A. Arulprasanna and M.

Omkumar Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. Laminar Reinforcement.

Fig. 4. Flake Reinforcement.

particle boards are examples of this category. Whiskers have a preferred

shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibres.
(see Fig. 3)

• Flake as Reinforcement

Flakes are often used in place of fibres as can be densely packed.

Metal flakes that are in close contact with each other in polymer
matrices can conduct electricity or heat, while mica flakes and glass can
resist both. Flakes are not expensive to produce and usually cost less
than fibres. But they fall short of expectations in aspects like control of
size, shape and show defects in the end product. Glass flakes tend to have
notches or cracks around the edges, which weaken the final product.(see
Fig. 4)

• Filler as Reinforcement

Filled composites result from addition of filler materials to plastic

matrices to replace a portion of the matrix, enhance or change the
properties of the composites. The fillers also enhance strength and Fig. 5. Filler Reinforcement.
reduce weight. Fillers may be the main ingredient or an additional one in
a composite. The filler particles may be irregular structures, or have
discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous
precise geometrical shapes like polyhedrons, short fibres or spheres. (see
phase and is called the reinforcement or reinforcing material, whereas
Fig. 5)
the continuous phase is termed as the matrix. The matrix is usually more
ductile and less hard. It holds the dispersed phase and shares a load with
3. Characteristics of composites
it. Matrix is composed of any of the three basic material type i.e. poly­
mers, metals or ceramics. The matrix forms the bulk form or the part or
A composite material consists of two phases. It consists of one or
product. A fiber in the plant structure is the smallest intact unit. Fibers
more discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous phase. The
are rarely found as individual cells in the plant, but mostly assembled
into bundles. The secondary phase embedded in the matrix is a
discontinuous phase. It is usually harder and stronger than the contin­
uous phase. It servers to strengthen the composites and improves the
overall mechanical properties of the matrix. Properties of composites are
strongly dependent on the properties of their constituent materials, their
distribution and the interaction among them. The composite properties
may be the volume fraction sum of the properties of the constituents or
the constituents may interact in a synergistic way resulting in improved
or better properties. Apart from the nature of the constituent materials,
the geometry of the reinforcement (shape, size and size distribution)
influences the properties of the composite to a great extent. The con­
centration distribution and orientation of the reinforcement also affect
the properties. The shape of the discontinuous phase (which may by
spherical, cylindrical, or rectangular cross-sanctioned prisms or plate­
lets), the size and size distribution (which controls the texture of the
material) and volume fraction determine the interfacial area, which
Fig. 3. Particulate Reinforcement.

4
A. Arulprasanna and M. Omkumar Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

plays an important role in determining the extent of the interaction 5.1. Importance
between the reinforcement and the matrix. Concentration, usually
measured as volume or weight fraction, determines the contribution of a The interest in natural fiber – reinforced polymer composite mate­
single constituent to the overall properties of the composites. It is not rials is rapidly growing both in terms of their industrial applications and
only the single most important parameter influencing the properties of fundamental research. They are renewable, cheap, completely or
the composites, but also an easily controllable manufacturing variable partially recyclable, and biodegradable. [15] In the last few years,
used to alter its properties. Testing a fiber, a bundle or a collective of thermoplastics as well as thermoset- based natural fiber composites
fibers or a collective of bundles will lead to totally different strength (NFCs) have experienced a tremendous growth in the auto industry due
values. Based on this knowledge it is essential to define between fiber, to environmentally friendliness, renewability of these fibers, good sound
fiber bundle and collectives of both. abatement capability, and improved fuel efficiency resulted from the
reduced weight of the components. These composite materials have
4. Advantages of composite materials received much commercial success in the semi – structural as well as
structural applications. For example, interior parts such as door trim
Advantages of composites over their conventional counterparts are panels from natural fiber polypropylene (PP) and exterior parts such as
the ability to meet diverse design requirements with significant weight engine and transmission covers from natural fiber – polyester resins are
savings as well as strength to weight ratio. Some advantages of com­ already in use in auto industry. Their availability, renewability, low
posite materials over conventional ones are as follows: density, and price as well as satisfactory mechanical properties make
them an attractive ecological alternative to glass, carbon and man –
1. Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than made fibers used for the manufacturing of composites. The natural fiber-
that of steel or aluminum (depending on the reinforcements). containing composites are more environmentally friendly, and are used
2. Improved torsional stiffness and impact properties. in transportation (automobiles, railway coaches, aerospace), military
3. Higher fatigue endurance limit (up to 60 % of ultimate tensile applications, building and construction industries (ceiling paneling,
strength). partition boards), packaging, consumer products, etc.
4. 30 % − 40 % lighter for example any particular aluminum
structures designed to the same functional requirements. 5.2. Classification
5. Lower embedded energy compared to other structural metallic
materials like steel, aluminum etc. • Plant fibers are important types of natural fiber and these are
6. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower generally comprised mainly of cellulose, hemi – cellulose, lignin,
vibration transmission than metals. pectin. [11] Prominent natural fibers are cotton, jute, flax, ramie,
7. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to sisal and hemp. [4] Cellulose fibers are mainly used in
meet performance needs and complex design requirements. manufacturing of paper and cloth. [8] This fiber is categorized into
8. Long life, offer excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resis­ seed fiber, leaf fiber, best fiber/ stem fiber, fruit fiber, stalk fiber. [6]
tance and reduce maintenance. • Animal fiber and their sources: Animal fiber generally comprises
9. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals. proteins. Examples are wool, silk, human hair and feathers etc. [14]
10. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur; it is
retardancy. crimped, it is elastic, and it grows in staples. Fiber taken from ani­
11. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incor­ mals or hairy mammals. Example. Sheep wool, goat hair (cashmere,
porable integral decorative melamines are other characteristics of mohair), alpaca hair, horse hair etc.(see Fig. 6)
composites. • Wool is the textile fiber. Silk fiber: Silk is a natural protein fiber, some
12. Composite parts can eliminate joints / fasteners, providing parts forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of
implification and integrated design compared to conventional silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silk­
metallic parts. worm. The shimmering appearance of silk is due to the triangular
prism-like structure of the silk fiber, which allows silk cloth to refract
5. Natural fiber reinforced composites incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.
[19]
Natural fibers composites are also called as “Green Composites” • Human hair: The human body, apart from its skin, is covered by
because of its environmental friendly function. Plant-based natural fi­ follicles which produce thick terminal and fine hair. Hair is a fila­
bers are lingo – cellulosic in nature composed of cellulose, hemi- mentous biomaterial that grows from follicles found in the dermis.
cellulose, and lignin, whereas animal based fibers are of proteins, e.g., [16] Most common interest in hair is focused on hair growth, hair
silk and wool. Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites have types and hair care but hair is also an important biomaterial pri­
attracted more and more research interests owing to their potential as an marily composed of protein, notably keratin. [18] Hair is a non-
alternative for synthetic fiber composites such as glass or carbon fiber homogenous complex material which can be associated with a
composites. Natural fiber composites possess the advantages such as polymer. It is made up 95 % of Keratin. [3]
easy availability, renewability of raw materials, low cost, light weight • Feathers: Feathers are among the most complex integumentary
and high specific strength, and stiffness. [20] It is expected that in the structure found in vertebrates and are formed in tiny follicles in the
near future biodegradable polymers will replace synthetic polymers, at epidermis, or outer skin layer, that can produce keratin.[9] Feathers
least in some specific applications where a short life of the product will are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer
be more desirable. [12] Natural polymers are considered suitable to covering or plumage on birds. They are considered the most complex
replace synthetic ones in some specific applications where a long span integumentary structures found in vertebrates. [1]
life is not required. Natural fiber thermoplastic composites are relatively
new family of composite materials. [10] In such composites, a natural 5.3. Properties
fiber/filler (such as Kenaf fiber, wood fiber, hemp, sisal etc.) [13] is
mixed with a thermoplastic (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC The different properties of the various Natural Fibers are listed in the
etc.) to produce the composite. [7]. following table. Some of the natural fibers such as Glass fiber, Carbon
fiber, Kenaf fiber, Hemp fiber, Jute fiber, Sisal fiber, Cotton fiber, Flax,
Bamboo, Coir, etc are listed for its properties like Density, Tensile