MATRICES

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Introduction

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A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers or functions. The

numbers or functions are called the elements or the entries of the matrix.

We denote matrices by capital letters.

Suppose that we wish to express the information of possession of notebooks and

pens by Radha and her two friends Fauzia and Simran which is as follows:

Radha has 15 notebooks and 6 pens

Fauzia has 10 notebooks and 2 pens

Simran has 13 notebooks and 5 pens

Now this could be arranged in the tabular form as follows:

15 6 First Row

10 2 Second Row

13 5 Third Row

First Second
column column
In the above examples, the horizontal lines of elements are said to constitute,
rows of the matrix and the vertical lines of elements are said to constitute,

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columns of the matrix. Thus, the above matrice has 3 rows and 2 columns

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Order of a matrix

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A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m × n or simply

m × n matrix (read as an m by n matrix).

Number of elements in a matrix is the product of the number of rows and

column

In general, an m × n matrix has the following rectangular array:

a 11 a 12 a 13 a 14 a15
a 21 a 22
a 23 a 24 a 25
a 31 a 32
a 33 a 34 a35
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 a m4 a m5
mxn

or A = [aij ]m × n , 1≤ i ≤ m, 1≤ j ≤ n i, j ∈ N
In general aij , is an element lying in the ith row and jth column. We can also call

it as the (i, j)th element of A. The number of elements in an m × n matrix will be

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equal to mn

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NOTE

We shall consider only those matrices whose elements are real numbers or functions

taking real values.

Example

Consider the following information regarding the number of men and women

workers in three factories I, II and III

Men workers Women workers

I 30 25

II 25 311

III 27 26

Represent the above information in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix. What does the

entry in the third row and second column represent?

Solution

The information is represented in the form of a 3 × 2 matrix as follows:

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30 25

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A= 25 31

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27 26

The entry in the third row and second column represents the number of women

workers in factory III.

Example

If a matrix has 8 elements, what are the possible orders it can have?

Solution

We know that if a matrix is of order m × n, it has mn elements. Thus, to find

all possible orders of a matrix with 8 elements, we will find all ordered pairs of

natural numbers, whose product is 8. Thus, all possible ordered pairs are (1, 8),

(8, 1), (4, 2), (2, 4) Hence, possible orders are 1 × 8, 8 ×1, 4 × 2, 2 × 4
Types of Matrices

Column matrix :

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A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.

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For example, A= is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
-1

In general, A = [a ij ]m × 1 is a column matrix of order m × 1.

Row matrix :

A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.

For example, B =
[ 4 -6 1/2 7
[ is a row matrix.

In general, B = [b ij ]1 × n is a row matrix of order 1 × n.

Square matrix :

A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns, is

said to be a square matrix. Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix

if m = n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.

3 1
0 2
2x2
Diagonal matrix :

A square matrix B = [b ij ]m × m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non

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diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix B = [b ij ]m × m is said to be a

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diagonal matrix if b ij = 0, when i ≠ j.

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1 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 3

Scalar matrix :

A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal,
that is, a square matrix B = [b ij ]n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if

b ij = 0, when i ≠ j

b ij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.

2 0 0
0 2 0
0 0 2

Identity matrix

A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all zero

is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [a ij ]n × n is

a n 1 if 0 if identity matrix, if
 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

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Zero matrix :

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A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.

0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

Equality of matrices

Two matrices A = [a ij ] and B = [b ij] are said to be equal if

(i) they are of the same order

(ii) each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, that is

aij = bij for all i and j.

2 0 2 0
and are equal matrices but
3 1 3 1

3 2 3 1
and are not equal matrices.
0 1 0 2

Symbolically, if two matrices A and B are equal, we write A = B.

 Operations on Matrices

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Addition of matrices

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Addition of a matrix can only be done when they have the same order

Addition can be done by adding the corresponding elements of the

matrix

2 0 6 2
A= and B =
3 1 3 5

C=A+B

2+6 0+2
C=
3+3 1+5

C= 8 2
6 6

In general, if A = [aij ] and B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order, say

m × n. Then, the sum of the two matrices A and B is defined as a

matrix C = [cij ]m × n , where cij = aij + bij , for all possible values of i and j.
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar

In general, we may define multiplication of a matrix by a scalar as follows: if

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A = [aij ]m × n is a matrix and k is a scalar, then kA is another matrix which

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is obtained by multiplying each element of A by the scalar k.

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5 2 10 4
2X =
4 6 8 12

Negative of a matrix

The negative of a matrix is denoted by –A. We define –A = (–1) A.

Difference of matrices

If A = [a ij ], B = [bij ] are two matrices of the same order, say m × n, then

difference A – B is defined as a matrix D = [dij ], where d ij = a ij – b ij , for all value

of i and j. In other words, D = A – B = A + (–1) B, that is sum of the matrix A and

the matrix – B.

Example

If A and B are two matrices. Then find subtraction of matrices A and B.

3 5 1 3
A= B=
9 8 8 9
Solution

3 5 _ 1 3
A-B=

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9 8 8 9

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3 -1 5-3

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A-B=

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9-8 8-9

2 2
A-B=
1 -1

Properties of matrix addition

Commutative Law

If A = [a ij ], B = [b ij ] are matrices of the same order, say m × n,

then A + B = B + A.

Associative Law
For any three matrices A = [aij ], B = [bij ], C = [c ij ] of the same order, say m × n, (A

+ B) + C = A + (B + C).

Existence of additive identity

Let A = [a ij ] be an m × n matrix and O be an m × n zero matrix,

then A + O = O + A = A.

In other words, O is the additive identity for matrix addition.

The existence of additive inverse

Let A = [a ij ]m × n be any matrix, then we have another matrix as – A = [– a ij ]m × n

such that A + (– A) = (– A) + A= O. So– A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.

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Properties of scalar multiplication of a matrix

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(i) k(A +B) = k A + kB,

(ii) (k + l)A = k A + l A

(iii) k (A + B) = k ([a ij ] + [bij ])

= k [a ij + bij ] = [k (a ij + b ij )] = [(k aij ) + (k b ij )]

= [k a ij ] + [k b ij ] = k [a ij ] + k [b ij ] = kA + kB

(iv) (k + l) A = (k + l) [aij]

= [(k + l) a ] + [k a ij ] + [l a ij ] = k [aij ] + l [a ij ] = k A + l A

Multiplication of matrices

for multiplication of two matrices A and B, the number of columns in A

should be equal to the number of rows in B.

for getting the elements of the product matrix, we take rows of A and

columns of B, multiply them element-wise and take the sum.

Let A = [a ij ] be an m × n matrix and B = [bjk ] be an n × p matrix.

Then the product of the matrices A and B is the matrix C of

order m × p.
 REMARK

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If AB is defined, then BA need not be defined.In particular, if both A and B

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are square matrices of the same order, then both AB and BA are defined.

Properties of multiplication of matrices

Associative law

For any three matrices A, B and C. We have (AB) C = A (BC), whenever both

sides of the equality are defined.

Distributive law

For three matrices A, B and C.

(i) A (B+C) = AB + AC

(ii) (A+B) C = AC + BC, whenever both sides of equality are defined.

The existence of multiplicative identity

For every square matrix A, there exist an identity matrix of same order such

that IA = AI = A.
 Transpose of a Matrix

If A = [aij ] be an m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging

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the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. Transpose of the

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matrix A is denoted by A′ or (AT). In other words, if A = [aij ]m × n , then A′ =

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[aji ]n × m .

8 2 8 6
A= A’ =
6 6 2 6

Properties of transpose of the matrices

(i) (A′)′ = A,

(ii) (kA)′ = kA′ (where k is any constant)

(iii) (A + B)′ = A′ + B′

(iv) (A B)′ = B′ A′

Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

A square matrix A = [a ij ] is said to be symmetric if A′ = A, that is, [a ij ] = [a ji ]

for all possible values of i and j.

A square matrix A = [a ij ] is said to be skew symmetric matrix if A′ = – A, that is

a ji = – a ij for all possible values of i and j. Now, if we put i = j, we have aii = – a ii .

Therefore 2a ii = 0 or a ii = 0 for all i’s.

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This means that all the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix are

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0 e f
B= -e 0 g is a skew symmetric matrix as B′= –B
-f -g 0

Theorem 1

For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A′ is a symmetric matrix

and A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.

Proof :

Let B = A + A′, then

B′ = (A + A′)′
= A′ + (A′)′ (as (A + B)′ = A′ + B′)
= A′ + A (as (A′)′ = A)

= A + A′ (as A + B = B + A)
=B

Therefore B = A + A′ is a symmetric matrix

Now let C = A – A′

C′ = (A – A′)′ = A′ – (A′)′

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= A′ – A

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=– (A – A′) = – C

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Therefore C = A – A′ is a skew symmetric matrix.

Theorem 2

Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric and a skew

symmetric matrix.

Proof :

Let A be a square matrix, then we can write

A= 1 (A+ A’) + 1 (A- A’)

2 2

From the Theorem 1, we know that (A + A′) is a symmetric matrix and (A – A′)

is a skew symmetric matrix. Since for any matrix A, (kA)′ = kA′,

it follows that 1 (A+ A’) is symmetric matrix and 1

2 (A- A’)
2
is skew symmetric matrix. Thus, any square matrix can be expressed as the

sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

 Invertible Matrices

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If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B

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of the same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix
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of A and it is denoted by A . In that case A is said to be invertible.

Theorem 3

(Uniqueness of inverse) Inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.

Proof :

Let A = [a ij ] be a square matrix of order m. If possible, let B and C be two

inverses of A. We shall show that B = C.

Since B is the inverse of A

AB = BA = I

Since C is also the inverse of A

AC = CA = I

Thus
B = BI = B (AC) = (BA) C = IC = C
Theorem 4

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If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB) = B A .

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Proof

From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have

(AB) (AB)-1 = 1
A-1(AB) (AB)-1= A-1I
(A-1A) B (AB)-1 = A-1
-1 -1
IB (AB) = A
B (AB)-1= A-1
B-1 B (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
I (AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1