definitions, which are much more comprehensive and exhaustive. Secondly,

statistics has been defined in two different ways – Statistical data and statistical
methods. The following are some of the definitions of statistics as numerical data.

1. Statistics are the classified facts representing the conditions of people in a

state. In particular, they are the facts, which can be stated in numbers or in
tables of numbers or in any tabular or classified arrangement.
2. Statistics are measurements, enumerations or estimates of natural
phenomenon usually systematically arranged, analyzed and presented as to
exhibit important interrelationships among them.

Definitions by A.L. Bowley

Statistics are numerical statement of facts in any department of enquiry placed in
relation to each other. - A.L. Bowley

Statistics may be called the science of counting in one of the departments due to
Bowley, obviously this is an incomplete definition as it takes into account only the
aspect of collection and ignores other aspects such as analysis, presentation and
interpretation.

Bowley gives another definition for statistics, which states ‘statistics may be
rightly called the scheme of averages’. This definition is also incomplete, as
averages play an important role in understanding and comparing data and
statistics provide more measures.

Definition by Croxton and Cowden:

Statistics may be defined as the science of collection, presentation analysis and
interpretation of numerical data from the logical analysis. It is clear that the
definition of statistics by Croxton and Cowden is the most scientific and realistic
one.

According to this definition there are four stages:

1. Collection of Data: It is the first step and this is the foundation upon which
the entire data set. Careful planning is essential before collecting the data. There

26
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

are different methods of collection of data such as census, sampling, primary,

secondary, etc., and the investigator should make use of correct method.
2. Presentation of data: The mass data collected should be presented in a
suitable, concise form for further analysis. The collected data may be presented in
the form of tabular or diagrammatic or graphic form.
3. Analysis of data: The data presented should be carefully analyzed for
making inference from the presented data such as measures of central
tendencies, dispersion, correlation, regression etc.,
4. Interpretation of data: The final step is drawing conclusion from the data
collected. A valid conclusion must be drawn on the basis of analysis. A high
degree of skill and experience is necessary for the interpretation.

Definition by Horace Secrist

Statistics may be defined as the aggregate of facts affected to a marked extent by
multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according
to a reasonable standard of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner, for a
predetermined purpose and placed in relation to each other.

The above definition seems to be the most comprehensive and exhaustive.

Functions of Statistics
There are many functions of statistics. Let us consider the following five
important functions.

Condensation:
Generally speaking, by the word ‘to condense’, we mean to reduce or to lessen.
Condensation is mainly applied at embracing the understanding of a huge mass of
data by providing only few observations. If in a particular class in Chennai School,
only marks in an examination are given, no purpose will be served. Instead if we
are given the average mark in that particular examination, definitely it serves the
better purpose. Similarly, the range of marks is also another measure of the data.
Thus, Statistical measures help to reduce the complexity of the data and
consequently to understand any huge mass of data.

27
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Comparison
Classification and tabulation are the two methods that are used to condense the
data. They help us to compare data collected from different sources. Grand totals,
measures of central tendency measures of dispersion, graphs and diagrams,
coefficient of correlation etc. provide ample scope for comparison.

If we have one group of data, we can compare within itself. If the rice production
(in Tonnes) in Tanjore district is known, then we can compare one region with
another region within the district. Or if the rice production (in Tonnes) of two
different districts within Tamilnadu is known, then also a comparative study can
be made. As statistics is an aggregate of facts and figures, comparison is always
possible and in fact comparison helps us to understand the data in a better way.

Forecasting:
By the word forecasting, we mean to predict or to estimate beforehand. Given
the data of the last ten years connected to rainfall of a particular district in
Tamilnadu, it is possible to predict or forecast the rainfall for the near future. In
business also forecasting plays a dominant role in connection with production,
sales, profits etc. The analysis of time series and regression analysis plays an
important role in forecasting.

Estimation:
One of the main objectives of statistics is drawn inference about a population
from the analysis for the sample drawn from that population. The four major
branches of statistical inference are

1. Estimation theory
2. Tests of Hypothesis
3. Non-Parametric tests
4. Sequential analysis

In estimation theory, we estimate the unknown value of the population

parameter based on the sample observations. Suppose we are given a sample of
heights of hundred students in a school, based upon the heights of these 100

28
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

students, it is possible to estimate the average height of all students in that

school.

Tests of Hypothesis:
A statistical hypothesis is some statement about the probability distribution,
characterizing a population on the basis of the information available from the
sample observations. In the formulation and testing of hypothesis, statistical
methods are extremely useful. Whether crop yield has increased because of the
use of new fertilizer or whether the new medicine is effective in eliminating a
particular disease are some examples of statements of hypothesis and these are
tested by proper statistical tools.

Scope of Statistics:
Statistics is not a mere device for collecting numerical data, but as a means of
developing sound techniques for their handling, analysing and drawing valid
inferences from them. Statistics is applied in every sphere of human activity –
social as well as physical – like Biology, Commerce, Education, Planning, Business
Management, Information Technology, etc. It is almost impossible to find a single
department of human activity where statistics cannot be applied. We now discuss
briefly the applications of statistics in other disciplines.

Statistics and Industry:

Statistics is widely used in many industries. In industries, control charts are widely
used to maintain a certain quality level. In production engineering, to find
whether the product is conforming to specifications or not, statistical tools,
namely inspection plans, control charts, etc., are of extreme importance. In
inspection plans we have to resort to some kind of sampling – a very important
aspect of Statistics.

Statistics and Commerce:

Statistics are lifeblood of successful commerce. Any businessman cannot afford to
either by under stocking or having overstock of his goods. In the beginning, he
estimates the demand for his goods and then takes steps to adjust with his output
or purchases. Thus, statistics is indispensable in business and commerce.

29
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

As so many multinational companies have invaded into our Indian economy, the
size and volume of business is increasing. On one side the stiff competition is
increasing whereas on the other side the tastes are changing and new fashions
are emerging. In this connection, market survey plays an important role to exhibit
the present conditions and to forecast the likely changes in future.

Statistics and Agriculture:

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is one of the statistical tools developed by Professor
R.A. Fisher, plays a prominent role in agriculture experiments. In tests of
significance based on small samples, it can be shown that statistics is adequate to
test the significant difference between two sample means. In analysis of variance,
we are concerned with the testing of equality of several population means.

For an example, five fertilizers are applied to five plots each of wheat and the
yields of wheat on each of the plots are given. In such a situation, we are
interested in finding out whether the effect of these fertilizers on the yield is
significantly different or not. In other words, whether the samples are drawn from
the same normal population or not. The answer to this problem is provided by the
technique of ANOVA and it is used to test the homogeneity of several population
means.

Statistics and Economics:

Statistical methods are useful in measuring numerical changes in complex groups
and interpreting collective phenomenon. Nowadays the uses of statistics are
abundantly made in any economic study. Both in economic theory and practice,
statistical methods play an important role.

Alfred Marshall said, “Statistics are the straw only which I like every other
economist have to make the bricks”. It may also be noted that statistical data and
techniques of statistical tools are immensely useful in solving many economic
problems such as wages, prices, production, distribution of income and wealth
and so on. Statistical tools like Index numbers, time series Analysis, Estimation
theory, Testing Statistical Hypothesis are extensively used in economics.

30
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Statistics and Education:

Statistics is widely used in education. Research has become a common feature in
all branches of activities. Statistics is necessary for the formulation of policies to
start new course, consideration of facilities available for new courses etc. There
are many people engaged in research work to test the past knowledge and evolve
new knowledge. These are possible only through statistics.

Statistics and Planning:

Statistics is indispensable in planning. In the modern world, which can be termed
as the “world of planning”, almost all the organizations in the government are
seeking the help of planning for efficient working, for the formulation of policy
decisions and execution of the same.

In order to achieve the above goals, the statistical data relating to production,
consumption, demand, supply, prices, investments, income expenditure etc and
various advanced statistical techniques for processing, analysing and interpreting
such complex data are of importance. In India statistics, play an important role in
planning, commissioning both at the central and state government levels.

Statistics and Medicine:

In Medical sciences, statistical tools are widely used. In order to test the efficiency
of a new drug or medicine, t - test is used or to compare the efficiency of two
drugs or two medicines, ttest for the two samples is used. More and more
applications of statistics are at present used in clinical investigation.

Statistics and Modern applications:

Recent developments in the fields of computer technology and information
technology have enabled statistics to integrate their models and thus make
statistics a part of decision making procedures of many organizations. There are
so many software packages available for solving design of experiments,
forecasting simulation problems etc.

SYSTAT, a software package offers mere scientific and technical graphing options
than any other desktop statistics package. SYSTAT supports all types of scientific
and technical research in various diversified fields as follows

31
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

1. Archeology: Evolution of skull dimensions

2. Epidemiology: Tuberculosis
3. Statistics: Theoretical distributions
4. Manufacturing: Quality improvement
5. Medical research: Clinical investigations.
6. Geology: Estimation of Uranium reserves from ground water

Limitations of statistics:
Statistics with all its wide application in every sphere of human activity has its
own limitations. Some of them are given below.

1. Statistics is not suitable to the study of qualitative phenomenon: Since

statistics is basically a science and deals with a set of numerical data, it is
applicable to the study of only these subjects of enquiry, which can be
expressed in terms of quantitative measurements. As a matter of fact,
qualitative phenomenon like honesty, poverty, beauty, intelligence etc,
cannot be expressed numerically and any statistical analysis cannot be
directly applied on these qualitative phenomenons. Nevertheless, statistical
techniques may be applied indirectly by first reducing the qualitative
expressions to accurate quantitative terms. For example, the intelligence of a
group of students can be studied on the basis of their marks in a particular
examination.
2. Statistics does not study individuals: Statistics does not give any specific
importance to the individual items, in fact it deals with an aggregate of
objects. Individual items, when they are taken individually do not constitute
any statistical data and do not serve any purpose for any statistical enquiry.
3. Statistical laws are not exact: It is well known that mathematical and
physical sciences are exact. But statistical laws are not exact and statistical
laws are only approximations. Statistical conclusions are not universally true.
They are true only on an average.
4. Statistics table may be misused: Statistics must be used only by
experts; otherwise, statistical methods are the most dangerous tools on the
hands of the inexpert. The use of statistical tools by the inexperienced and
untraced persons might lead to wrong conclusions. Statistics can be easily
misused by quoting wrong figures of data. As King says aptly ‘statistics are
like clay of which one can make a God or Devil as one pleases’.

32
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

5. Statistics is only, one of the methods of studying a problem:

Statistical method does not provide complete solution of the problems
because problems are to be studied taking the background of the countries
culture, philosophy or religion into consideration. Thus, the statistical study
should be supplemented by other evidences.

33
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING METHODS
Introduction
Sampling is very often used in our daily life. For example, while purchasing food
grains from a shop we usually examine a handful from the bag to assess the
quality of the commodity. A doctor examines a few drops of blood as sample and
draws conclusion about the blood constitution of the whole body. Thus, most of
our investigations are based on samples. In this chapter, let us see the importance
of sampling and the various methods of sample selections from the population.
Population
In a statistical enquiry, all the items, which fall within the purview of enquiry, are
known as Population or Universe. In other words, the population is a complete
set of all possible observations of the type which is to be investigated. Total
numbers of students studying in a school or college, total number of books in a
library, total number of houses in a village or town are some examples of
population.

Sometimes it is possible and practical to examine every person or item in the

population we wish to describe. We call this a Complete enumeration, or census.
We use sampling when it is not possible to measure every item in the population.
Statisticians use the word population to refer not only to people but to all items
that have been chosen for study.

Finite population and infinite population

A population is said to be finite if it consists of finite number of units. Numbers of
workers in a factory, production of articles in a particular day for a company are
examples of finite population. The total number of units in a population is called
population size. A population is said to be infinite if it has infinite number of units.
For example, the number of stars in the sky, the number of people seeing the
Television programmes etc.

34
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Census Method
Information on population can be collected in two ways – census method and
sample method. In census method, every element of the population is included in
the investigation. For example, if we study the average annual income of the
families of a particular village or area, and if there are 1000 families in that area,
we must study the income of all 1000 families. In this method, no family is left
out, as each family is a unit.

Population census of India

The population census of our country is taken at 10 yearly intervals. The latest
census was taken in 2001. The first census was taken in 1871 – 72.

[Latest population census of India is included at the end of the chapter.]

Merits and limitations of Census method Merits

1. The data are collected from each and every item of the population
2. The results are more accurate and reliable, because every item of the
universe is required.
3. Intensive study is possible.
4. The data collected may be used for various surveys, analyses etc.

Limitations
1. It requires a large number of enumerators and it is a costly method
2. It requires more money, labour, time energy etc.
3. It is not possible in some circumstances where the universe is infinite.

Sampling
The theory of sampling has been developed recently but this is not new. In our
everyday life we have been using sampling theory as we have discussed in
introduction. In all those cases we believe that the samples give a correct idea
about the population. Most of our decisions are based on the examination of a
few items that is sample studies.

35
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Sample
Statisticians use the word sample to describe a portion chosen from the
population. A finite subset of statistical individuals defined in a population is
called a sample. The number of units in a sample is called the sample size.

Sampling unit
The constituents of a population which are individuals to be sampled from the
population and cannot be further subdivided for the purpose of the sampling at a
time are called sampling units. For example, to know the average income per
family, the head of the family is a sampling unit. To know the average yield of rice,
each farm owner’s yield of rice is a sampling unit.

Sampling frame
For adopting any sampling procedure it is essential to have a list identifying each
sampling unit by a number. Such a list or map is called sampling frame. A list of
voters, a list of house holders, a list of villages in a district, a list of farmers etc. are
a few examples of sampling frame.
Reasons for selecting a sample
Sampling is inevitable in the following situations:

1. Complete enumerations are practically impossible when the population is

infinite.
2. When the results are required in a short time.
3. When the area of survey is wide.
4. When resources for survey are limited particularly in respect of money and
trained persons.
5. When the item or unit is destroyed under investigation.
Parameters and statistics
We can describe samples and populations by using measures such as the mean,
median, mode and standard deviation. When these terms describe the
characteristics of a population, they are called parameters. When they describe
the characteristics of a sample, they are called statistics. A parameter is a
characteristic of a population and a statistic is a characteristic of a sample. Since

36
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

samples are subsets of population statistics provide estimates of the parameters.

That is, when the parameters are unknown, they are estimated from the values of
the statistics.

In general, we use Greek or capital letters for population parameters and lower
case Roman letters to denote sample statistics. [N, µ, σ, are the standard symbols
for the size, mean, S.D, of population. n , x , s, are the standard symbol for the
size, mean, s.d of sample respectively].

Principles of Sampling
Samples have to provide good estimates. The following principle tell us that the
sample methods provide such good estimates

1. Principle of statistical regularity

A moderately large number of units chosen at random from a large group are
almost sure on the average to possess the characteristics of the large group.

2. Principle of Inertia of large numbers

Other things being equal, as the sample size increases, the results tend to be
more accurate and reliable.

3. Principle of Validity
This states that the sampling methods provide valid estimates about the
population units (parameters).

4. Principle of Optimization
This principle takes into account the desirability of obtaining a sampling design
which gives optimum results. This minimizes the risk or loss of the sampling
design.

The foremost purpose of sampling is to gather maximum information about the

population under consideration at minimum cost, time and human power. This is
best achieved when the sample contains all the properties of the population.

37
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Sampling errors and non-sampling errors

The two types of errors in a sample survey are sampling errors and non - sampling
errors.

1. Sampling errors
Although a sample is a part of population, it cannot be expected generally to
supply full information about population. So, there may be in most cases
difference between statistics and parameters. The discrepancy between a
parameter and its estimate due to sampling process is known as sampling error.

2. Non-sampling errors:
In all surveys, some errors may occur during collection of actual information.
These errors are called Non-sampling errors.

Advantages and Limitation of Sampling:

There are many advantages of sampling methods over census method. They are
as follows:

1. Sampling saves time and labour.

2. It results in reduction of cost in terms of money and man hour.
3. Sampling ends up with greater accuracy of results.
4. It has greater scope.
5. It has greater adaptability.
6. If the population is too large, or hypothetical or destroyable sampling is
the only method to be used. The limitations of sampling are given below:
1. Sampling is to be done by qualified and experienced persons. Otherwise,
the information will be unbelievable.
2. Sample method may give the extreme values sometimes instead of the
mixed values.
3. There is the possibility of sampling errors. Census survey is free from
sampling error.
Types of Sampling:
The technique of selecting a sample is of fundamental importance in sampling
theory and it depends upon the nature of investigation. The sampling procedures
which are commonly used may be classified as

38
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

1. Probability sampling.
2. Non-probability sampling.
3. Mixed sampling.
Probability sampling (Random Sampling)
A probability sample is one where the selection of units from the population is
made according to known probabilities. (eg.) Simple random sample, probability
proportional to sample size etc.

Non-Probability Sampling
It is the one where discretion is used to select ‘representative’ units from the
population (or) to infer that a sample is ‘representative’ of the population. This
method is called judgement or purposive sampling. This method is mainly used
for opinion surveys; A common type of judgement sample used in surveys is
quota sample. This method is not used in general because of prejudice and bias of
the enumerator. However, if the enumerator is experienced and expert, this
method may yield valuable results. For example, in the market research survey of
the performance of their new car, the sample was all new car purchasers.
Mixed Sampling
Here samples are selected partly according to some probability and partly
according to a fixed sampling rule; they are termed as mixed samples and the
technique of selecting such samples is known as mixed sampling.
Methods of selection of samples
Here we shall consider the following three methods:
1. Simple random sampling.
2. Stratified random sampling.
3. Systematic random sampling.
1. Simple random sampling
A simple random sample from finite population is a sample selected such that
each possible sample combination has equal probability of being chosen. It is also
called unrestricted random sampling.
2. Simple random sampling without replacement
In this method, the population elements can enter the sample only once (i.e.) the
unit once selected is not returned to the population before the next draw.

39
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

3. Simple random sampling with replacement:

In this method, the population units may enter the sample more than once.
Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

Methods of selection of a simple random sampling:

The following are some methods of selection of a simple random sampling.

a) Lottery Method:
This is the most popular and simplest method. In this method, all the items of the
population are numbered on separate slips of paper of same size, shape and
colour. They are folded and mixed up in a container. The required numbers of
slips are selected at random for the desire sample size. For example, if we want to
select 5 students, out of 50 students, then we must write their names or their roll
numbers of all the 50 students on slips and mix them. Then we make a random
selection of 5 students.

This method is mostly used in lottery draws. If the universe is infinite this method
is inapplicable.

b) Table of Random numbers:

As the lottery method, cannot be used, when the population is infinite, the
alternative method is that of using the table of random numbers. There are
several standard tables of random numbers.

1. Tippett’s table
2. Fisher and Yates’ table
3. Kendall and Smith’s table are the three tables among them.
A random number table is so constructed that all digits 0 to 9 appear independent
of each other with equal frequency. If we have to select a sample from population
of size N = 100, then the numbers can be combined three by three to give the
numbers from 001 to 100.

[See Appendix for the random number table]

Procedure to select a sample using random number table:
Units of the population from which a sample is required are assigned with equal
number of digits. When the size of the population is less than thousand, three

40
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

digit number 000,001,002, ….. 999 are assigned. We may start at any place and
may go on in any direction such as column wise or row- wise in a random number
table. But consecutive numbers are to be used.

On the basis of the size of the population and the random number table available
with us, we proceed according to our convenience. If any random number is
greater than the population size N, then N can be subtracted from the random
number drawn.

This can be repeatedly until the number is less than N or equal to N.

Example 1:
In an area there are 500 families. Using the following extract from a table of
random numbers select a sample of 15 families to find out the standard of living
of those families in that area.

4652 3819 8431 2150 2352 2472 0043 3488

9031 7617 1220 4129 7148 1943 4890 1749
2030 2327 7353 6007 9410 9179 2722 8445
0641 1489 0828 0385 8488 0422 7209 4950
Solution:
In the above random number table, we can start from any row or column and
read three digit numbers continuously row-wise or column wise.

Now we start from the third row, the numbers are:

203 023 277 353 600 794 109 179

272 284 450 641 148 908 280

Since some numbers are greater than 500, we subtract 500 from those numbers
and we rewrite the selected numbers as follows:

203 023 277 353 100 294 109 179 272 284 450 141 148

408 280

41
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

c) Random number selections using calculators or computers:

Random number can be generated through scientific calculator or computers. For
each press of the key get a new random number. The ways of selection of sample
is similar to that of using random number table.

Merits of using random numbers

Merits
1. Personal bias is eliminated as a selection depends solely on chance.
2. A random sample is in general a representative sample for a homogenous
population.
3. There is no need for the thorough knowledge of the units of the population.
4. The accuracy of a sample can be tested by examining another sample from
the same universe when the universe is unknown.
5. This method is also used in other methods of sampling. Limitations:
1. Preparing lots or using random number tables is tedious when the
population is large.
2. When there is large difference between the units of population, the simple
random sampling may not be a representative sample.
3. The size of the sample required under this method is more than that
required by stratified random sampling.
4. It is generally seen that the units of a simple random sample lie apart
geographically. The cost and time of collection of data are more.
Stratified Random Sampling
Of all the methods of sampling the procedure commonly used in surveys is
stratified sampling. This technique is mainly used to reduce the population
heterogeneity and to increase the efficiency of the estimates. Stratification means
division into groups. In this method, the population is divided into a number of
subgroups or strata. The strata should be so formed that each stratum is
homogeneous as far as possible. Then from each stratum a simple random sample
may be selected and these are combined together to form the required sample
from the population.

42
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Types of Stratified Sampling

There are two types of stratified sampling. They are proportional and non-
proportional. In the proportional sampling equal and proportionate
representation is given to subgroups or strata. If the number of items is large, the
sample will have a higher size and vice versa.

The population size is denoted by N and the sample size is denoted by ‘n’ the
sample size is allocated to each stratum in such a way that the sample fractions is
a constant for each stratum. That is given by n/N = c. So in this method each
stratum is represented according to its size.

In non-proportionate sample, equal representation is given to all the sub-strata

regardless of their existence in the population.
Example 2:
A sample of 50 students is to be drawn from a population consisting of 500
students belonging to two institutions A and B. The number of students in the
institution A is 200 and the institution B is 300. How will you draw the sample
using proportional allocation?
Solution:
There are two strata in this case with sizes N1 = 200 and N2 = 300 and the total
population N = N1 + N2 = 500 The sample size is 50.

If n1 and n2 are the sample sizes,

n1 = n × N1 = 50 × 200 = 20
N 500

n2 = n × N2 = 50 × 300 = 30
N 500

The sample sizes are 20 from A and 30 from B. Then the units from each
institution are to be selected by simple random sampling.

43
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Merits and Limitations of Stratified Sampling

Merits:
1. It is more representative.
2. It ensures greater accuracy.
3. It is easy to administer as the universe is sub - divided.
4. Greater geographical concentration reduces time and expenses.
5. When the original population is badly skewed, this method is appropriate.
6. For non – homogeneous population, it may field good results.

Limitations
1. To divide the population into homogeneous strata, it requires more
money, time and statistical experience which is a difficult one.
2. Improper stratification leads to bias, if the different strata overlap such a
sample will not be a representative one.
Systematic Sampling:
This method is widely employed because of its ease and convenience. A
frequently used method of sampling when a complete list of the population is
available is systematic sampling.
It is also called Quasi-random sampling.

Selection Procedure
The whole sample selection is based on just a random start. The first unit is
selected with the help of random numbers and the rest get selected automatically
according to some pre designed pattern is known as systematic sampling. With
systematic random sampling every Kth element in the frame is selected for the
sample, with the starting point among the first K elements determined at random.

For example, if we want to select a sample of 50 students from 500 students

under this method Kth item is picked up from the sampling frame and K is called
the sampling interval.

44
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o

Sampling interval, K = N = Population Size

n Sample Size
K = 500 = 10
50
K = 10 is the sampling interval. Systematic sample consists in selecting a random
number say I, K and every Kth unit subsequently. Suppose the random number ‘i’
is 5, then we select 5, 15, 25, 35, 45,………. The random number ‘i’ is called
random start. The technique will generate K systematic samples with equal
probability.
Merits
1. This method is simple and convenient.
2. Time and work is reduced much.
3. If proper care is taken result will be accurate.
4. It can be used in infinite population.

Limitations
1. Systematic sampling may not represent the whole population.

2. There is a chance of personal bias of the investigators.

Systematic sampling is preferably used when the information is to be collected
from trees in a forest, house in blocks, entries in a register which are in a serial
order etc

45
JOINT PROFESSIONALS TRAINING AND SUPPORT www.jptsonline.o