A model that exists in the mind used to help us know and understand ideas.
Types Of Models: - Graphical Model: A visualisation of an idea, often created on paper or through software, in two or three dimensions - Physical Model: The creation of a smaller or larger tangible version of an object that can be physically interacted with. - Virtual Model: Photorealistic CAD-based interactive models that use surface and solid modelling. They can be considered 'digital mock-ups'.
Flow Charts Allows a designer to map out the process or route a user might follow when using a product. This can help identify any issues early on, or allow the process to be refined. Common symbols used are below.
Advantages & Disadvantages Of Conceptual Model
Advantages: Allows multiple member of the team to have shared understanding of the idea. Allows the scope of the product to be defined. Allows refinement of ideas through multiple iterations of models. Early identification of problem.
Disadvantages: Might not work as planned with implemented in the real world setting.
3.2) Graphical Modelling
Drawing Techniques: - Formal Drawing Techniques: A type of drawing technique that has fixed rules, the most widely used being isometric projection and perspective drawing. - Working Drawing: Drawings that are used to guide the production of a product, most commonly orthographic projection, section drawings, part drawings, assembly drawings and plan drawings - Part Drawing: Orthographic drawings of the components of an assembly containing details just about that component. - Section Drawing: Drawing that shows a vertical cut transecting, typically along a primary axis, an object or building. - Scale Drawing: Drawings that are bigger or smaller than the real product, but exactly in proportion with product.
Page 1 - Projection Drawing: Systems of drawings that are accurately drawn, the two main types are isometric projection (formal drawing technique) and orthographic projection (working drawing technique).
FREEHAND Freehand is the starting point of any product sketch. There are no formal rules, and the goal is to quickly generate ideas. Good for quickly generating ideas to develop them or share with others.
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION Isometric drawings give the appearance of 3D, but with no foreshortening (things appear smaller as they go into the distance). They are formal and accurate drawings, and can feature measurements.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Orthographic projection is a two dimensional rendering of a product. You can see that it shows all sides of the product. Notice how the various parts and edges all line up perfectly. Used to guide production by giving accurate measurements and data.
EXPOLDED This style of sketching takes a product with multiple parts, and breaks it up. It lets you see the various components, and the order in which they fit together.
ASSEMBLY Diagram that shows how components fit together to make a whole. It can show the order they are out together. Typically presented in an exploded view over a series of images.
PERSPECTIVE A set of formal drawing techniques that depicts an object as getting smaller and closer together the further away they are - by use of a vanishing point.
Uses Of Graphic Model:
- Freehand: Allows ideas to be quickly generated and communicated
Page 2 - Isometric: An accurate formal drawing that can shows the object in 3d form with measurements - Orthographic: Shows all angles (top, bottom, left, right etc) and has measurements, so can be used as a working drawing to guide production. - Exploded: Shows internal components of a product. - Assembly: Sows how parts are put together. Shows the order they are put together. - Perspective: Good for showing what a product looks like in real world 3d space.
3.3) Physical Modelling
The creation of a smaller or larger tangible version of an object that can be physically interacted with.
Types Of Models: Scale Models: A model that is either a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. Aesthetic Models: A model developed to look and feel like the final product. Instrumented Models: Prototypes that are equipped with the ability to take measurements to provide accurate quantitative feedback for analysis.
Prototypes A sample or model built to test a concept or process, or to act as an object to be replicated or learned from. Prototypes can be developed at a range of fidelity and for different contexts:
- Low Fidelity: Conceptual representation analogous to the idea
- Middle Fidelity: Representation of aspects of the idea - High Fidelity: Mock of the idea, as close as possible to the final product
Fidelity - The degree to which a prototype is exactly like the final product/ level of detail.
Mocks Ups A scale or full-size representation of a product used to gain feedback from users.
Advantages & Disadvantages Of Physical Model
Advantages: Testing: Model can allows for real world testing for functions and ergonomics. Identify Problems: Model can highlight problems non evident in sketches. Impact: Model has an impressive impact when presented to the user. Understanding: Easier to understand the concept of the product. Proof Of Concept: Model can prove the goal if possible.
Disadvantages: Costly: Models uses material that cost. Time Consuming: Compare to digital mock ups, physical model consume more time. Require Expertise To Make: Model making is a skill, which require skilled makers. Sharing: Harder to get it front of people’s eyes than a digital model.
3.4) Computer Aided Design ( CAD )
Page 3 The use of computers to aid the design process. Computer Aided Design, can take many forms: 2D: On software such as AUTOCAD. 3D: On software such as ONSHAPE.
NOTE: A Renderer takes that model and allows you to create shots of it using realistic lighting and materials.
Virtual Prototyping Photorealistic CAD-based interactive models that use surface and solid modelling. They can be considered 'digital mock-ups’.
- Surface Models: A realistic picture of the final model, offering some machining data. Surface models contain no data about the interior of the part. - Solid Models: Solid models are clear representations of the final part. They provide a complete set of data for the product to be realized.
Animation The ability to link graphic screens together in such a way as to simulate motion or a process.
Haptic Technology Haptic technology is an emerging technology that interfaces the user via the sense of touch. It works by using mechanical actuators to apply forces to the user. Haptic technology allows the user to become part of a computer simulation and to interact with it, enabling the designer to observe the user’s performance and to design a better outcome. Eg: Playstation Controller, when the vibrate.
Virtual Reality ( VR ) The ability to simulate a real situation on the screen and interact with it in a near-natural way. Products can be modelled in VR, to give the designer a better idea of what they will look like in true three dimensions. They can also be used to test products in a simulated environment.
Digital Human Computer simulation of a variety of mechanical and biological aspects of the human body.
Digital Humans Product Development
Digital humans are computer simulations of a variety of mechanical and biological aspects of the human body. They can be used to interact with a virtual prototype. Digital prototypes are cheaper to produce than physical prototypes. Products are safer as a result of more thorough analysis of safety aspects.
Digital Humans Workplace Development
Digital humans enhance manufacturing efficiency by optimising workflows, ensuring worker safety, and facilitating equipment positioning. They streamline processes, assess task feasibility, and reduce injury risks. Maintenance spaces are better designed, and remote training becomes cost-effective without physical prototypes.
Page 4 Motion Capture The recording of human and animal movement by any means. A person wears a set of acoustic, inertial, LED, magnetic or reflective markers at each joint. Sensors track the position of the markers as the person moves to develop a digital representation of the motion. Motion capture can reduce the cost of animation, which otherwise requires the animator to draw either each frame or key frames that are then interpolated. Motion capture saves time and creates more natural movements than manual animation, but is limited to motions that are anatomically possible. A motion capture session records the movements of the actor, not his or her visual appearance. The captured movements are mapped to a 3D model (for example, human or giant robot) created by a computer artist, to move the model in the same way
Bottom Up & Top Down Modelling
Bottom Up: A designer creates part geometry independent of the assembly or any other component. Although there are often some design criteria established before modelling the part, this information is not shared between models. Once all parts are completed, they are brought together for the first time in the assembly. Top Down: “Top down” design is a product development process obtained through 3D, parametric and associative CAD systems. The main feature of this new method is that the design originates as a concept and gradually evolves into a complete product consisting of components and sub-assemblies.
Data Modelling: A model that determines the structure of data.
Finite Element Analysis ( FEA )
The calculation and simulation of unknown factors in products using CAD systems. For example, simulating the stresses within a welded car part. The benefit of this kind of testing is…it is much cheaper than physical testing. Downsides...it can never be as accurate as a real world test, as the materials and physics of the real world are beyond perfect replication.
Advantages & Disadvantages Of Using CAD/ CAM
Advantages: - Changes to a model can be made quickly. - Measurements and parameters can be extremely precise. - Expense: Can be cheaper than physical model. - Sharing: Digital models can be shared and collaborated on by people all over the world. - Speed: Models can be generated quicker than physical model. - Can be used for CAM - Computer Aided Manufacture.
Disadvantages: - CAD software can be very expensive for individuals. - FOR FEA simulations, there isn’t enough processing power to accurately simulate the real world perfectly.
Page 5 3.5) Rapid Prototyping Rapid prototyping is the fast fabrication of either models, parts, assemblies from CAD files. There a number of ways to do this., but most fall into these categories: Additive: Addition of material to create a whole, such as 3D printing. Subtractive: Removal of material from a whole, such as laser cutting.
Fused Deposition Modelling - FDM
A 3D printing technique that places melted layers of material on a bed to build up a 3D model. - Benefits - Cheapest method of 3D printing. - Downsides - Models can show layer lines, and may need to be sanded and polished.
Stereolithography Apparatus - SLA
A modelling technique that creates 3D models layer-by-layer by hardening molecules of a liquid polymer using a laser beam. - Benefits - Smooth finish. Very accurate. - Downsides - More expensive than FDA.
Laminated Object Manufacturing - LOM
A system that virtually slices a 3D CAD model into thin layers, then cuts out each layer from a roll of material using a laser or plotter cutter. The layers can then be glued in the correct order to create a 3D model. - Benefits - Can simulate wood if using paper. - Downsides - Lower accuracy than 3D printing.
Selective Laser Sintering - SLS
An additive manufacturing technique that uses a laser to fuse small particles of material into a mass that has a desired 3D shape. - Benefits - Can create extremely strong parts that can be used in assemblies. They can also create highly complex geometry. - Downsides - Can be porous and have a rough surface.
