COM 322- DATABASE DESIGN II

Object-Oriented Database
An object-oriented database is based on the principles of object-oriented programming (OOP). In an object-
oriented database, data is organized and stored as objects. Objects are self-contained units that contain both
data and the operations or methods that can be performed on that data. It helps in efficient representation and
management of complex data structures and relationships.
Object-oriented databases are often used in applications that require the efficient management of complex
data structures and relationships, such as CAD/CAM systems, geographic information systems, and document
management systems. They are also well suited for applications that require the integration of different data
types and sources, such as multimedia data or data from multiple sources. However, object-oriented databases
can be more difficult to learn and use if compared to other database models, and may require specialized
expertise to set up and manage.
Components of Object-Oriented Database Model
The main components of an object-oriented database model are:
Objects
Objects represent real-world entities by combining data with related operations. For example, an object could
contain a customer’s name, address, and account balance data along with methods to modify or retrieve that
data. This allows for an intuitive model that more closely mirrors real objects compared to just tables of data.
Objects enable encapsulation of both state through data attributes and behavior through methods. This
provides a cohesive and modular approach to structure data.
An object is a representation of a physical entity. In general, an object can be thought of as the entity of an ER
model. A single instance of an entity is represented by an object. Several of the components in this list define
the semantic content of the object.
Classes
Classes act as templates or blueprints for creating objects with the same kinds of data and behaviors. A class
defines the structure for its instances – what attributes or data members the object will contain as well as what
methods or functions it will have. Classes allow for organization of objects that share similar properties and
behaviors. This promotes reusability and maintainability in database design.

Classes are groups of objects with similar features. A class is a group of objects that have similar structure
(attributes) and behaviour (methods). A class is similar to the entity set in the ER model in general. A class,
on the other hand, differs from an entity set. It has a collection of procedures called methods. The method of a
class depicts a real-world activity like finding a PERSON’s name, updating a PERSON’s name, printing a
PERSON’s address, and many more. In other words, in classical programming languages, the methods are
equivalent to procedures. Methods define the behaviour of an object in OO terms.

Inheritance

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Inheritance allows classes to inherit attributes and methods from parent classes. This enables code reuse and
the creation of specialized child classes. The class hierarchy represents these parent-child relationships. A
base or superclass provides common data and behaviors shared by derived subclasses down the hierarchy.
Subclasses can override or extend parent functionality.
Inheritance refers to an object’s capacity to inherit the characteristics and methods of those classes that are
above it in the class hierarchy. For instance, two classes can be built as subclasses of the PERSON class:
CUSTOMER and EMPLOYEE. EMPLOYEE and CUSTOMER will inherit all properties and methods from
PERSON in this situation
Methods
Methods are functions defined within a class that represent the behaviors or actions that objects created from
that class can perform. Methods operate on the object’s data members and encapsulate the logic for
manipulating the object’s state. This provides an organized approach to implementing functionality for the
class.
Attributes
Attributes are data members that hold the state or properties of an object instantiated from a class. They define
the characteristics of those objects. Attributes store descriptive information about the object that can be of
various data types like strings, numbers, etc. This allows representation of diverse properties.
An object’s attributes are described by attributes. For example, the properties Social Security Number, Name,
and Date of Birth are all present in a PERSON object.
Encapsulation
Encapsulation binds together the data attributes and the methods that manipulate them within a class. Certain
components may be hidden or restricted from direct access externally to protect data integrity. Interaction is
only through defined interfaces. This guards against misuse while enabling specialized implementation
details.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common superclass type and
used interchangeably. A single method interface can work across multiple data types. Polymorphism provides
flexibility to extend systems and write more generic reusable code.
Persistence
Persistence refers to objects continuing to exist even after the program that created them ends. Their state is
saved so objects can be retrieved in subsequent sessions. This is crucial for storing data long-term without loss
of information between interactions.
Identity
Every object is assigned a unique identifier that distinguishes it from other objects even if they have identical
attribute values. This allows precise management of object references and relationships.
Transactions

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Transactions group operations into an all-or-nothing unit. If any part fails, the entire transaction is rolled back
to maintain database consistency. Transactions provide reliability with features like atomicity, isolation, and
durability that ensure integrity.

Shape, Circle, Rectangle and Triangle are all objects in this model.

Circle has the attributes Center and Radius.

Rectangle has the attributes Length and Breath

Triangle has the attributes Base and Height.

The objects Circle, Rectangle and Triangle inherit from the object Shape.

Example

 Here Transport, Bus, Ship, and Plane are objects.

 Bus has Road Transport as the attribute.
 Ship has Water Transport as the attribute.
 Plane has Air Transport as the attribute.
 The Transport object` is the base object and the Bus, Ship, and Plane objects derive from it.

Advantages of Object Oriented Data Model :

 Codes can be reused due to inheritance.
 Easily understandable.
 Cost of maintenance can reduced due to reusability of attributes and functions because of inheritance.
 Supports Complex Data Structures: ODBMS is designed to handle
complex data structures, such as inheritance, polymorphism, and
encapsulation. This makes it easier to work with complex data models in
an object-oriented programming environment.
 Improved Performance: ODBMS provides improved performance
compared to traditional relational databases for complex data models.
ODBMS can reduce the amount of mapping and translation required

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 between the programming language and the database, which can
improve performance.
 Reduced Development Time: ODBMS can reduce development time
since it eliminates the need to map objects to tables and allows
developers to work directly with objects in the database.
 Supports Rich Data Types: ODBMS supports rich data types, such as
audio, video, images, and spatial data, which can be challenging to
store and retrieve in traditional relational databases.
 Scalability: ODBMS can scale horizontally and vertically, which means
it can handle larger volumes of data and can support more users.

Disadvantages of Object Oriented Data Model :

 Limited Adoption: ODBMS is not as widely adopted as traditional
relational databases, which means it may be more challenging to find
developers with experience working with ODBMS.
 Lack of Standardization: ODBMS lacks standardization, which means
that different vendors may implement different features and
functionality.
 Cost: ODBMS can be more expensive than traditional relational
databases since it requires specialized software and hardware.
 Integration with Other Systems: ODBMS can be challenging to
integrate with other systems, such as business intelligence tools and
reporting software.
 Scalability Challenges: ODBMS may face scalability challenges due to
the complexity of the data models it supports, which can make it
challenging to partition data across multiple nodes.

What is the Difference Between a Relational Database and Object-Oriented Database

There are several key differences between a relational database and an object-oriented database, including the
following:
Data organization: In a relational database, data is organized and stored in tables, with each table containing
rows and columns of data. In an object-oriented database, data is organized and stored as objects, which are
self-contained units that contain both data and the operations or methods that can be performed on that data.
Data relationships: In a relational database, data relationships are defined and managed using keys and
foreign keys, which link tables and records together. In an object-oriented database, data relationships are
defined and managed using inheritance and polymorphism, which allow objects to take on different forms or
behaviors depending on the context in which they are used.
Query language: In a relational database, data is queried and manipulated using a structured query language
(SQL), which is a standardized and widely used language for managing and querying data. In an object-
oriented database, data is queried and manipulated using object-oriented query languages, which are
specialized languages that are designed for managing and querying object-oriented data.

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Data manipulation: In a relational database, data manipulation is typically performed using SQL queries,
which can be used to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data from the database. In an object-oriented database,
data manipulation is performed using the operations or methods defined on the objects themselves, which
allows for the efficient manipulation of complex data structures and relationships.
Object-Oriented Database Examples
 ObjectStore
ObjectStore was one of the first commercially available object-oriented database management systems
(ODBMS). It was developed by Object Design starting in the late 1980s. ObjectStore gained popularity for
use in CAD, engineering, and telecommunications applications. It provided flexibility in modeling complex
data relationships compared to relational databases.
Key features:
Developed C++ APIs for database access
Supported database clustering for high availability
Enabled bidirectional object navigability and references
 Versant
Versant is an OODBMS optimized for speed, scalability, and handling complex data models. It can be used in
transactional applications that require real-time performance and the ability to query interconnected data.
Versant is utilized in telecom, finance, defense, and healthcare systems that need to rapidly ingest and analyze
large volumes of data with low latency.
Key features:
Horizontally scalable using sharding
ACID support ensures data integrity
SQL support for querying objects
High performance caching and clustering
 Objectivity/DB
Objectivity/DB is an OODBMS designed for distributed architectures and horizontal scalability across many
servers. It can handle massive volumes of constantly changing data. Objectivity/DB is commonly used in IoT,
manufacturing, telecom, and defense systems that require real-time analytics and transaction processing on
interconnected data from distributed sources.
Key features:
Distributed schema across federated databases
Parallelized data queries using object locality
Handles frequent data changes at scale
Data replication for high availability

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  InterSystems Caché
InterSystems Caché is a high performance hybrid OODBMS that combines features of relational databases
and OODBMS. It provides an SQL interface for easier querying. Caché is widely used in healthcare,
financial, and government applications where legacy systems rely on SQL queries. It provides scalable object
storage with industry-standard interfaces.
Key features:
SQL access to objects
Rapid application development
Built-in support for transactions and backups
Seamless integration with legacy relational databases
 db4o
db4o is an open source, embeddable OODBMS for .NET and Java developers. It provides simple object
persistence without mapping objects to table schemas. db4o is commonly used for mobile and IoT
development that requires a small-footprint, transactional database on devices. It simplifies storage compared
to relational databases.
Key features:
Lightweight and embeddable
Native storage for .NET and Java objects
ACID transactions
Query by example API
 MongoDB
MongoDB is a popular document-oriented NoSQL database. While not a pure OODBMS, it incorporates
some object-oriented concepts like dynamic schemas and storing objects. MongoDB provides flexibility and
scalability. It is used across many industries for web and mobile apps where objects and JSON documents can
be directly stored and retrieved.
Key features:
Document model stores objects as BSON
Horizontal scaling with automatic sharding
Indexing and query flexibility including ad-hoc queries
High performance and availability
 Redis
Redis is an in-memory data structure store. It supports different value types like strings, hashes, lists, sets,
sorted sets. This allows storing rich objects and nested values.

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Redis is often used for caching, message queuing, and stream processing. It provides persistence, replication,
Lua scripting, and other features beyond a typical cache.

Key features:
Supports complex data structures and nested objects
Very fast in-memory performance
Persistence option snapshot saves state periodically
Publish/subscribe messaging
Lua scripting support
 ObjectDB
ObjectDB is a Java-based OODBMS for transparent, seamless persistence of Java objects. It enhances
standard Java SE with transparent persistence and database capabilities. ObjectDB is optimized for heavily
threaded applications that require maximum performance. It is well-suited for complex domain models that
need scalability.
Key features:
Developed for Java SE persistence
Very fast object database
Supports JPA and JDO standards
Seamless integration and no mapping required
ACID transactions with high concurrency
SQL access through JDBC driver

What is OOP (Object Oriented Programming)?

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is defined as a programming paradigm (and not a specific
language) built on the concept of objects, i.e., a set of data contained in fields, and code, indicating
procedures – instead of the usual logic-based system.
Object Oriented Programming (OOP) approach identifies classes of objects that are closely related to the
methods with which they are associated. It also covers the concepts of attribute and method inheritance. The
Massachusetts Institute of Technology was the first institution to utilize terminology referring to “objects” in
the sense that we use object-oriented programming today, in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
It is a method for storing data and the operations required to process that data based on the mathematical field
known as abstract data types. Programming could advance to a more abstract level thanks to OOP. Nearly all
developers employ the core programming paradigm known as object-oriented programming at some point in
their careers.
The well-known programming paradigm, OOP, is taught as the norm for most of a programmer’s educational
career. OOP is based on the idea of classes and objects. It organizes a computer program into basic, reusable
blueprints of code or “classes.” These classes are then used and reused to create new and unique objects with
similar functions. This paradigm represents a system that interacts with actual items in real life – such as the
user.

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Different parts of it perform actions on real-world items, creating actual interactions between people and
machines. The strategy is advantageous for collaborative development when projects are divided into groups
due to the organization of object-oriented software. Code reuse, scalability, and efficiency are other
advantages of OOP.
The first stage in OOP is to gather all the objects that a programmer wishes to work with and determine their
relationships, a process known as data modeling. Data and functions are combined to create an object from the
data structure. Programmers can also establish connections between several objects. Objects can, for instance,
acquire traits from other objects. A human is a straightforward illustration of an object.
You would logically anticipate that a person would have a name. This would be regarded as being in the
person’s possession. Another thing you could expect from someone is their ability to do, like walk or drive.
One might view this as one of the person’s methods. Objects serve as the framework for object-oriented
programming code.
Once your objects are in place, you may use their interactions to achieve the desired outcome. Consider the
possibility of a show where someone gets in a car and drives it from point A to point B. Beginning with the
objects like a person or a vehicle is how you would describe them.
The use of ways is one example of this: a person can drive a car, and a car can be driven. For the individual to
drive, you must gather your items so that they are all in one place. When the object is identified, it is assigned
a class of objects that describes the type of data it contains and sequences logic that could modify the data in
any way. A method is any particular logic sequence. With clearly specified interfaces known as messages,
objects may communicate.
Key Concepts of OOP
To understand and use object-oriented programming, it is necessary to know the following key concepts:
1. Class
A class is the fundamental unit of C++ that paves the way for object-oriented programming. It is a user-
defined data type that can be accessed and used by creating an instance of that class. It has its own data
members and member functions. A class is comparable to an object’s blueprint. Both member functions and
data members are found in classes. The data members inside the class are manipulated using these member
functions.
2. Object
At the point of creation of a class, the description is the first object to be defined. An instance of a class exists
in an object. Notably, the system does not allocate any memory space when a class is specified, but it’s
allocated when it is instantiated, i.e., when an object is formed. Real-world things have state and behavior in
common, a pair of features. An object conceals its behavior through methods and keeps its information in
attributes.
3. Syntax
The principles that specify how a language is structured are known as syntax. In programming languages
(rather than natural languages like English), syntax is the set of rules that define and guide how words,
punctuation, and symbols are organized in a programming language. Without syntax, it is almost difficult to
comprehend the semantics or meaning of a language. A compiler or interpreter won’t be able to understand
the code if the syntax of a language is not adhered to.
4. Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of grouping functions and data into a single entity. To access these data
members, the member function’s scope must be set to “public,” while the data members’ scope must be set to
“private.” According to this theory, an item contains all important information; only a small subset is made
available to the outside world. Each object has a private class that contains its implementation and state.
5. Polymorphism
Multiple classes can use the same method name using polymorphism, which also involves redefining methods
for derived classes. Compile-time polymorphism and run-time polymorphism are the two different types of
polymorphism. In addition to having several forms, objects are made to have shared behaviors. To avoid

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writing duplicate code, the software will determine which usage or meaning is required for each time an
object from a parent class is used.
6. Inheritance
In its broadest sense, inheritance refers to the process of gaining properties. One object in OOP inherits the
properties of another. Developers can reuse common functionality while retaining a distinct hierarchy by
assigning relationships and subclasses between items. This characteristic of OOP speeds up development and
provides more accuracy by requiring a more in-depth investigation of the data. The parent-child relationship is
symbolized via inheritance.
7. Abstraction
One of the OOP concepts in Java is abstraction, which is the act of representing key features without
including supporting information. It is a method for developing a brand-new data type appropriate for a
particular application. It avoids providing extraneous or pointless facts and only displays the precise portion
the user has requested. It is crucial since it prevents you from performing the same task more than once.
8. Coupling
Coupling describes the degree to which one software element is connected to another. Software elements can
be a class, package, component, subsystem, or system. It denotes the level of familiarity one object or class
has with another. This means that if one class changes its attributes, the dependent changes in the other will
also change. The magnitude of interdependence between the two classes will determine how these changes
occur.
9. Cohesion
A class’s cohesion is determined by how closely and meaningfully coupled to one another its methods and
properties are, as well as by how intently they are focused on carrying out a single, clearly defined goal for the
system. This is a measure of how narrowly focused a class’s responsibilities are. Because their methods and
properties don’t relate to one another logically, low cohesive classes are challenging to maintain.
10. Association
An association is a relationship between two distinct classes that are established with the aid of their objects.
One-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, and many-to-many associations are all possible. An association is a
connection between two things. The diversity between objects is defined by one of Java’s OOP concepts.
There is no owner in this OOP concept, and each object has a distinct lifecycle.
11. Aggregation
In this method, each object has a distinct lifecycle. Ownership, however, prevents the child object from being
a part of another parent object. Java aggregation depicts the link between an object that contains other objects
and is a weak association. This illustrates the connection between a component and a whole, where a part can
exist without a whole. A unique type of semantically weak link called an aggregation occurs when unrelated
things are combined.
12. Composition
Composition is an association that depicts a relationship between a part and a whole in which a part cannot
exist without a whole. Aggregation can take a variety of forms, including composition. Since child objects
lack a lifecycle, they all automatically disappear when the parent object does. One object cannot exist without
the other in any composition between two entities. As a result, both entities depend on one another in their
composition.
13. Modularity
Modular design refers to the division of a system into many functional pieces (referred to as modules) that can
be combined to create a more extensive application. Modularity and encapsulation are inextricably related.
When mapping encapsulated abstractions into actual, physical modules, high cohesion within the modules and
limited inter-module interaction or coupling can be seen as the definition of modularity.
14. Constructors and methods
A constructor is a specific kind of subroutine called to create an object. It sets up the new object for use and
frequently accepts arguments from the constructor to set up necessary member variables. In OOP, a method is

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a procedure connected to a message and an object. An object’s state data and behavior make up its interface,
which describes how any of its numerous consumers may use it. A method is a consumer-parameterized
object activity.
Advantages of OOP
Despite the rise of various programming models, OOP remains popular in DevOps. This is due to the
following advantages it provides:
1. Enables code reusability
The idea of inheritance is one of the critical concepts offered by object-oriented programming. A class’s
attributes can be passed down through inheritance, eliminating the need for duplication of effort. Doing this
prevents the problems associated with repeatedly writing the same code.
Thanks to introducing the idea of classes, the code section can be used as many times as necessary in the
program. A child class that uses the inheritance method inherits the parent class’s fields and methods. One can
readily alter the parent class’s available methods and values.
2. Increases productivity in software development
We can create programs from pre-written, interconnected modules rather than having to start from scratch,
which would save time and increase productivity. Thanks to the OOP language, we can break the software
into manageable, discrete problems. Because it allows for the division of labor in the creation of object-based
programs, object-oriented programming is modular.
It is also extendable, as you may add new characteristics and actions to objects. One can utilize objects in
several applications. Object-oriented programming increases software development productivity, compared to
conventional procedure-based programming techniques, due to modularity, extensibility, and reusability.
3. Makes troubleshooting simpler
When object-oriented programming is used, troubleshooting is made simpler since the user knows where to
look in the code to find the source of the problem. Since the error will indicate where the issue is, there is no
need to inspect additional code areas. All objects in object-oriented programming (OOP) are self-constrained,
which is one benefit of employing encapsulation. DevOps engineers and developers gain a lot of advantages
from this multimodal behavior because they may now work on several projects at once with the benefit of
avoiding code duplication.
4. Reinforces security
To maintain application security and provide vital data for viewing, we are filtering out limited data through
data hiding and abstraction mechanisms. The concept of data abstraction in OOPS allows only a small amount
of data to be displayed to the user, which is one of OOP’s strong points.
When only the necessary info is accessible, the rest is not. As a result, it makes security maintenance possible.
Another set of OOP’s advantages in Java’s idea of abstraction is used to conceal complexity from other users
and display the element’s information per the requirements.
5. Simplifies code maintenance
Object-oriented software is simpler to maintain in terms of code. Because of the design’s modularity, one can
upgrade a portion of the system in the event of problems without calling for significant adjustments.
Additionally, you can modify already-existing objects to create new ones.
Any programming language would benefit from having this capability; it prevents users from having to redo
work in a variety of ways. Maintaining and updating the current codes by adding new changes is always
simple and time-saving. Since one can produce new objects with just minor variations from old ones, it is
simple to maintain and modify current code.
6. Prevents the repetition of data
Redundant data refers to data that has been duplicated. As a result, the same information is repeated. The
redundancy of the data is seen as a benefit in object-oriented programming. For instance, the user would like
the capability comparable to that of practically all classes.

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In such circumstances, the user can construct classes with comparable functionality and inherit them when
necessary. A significant benefit of OOP is the redundancy of data. Users who want a comparable feature in
numerous classes can write standard class definitions for those features and inherit them.
7. Results in flexible code
Polymorphism is the idea that allows for flexibility. The following advantages of polymorphism for
developers are extensibility and simplicity. One advantage of OOP is polymorphism, which allows a piece of
code to exist in more than one version. For instance, you might act differently if the setting or environment
changes.
Let us look at a simple example. In a market, a person will act like a customer; in a school, a person will act
like a student; and in a home, a person will act like a son or daughter. Here, the same person exhibits various
behaviors depending on the environment.
8. Addresses issues early on
Another benefit of object-oriented programming is that it may effectively solve problems by being divided
into smaller components. It becomes good programming practice to deconstruct a complex issue into simpler
parts or components. Given this information, OOPS uses a feature that divides the program code into smaller,
more manageable chunks developed one at a time.
Once the issue has been disassembled, you can put the individual pieces to use again to address additional
problems. Additionally, *one might use the modules with the same interface and implementation details to
replace the more minor codes.
9. Provides design advantages
A significant development in software engineering has been object-oriented development. Among other
things, it promises to shorten development duration and give firms a competitive advantage. The design
benefit that users will experience from OOPs is the ease with which they can design and fix things and the
reduction of hazards, if any.
Here, object-oriented programs require a lengthy and thorough design phase from the designers, which
produces better designs with fewer faults. It is simpler to program all the non-OOPs independently after a
certain point when the program has hit some fundamental constraints.
10. Lowers development costs
Using an object-oriented approach does make it possible to cut back on some of the direct costs involved with
systems, including maintenance and development. Reusing software also reduces the price of development. In
most cases, more time and effort are spent on object-oriented analysis and design, reducing the overall
development cost.
The general cost of the improvement is reduced since more effort is typically put into the article-specific
assessment and plan. The development cost is generally reduced since more time and effort are usually spent
on object-oriented analysis and design.
Examples: Java, Python, C++, C#, Delphi/Object Pascal, VB.NET.
Languages that are historically procedural languages, but have been extended with some OO features.
Examples: PHP, JavaScript, Perl, Visual Basic (derived from BASIC), MATLAB, COBOL 2002, Fortran
2003, ABAP, Ada 95, Pascal.

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 2.0 Design of Object-Oriented Databases
UML - Overview

UML is a standard language for specifying, visualizing, constructing, and documenting the artifacts of
software systems.

UML was created by the Object Management Group (OMG) and UML 1.0 specification draft was proposed to
the OMG in January 1997.

OMG is continuously making efforts to create a truly industry standard.

 UML stands for Unified Modeling Language.

 UML is different from the other common programming languages such as C++, Java, COBOL, etc.
 UML is a pictorial language used to make software blueprints.
 UML can be described as a general purpose visual modeling language to visualize, specify, construct,
and document software system.
 Although UML is generally used to model software systems, it is not limited within this boundary. It is
also used to model non-software systems as well. For example, the process flow in a manufacturing
unit, etc.

UML is not a programming language but tools can be used to generate code in various languages using UML
diagrams. UML has a direct relation with object oriented analysis and design. After some standardization,
UML has become an OMG standard.

Goals of UML

A picture is worth a thousand words, this idiom absolutely fits describing UML. Object-oriented concepts
were introduced much earlier than UML. At that point of time, there were no standard methodologies to
organize and consolidate the object-oriented development. It was then that UML came into picture.

There are a number of goals for developing UML but the most important is to define some general-purpose
modeling language, which all modelers can use and it also needs to be made simple to understand and use.

UML diagrams are not only made for developers but also for business users, common people, and anybody
interested to understand the system. The system can be a software or non-software system. Thus, it must be
clear that UML is not a development method rather it accompanies with processes to make it a successful
system.

In conclusion, the goal of UML can be defined as a simple modeling mechanism to model all possible
practical systems in today’s complex environment.

A Conceptual Model of UML

To understand the conceptual model of UML, first we need to clarify what is a conceptual model? and why a
conceptual model is required?

 A conceptual model can be defined as a model which is made of concepts and their relationships.

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  A conceptual model is the first step before drawing a UML diagram. It helps to understand the entities
in the real world and how they interact with each other.

As UML describes the real-time systems, it is very important to make a conceptual model and then proceed
gradually. The conceptual model of UML can be mastered by learning the following three major elements −

 UML building blocks

 Rules to connect the building blocks
 Common mechanisms of UML

Object-Oriented Concepts

UML can be described as the successor of object-oriented (OO) analysis and design.

An object contains both data and methods that control the data. The data represents the state of the object. A
class describes an object and they also form a hierarchy to model the real-world system. The hierarchy is
represented as inheritance and the classes can also be associated in different ways as per the requirement.

Objects are the real-world entities that exist around us and the basic concepts such as abstraction,
encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism all can be represented using UML.

UML is powerful enough to represent all the concepts that exist in object-oriented analysis and design. UML
diagrams are representation of object-oriented concepts only. Thus, before learning UML, it becomes
important to understand OO concept in detail.

Following are some fundamental concepts of the object-oriented world −

 Objects − Objects represent an entity and the basic building block.

 Class − Class is the blue print of an object.
 Abstraction − Abstraction represents the behavior of an real world entity.
 Encapsulation − Encapsulation is the mechanism of binding the data together and hiding them from
the outside world.
 Inheritance − Inheritance is the mechanism of making new classes from existing ones.
 Polymorphism − It defines the mechanism to exists in different forms.

OO Analysis and Design

OO can be defined as an investigation and to be more specific, it is the investigation of objects. Design means
collaboration of identified objects.

Thus, it is important to understand the OO analysis and design concepts. The most important purpose of OO
analysis is to identify objects of a system to be designed. This analysis is also done for an existing system.
Now an efficient analysis is only possible when we are able to start thinking in a way where objects can be
identified. After identifying the objects, their relationships are identified and finally the design is produced.

The purpose of OO analysis and design can described as −

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  Identifying the objects of a system.
 Identifying their relationships.
 Making a design, which can be converted to executables using OO languages.

There are three basic steps where the OO concepts are applied and implemented. The steps can be defined as

OO Analysis → OO Design → OO implementation using OO languages

The above three points can be described in detail as −

 During OO analysis, the most important purpose is to identify objects and describe them in a proper
way. If these objects are identified efficiently, then the next job of design is easy. The objects should
be identified with responsibilities. Responsibilities are the functions performed by the object. Each and
every object has some type of responsibilities to be performed. When these responsibilities are
collaborated, the purpose of the system is fulfilled.
 The second phase is OO design. During this phase, emphasis is placed on the requirements and their
fulfilment. In this stage, the objects are collaborated according to their intended association. After the
association is complete, the design is also complete.
 The third phase is OO implementation. In this phase, the design is implemented using OO languages
such as Java, C++, etc.

Role of UML in OO Design

UML is a modeling language used to model software and non-software systems. Although UML is used for
non-software systems, the emphasis is on modeling OO software applications. Most of the UML diagrams
discussed so far are used to model different aspects such as static, dynamic, etc. Now whatever be the aspect,
the artifacts are nothing but objects.

If we look into class diagram, object diagram, collaboration diagram, interaction diagrams all would basically
be designed based on the objects.

Hence, the relation between OO design and UML is very important to understand. The OO design is
transformed into UML diagrams according to the requirement. Before understanding the UML in detail, the
OO concept should be learned properly. Once the OO analysis and design is done, the next step is very easy.
The input from OO analysis and design is the input to UML diagrams.

UML - Building Blocks

As UML describes the real-time systems, it is very important to make a conceptual model and then proceed
gradually. The conceptual model of UML can be mastered by learning the following three major elements −

 UML building blocks

 Rules to connect the building blocks
 Common mechanisms of UML

The building blocks of UML can be defined as −

 Things

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  Relationships
 Diagrams

Things

Things are the most important building blocks of UML. Things can be −
 Structural
 Behavioral
 Grouping
 Annotational

Structural Things
Structural things define the static part of the model. They represent the physical and conceptual elements.
Following are the brief descriptions of the structural things.
Class − Class represents a set of objects having similar responsibilities.

Interface − Interface defines a set of operations, which specify the responsibility of a class.

Collaboration −Collaboration defines an interaction between elements.

Use case −Use case represents a set of actions performed by a system for a specific goal.

Component −Component describes the physical part of a system.

Node − A node can be defined as a physical element that exists at run time.

Behavioral Things
A behavioral thing consists of the dynamic parts of UML models. Following are the behavioral things −
Interaction − Interaction is defined as a behavior that consists of a group of messages exchanged among
elements to accomplish a specific task.

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State machine − State machine is useful when the state of an object in its life cycle is important. It defines the
sequence of states an object goes through in response to events. Events are external factors responsible for
state change

Grouping Things
Grouping things can be defined as a mechanism to group elements of a UML model together. There is only
one grouping thing available −
Package − Package is the only one grouping thing available for gathering structural and behavioral things.

Annotational Things
Annotational things can be defined as a mechanism to capture remarks, descriptions, and comments of UML
model elements.
Note - It is the only one Annotational thing available. A note is used to render comments, constraints, etc. of
an UML element.

Relationship

Relationship is another most important building block of UML. It shows how the elements are associated
with each other and this association describes the functionality of an application.

There are four kinds of relationships available.

Dependency

Dependency is a relationship between two things in which change in one element also affects the other.

Association

Association is basically a set of links that connects the elements of a UML model. It also describes how many
objects are taking part in that relationship.

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Generalization

Generalization can be defined as a relationship which connects a specialized element with a generalized
element. It basically describes the inheritance relationship in the world of objects.

Realization

Realization can be defined as a relationship in which two elements are connected. One element describes
some responsibility, which is not implemented and the other one implements them. This relationship exists in
case of interfaces.

UML Diagrams

UML diagrams are the ultimate output of the entire discussion. All the elements, relationships are used to
make a complete UML diagram and the diagram represents a system.

The visual effect of the UML diagram is the most important part of the entire process. All the other elements
are used to make it complete.

UML includes the following nine diagrams, the details of which are described in the subsequent chapters.

 Class diagram
 Object diagram
 Use case diagram
 Sequence diagram
 Collaboration diagram
 Activity diagram
 Statechart diagram
 Deployment diagram
 Component diagram
UML - Architecture

Any real-world system is used by different users. The users can be developers, testers, business people,
analysts, and many more. Hence, before designing a system, the architecture is made with different
perspectives in mind. The most important part is to visualize the system from the perspective of different
viewers. The better we understand the better we can build the system.

UML plays an important role in defining different perspectives of a system. These perspectives are −

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  Design
 Implementation
 Process
 Deployment

The center is the Use Case view which connects all these four. A Use Case represents the functionality of the
system. Hence, other perspectives are connected with use case.

Design of a system consists of classes, interfaces, and collaboration. UML provides class diagram, object
diagram to support this.

Implementation defines the components assembled together to make a complete physical system. UML
component diagram is used to support the implementation perspective.

Process defines the flow of the system. Hence, the same elements as used in Design are also used to support
this perspective.

Deployment represents the physical nodes of the system that forms the hardware. UML deployment diagram
is used to support this perspective.

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UML - Modeling Types

It is very important to distinguish between the UML model. Different diagrams are used for different types of
UML modeling. There are three important types of UML modeling.

Structural Modeling

Structural modeling captures the static features of a system. They consist of the following −

 Classes diagrams
 Objects diagrams
 Deployment diagrams
 Package diagrams
 Composite structure diagram
 Component diagram

Structural model represents the framework for the system and this framework is the place where all other
components exist. Hence, the class diagram, component diagram and deployment diagrams are part of
structural modeling. They all represent the elements and the mechanism to assemble them.

The structural model never describes the dynamic behavior of the system. Class diagram is the most widely
used structural diagram.

Behavioral Modeling

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Behavioral model describes the interaction in the system. It represents the interaction among the structural
diagrams. Behavioral modeling shows the dynamic nature of the system. They consist of the following −

 Activity diagrams
 Interaction diagrams
 Use case diagrams

All the above show the dynamic sequence of flow in a system.

Architectural Modeling

Architectural model represents the overall framework of the system. It contains both structural and behavioral
elements of the system. Architectural model can be defined as the blueprint of the entire system. Package
diagram comes under architectural modeling.

UML - Basic Notations

UML is popular for its diagrammatic notations. We all know that UML is for visualizing, specifying,
constructing and documenting the components of software and non-software systems. Hence, visualization is
the most important part which needs to be understood and remembered.

UML notations are the most important elements in modeling. Efficient and appropriate use of notations is
very important for making a complete and meaningful model. The model is useless, unless its purpose is
depicted properly.

Hence, learning notations should be emphasized from the very beginning. Different notations are available for
things and relationships. UML diagrams are made using the notations of things and relationships.
Extensibility is another important feature which makes UML more powerful and flexible.

Structural Things

Graphical notations used in structural things are most widely used in UML. These are considered as the nouns
of UML models. Following are the list of structural things.

 Classes
 Object
 Interface
 Collaboration
 Use case
 Active classes
 Components
 Nodes

Class Notation

UML class is represented by the following figure. The diagram is divided into four parts.
 The top section is used to name the class.
 The second one is used to show the attributes of the class.

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  The third section is used to describe the operations performed by the class.
 The fourth section is optional to show any additional components.

Classes are used to represent objects. Objects can be anything having properties and responsibility.

Object Notation

The object is represented in the same way as the class. The only difference is the name which is underlined as
shown in the following figure.

As the object is an actual implementation of a class, which is known as the instance of a class. Hence, it has
the same usage as the class.

Interface Notation

Interface is represented by a circle as shown in the following figure. It has a name which is generally written
below the circle.

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Interface is used to describe the functionality without implementation. Interface is just like a template where
you define different functions, not the implementation. When a class implements the interface, it also
implements the functionality as per requirement.

Collaboration Notation

Collaboration is represented by a dotted eclipse as shown in the following figure. It has a name written inside
the eclipse.

Collaboration represents responsibilities. Generally, responsibilities are in a group.

Use Case Notation

Use case is represented as an eclipse with a name inside it. It may contain additional responsibilities.

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Use case is used to capture high level functionalities of a system.

Actor Notation

An actor can be defined as some internal or external entity that interacts with the system.

An actor is used in a use case diagram to describe the internal or external entities.

Initial State Notation

Initial state is defined to show the start of a process. This notation is used in almost all diagrams.

The usage of Initial State Notation is to show the starting point of a process.

Final State Notation

Final state is used to show the end of a process. This notation is also used in almost all diagrams to describe
the end.

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The usage of Final State Notation is to show the termination point of a process.

Active Class Notation

Active class looks similar to a class with a solid border. Active class is generally used to describe the
concurrent behavior of a system.

Active class is used to represent the concurrency in a system.

Component Notation

A component in UML is shown in the following figure with a name inside. Additional elements can be added
wherever required.

Component is used to represent any part of a system for which UML diagrams are made.

Node Notation

A node in UML is represented by a square box as shown in the following figure with a name. A node
represents the physical component of the system.

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Node is used to represent the physical part of a system such as the server, network, etc.

Behavioral Things
Dynamic parts are one of the most important elements in UML. UML has a set of powerful features to
represent the dynamic part of software and non-software systems. These features
include interactions and state machines.

Interactions can be of two types −

 Sequential (Represented by sequence diagram)

 Collaborative (Represented by collaboration diagram)

Interaction Notation

Interaction is basically a message exchange between two UML components. The following diagram
represents different notations used in an interaction.

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Interaction is used to represent the communication among the components of a system.

State Machine Notation

State machine describes the different states of a component in its life cycle. The notations are described in the
following diagram.

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State machine is used to describe different states of a system component. The state can be active, idle, or any
other depending upon the situation.

Grouping Things

Organizing the UML models is one of the most important aspects of the design. In UML, there is only one
element available for grouping and that is package.

Package Notation

Package notation is shown in the following figure and is used to wrap the components of a system.

Annotational Things
In any diagram, explanation of different elements and their functionalities are very important. Hence, UML
has notes notation to support this requirement.

Note Notation

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This notation is shown in the following figure. These notations are used to provide necessary information of a
system.

Relationships
A model is not complete unless the relationships between elements are described properly.
The Relationship gives a proper meaning to a UML model. Following are the different types of relationships
available in UML.
 Dependency
 Association
 Generalization
 Extensibility

Dependency Notation

Dependency is an important aspect in UML elements. It describes the dependent elements and the direction of
dependency.

Dependency is represented by a dotted arrow as shown in the following figure. The arrow head represents the
independent element and the other end represents the dependent element.

Dependency is used to represent the dependency between two elements of a system

Association Notation

Association describes how the elements in a UML diagram are associated. In simple words, it describes how
many elements are taking part in an interaction.

Association is represented by a dotted line with (without) arrows on both sides. The two ends represent two
associated elements as shown in the following figure. The multiplicity is also mentioned at the ends (1, *, etc.)
to show how many objects are associated.

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Association is used to represent the relationship between two elements of a system.

Generalization Notation

Generalization describes the inheritance relationship of the object-oriented world. It is a parent and child
relationship.

Generalization is represented by an arrow with a hollow arrow head as shown in the following figure. One end
represents the parent element and the other end represents the child element.

Generalization is used to describe parent-child relationship of two elements of a system.

Extensibility Notation

All the languages (programming or modeling) have some mechanism to extend its capabilities such as syntax,
semantics, etc. UML also has the following mechanisms to provide extensibility features.

 Stereotypes (Represents new elements)

 Tagged values (Represents new attributes)
 Constraints (Represents the boundaries)

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Extensibility notations are used to enhance the power of the language. It is basically additional elements used
to represent some extra behavior of the system. These extra behaviors are not covered by the standard
available notations.

UML - Standard Diagrams

The elements are like components which can be associated in different ways to make a complete UML
picture, which is known as diagram. Thus, it is very important to understand the different diagrams to
implement the knowledge in real-life systems.

Any complex system is best understood by making some kind of diagrams or pictures. These diagrams have a
better impact on our understanding. If we look around, we will realize that the diagrams are not a new concept
but it is used widely in different forms in different industries.

We prepare UML diagrams to understand the system in a better and simple way. A single diagram is not
enough to cover all the aspects of the system. UML defines various kinds of diagrams to cover most of the
aspects of a system.

You can also create your own set of diagrams to meet your requirements. Diagrams are generally made in an
incremental and iterative way.

There are two broad categories of diagrams and they are again divided into subcategories −

 Structural Diagrams
 Behavioral Diagrams

Structural Diagrams

The structural diagrams represent the static aspect of the system. These static aspects represent those parts of a
diagram, which forms the main structure and are therefore stable.

These static parts are represented by classes, interfaces, objects, components, and nodes. The four structural
diagrams are −

 Class diagram
 Object diagram
 Component diagram
 Deployment diagram
Class Diagram

Class diagrams are the most common diagrams used in UML. Class diagram consists of classes, interfaces,
associations, and collaboration. Class diagrams basically represent the object-oriented view of a system,
which is static in nature.

Active class is used in a class diagram to represent the concurrency of the system.

Class diagram represents the object orientation of a system. Hence, it is generally used for development
purpose. This is the most widely used diagram at the time of system construction.

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Object Diagram

Object diagrams can be described as an instance of class diagram. Thus, these diagrams are more close to
real-life scenarios where we implement a system.

Object diagrams are a set of objects and their relationship is just like class diagrams. They also represent the
static view of the system.

The usage of object diagrams is similar to class diagrams but they are used to build prototype of a system
from a practical perspective.

Component Diagram

Component diagrams represent a set of components and their relationships. These components consist of
classes, interfaces, or collaborations. Component diagrams represent the implementation view of a system.

During the design phase, software artifacts (classes, interfaces, etc.) of a system are arranged in different
groups depending upon their relationship. Now, these groups are known as components.

Finally, it can be said component diagrams are used to visualize the implementation.

Deployment Diagram

Deployment diagrams are a set of nodes and their relationships. These nodes are physical entities where the
components are deployed.

Deployment diagrams are used for visualizing the deployment view of a system. This is generally used by the
deployment team.

Note − If the above descriptions and usages are observed carefully then it is very clear that all the diagrams
have some relationship with one another. Component diagrams are dependent upon the classes, interfaces, etc.
which are part of class/object diagram. Again, the deployment diagram is dependent upon the components,
which are used to make component diagrams.

Behavioral Diagrams

Any system can have two aspects, static and dynamic. So, a model is considered as complete when both the
aspects are fully covered.

Behavioral diagrams basically capture the dynamic aspect of a system. Dynamic aspect can be further
described as the changing/moving parts of a system.

UML has the following five types of behavioral diagrams −

 Use case diagram

 Sequence diagram
 Collaboration diagram
 Statechart diagram

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  Activity diagram
Use Case Diagram

Use case diagrams are a set of use cases, actors, and their relationships. They represent the use case view of a
system.

A use case represents a particular functionality of a system. Hence, use case diagram is used to describe the
relationships among the functionalities and their internal/external controllers. These controllers are known
as actors.
Sequence Diagram

A sequence diagram is an interaction diagram. From the name, it is clear that the diagram deals with some
sequences, which are the sequence of messages flowing from one object to another.

Interaction among the components of a system is very important from implementation and execution
perspective. Sequence diagram is used to visualize the sequence of calls in a system to perform a specific
functionality.

Collaboration Diagram

Collaboration diagram is another form of interaction diagram. It represents the structural organization of a
system and the messages sent/received. Structural organization consists of objects and links.

The purpose of collaboration diagram is similar to sequence diagram. However, the specific purpose of
collaboration diagram is to visualize the organization of objects and their interaction.

Statechart Diagram

Any real-time system is expected to be reacted by some kind of internal/external events. These events are
responsible for state change of the system.

Statechart diagram is used to represent the event driven state change of a system. It basically describes the
state change of a class, interface, etc.

State chart diagram is used to visualize the reaction of a system by internal/external factors.

Activity Diagram

Activity diagram describes the flow of control in a system. It consists of activities and links. The flow can be
sequential, concurrent, or branched.

Activities are nothing but the functions of a system. Numbers of activity diagrams are prepared to capture the
entire flow in a system.

Activity diagrams are used to visualize the flow of controls in a system. This is prepared to have an idea of
how the system will work when executed.

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Note − Dynamic nature of a system is very difficult to capture. UML has provided features to capture the
dynamics of a system from different angles. Sequence diagrams and collaboration diagrams are isomorphic,
hence they can be converted from one another without losing any information. This is also true for Statechart
and activity diagram.
UML - Class Diagram

Class diagram is a static diagram. It represents the static view of an application. Class diagram is not only
used for visualizing, describing, and documenting different aspects of a system but also for constructing
executable code of the software application.

Class diagram describes the attributes and operations of a class and also the constraints imposed on the
system. The class diagrams are widely used in the modeling of objectoriented systems because they are the
only UML diagrams, which can be mapped directly with object-oriented languages.

Class diagram shows a collection of classes, interfaces, associations, collaborations, and constraints. It is also
known as a structural diagram.

Purpose of Class Diagrams

The purpose of class diagram is to model the static view of an application. Class diagrams are the only
diagrams which can be directly mapped with object-oriented languages and thus widely used at the time of
construction.

UML diagrams like activity diagram, sequence diagram can only give the sequence flow of the application,
however class diagram is a bit different. It is the most popular UML diagram in the coder community.

The purpose of the class diagram can be summarized as −

 Analysis and design of the static view of an application.

 Describe responsibilities of a system.
 Base for component and deployment diagrams.
 Forward and reverse engineering.

How to Draw a Class Diagram?

Class diagrams are the most popular UML diagrams used for construction of software applications. It is very
important to learn the drawing procedure of class diagram.

Class diagrams have a lot of properties to consider while drawing but here the diagram will be considered
from a top level view.

Class diagram is basically a graphical representation of the static view of the system and represents different
aspects of the application. A collection of class diagrams represent the whole system.

The following points should be remembered while drawing a class diagram −

 The name of the class diagram should be meaningful to describe the aspect of the system.
 Each element and their relationships should be identified in advance.

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  Responsibility (attributes and methods) of each class should be clearly identified
 For each class, minimum number of properties should be specified, as unnecessary properties will
make the diagram complicated.
 Use notes whenever required to describe some aspect of the diagram. At the end of the drawing it
should be understandable to the developer/coder.
 Finally, before making the final version, the diagram should be drawn on plain paper and reworked as
many times as possible to make it correct.

The following diagram is an example of an Order System of an application. It describes a particular aspect of
the entire application.

 First of all, Order and Customer are identified as the two elements of the system. They have a one-to-
many relationship because a customer can have multiple orders.
 Order class is an abstract class and it has two concrete classes (inheritance relationship) SpecialOrder
and NormalOrder.
 The two inherited classes have all the properties as the Order class. In addition, they have additional
functions like dispatch () and receive ().

The following class diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above.

Where to Use Class Diagrams?

Class diagram is a static diagram and it is used to model the static view of a system. The static view describes
the vocabulary of the system.

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Class diagram is also considered as the foundation for component and deployment diagrams. Class diagrams
are not only used to visualize the static view of the system but they are also used to construct the executable
code for forward and reverse engineering of any system.

Generally, UML diagrams are not directly mapped with any object-oriented programming languages but the
class diagram is an exception.

Class diagram clearly shows the mapping with object-oriented languages such as Java, C++, etc. From
practical experience, class diagram is generally used for construction purpose.

In a nutshell it can be said, class diagrams are used for −

 Describing the static view of the system.

 Showing the collaboration among the elements of the static view.
 Describing the functionalities performed by the system.
 Construction of software applications using object oriented languages.
UML - Object Diagrams

Object diagrams are derived from class diagrams so object diagrams are dependent upon class diagrams.

Object diagrams represent an instance of a class diagram. The basic concepts are similar for class diagrams
and object diagrams. Object diagrams also represent the static view of a system but this static view is a
snapshot of the system at a particular moment.

Object diagrams are used to render a set of objects and their relationships as an instance.

Purpose of Object Diagrams

The purpose of a diagram should be understood clearly to implement it practically. The purposes of object
diagrams are similar to class diagrams.

The difference is that a class diagram represents an abstract model consisting of classes and their
relationships. However, an object diagram represents an instance at a particular moment, which is concrete in
nature.

It means the object diagram is closer to the actual system behavior. The purpose is to capture the static view
of a system at a particular moment.

The purpose of the object diagram can be summarized as −

 Forward and reverse engineering.

 Object relationships of a system
 Static view of an interaction.
 Understand object behaviour and their relationship from practical perspective

How to Draw an Object Diagram?

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We have already discussed that an object diagram is an instance of a class diagram. It implies that an object
diagram consists of instances of things used in a class diagram.

So both diagrams are made of same basic elements but in different form. In class diagram elements are in
abstract form to represent the blue print and in object diagram the elements are in concrete form to represent
the real world object.

To capture a particular system, numbers of class diagrams are limited. However, if we consider object
diagrams then we can have unlimited number of instances, which are unique in nature. Only those instances
are considered, which have an impact on the system.

From the above discussion, it is clear that a single object diagram cannot capture all the necessary instances or
rather cannot specify all the objects of a system. Hence, the solution is −

 First, analyze the system and decide which instances have important data and association.
 Second, consider only those instances, which will cover the functionality.
 Third, make some optimization as the number of instances are unlimited.

Before drawing an object diagram, the following things should be remembered and understood clearly −

 Object diagrams consist of objects.

 The link in object diagram is used to connect objects.
 Objects and links are the two elements used to construct an object diagram.

After this, the following things are to be decided before starting the construction of the diagram −

 The object diagram should have a meaningful name to indicate its purpose.
 The most important elements are to be identified.
 The association among objects should be clarified.
 Values of different elements need to be captured to include in the object diagram.
 Add proper notes at points where more clarity is required.

The following diagram is an example of an object diagram. It represents the Order management system which
we have discussed in the chapter Class Diagram. The following diagram is an instance of the system at a
particular time of purchase. It has the following objects.

 Customer
 Order
 SpecialOrder
 NormalOrder

Now the customer object (C) is associated with three order objects (O1, O2, and O3). These order objects are
associated with special order and normal order objects (S1, S2, and N1). The customer has the following three
orders with different numbers (12, 32 and 40) for the particular time considered.

The customer can increase the number of orders in future and in that scenario the object diagram will reflect
that. If order, special order, and normal order objects are observed then you will find that they have some
values.

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For orders, the values are 12, 32, and 40 which implies that the objects have these values for a particular
moment (here the particular time when the purchase is made is considered as the moment) when the instance
is captured

The same is true for special order and normal order objects which have number of orders as 20, 30, and 60. If
a different time of purchase is considered, then these values will change accordingly.

The following object diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above

Where to Use Object Diagrams?

Object diagrams can be imagined as the snapshot of a running system at a particular moment. Let us consider
an example of a running train

Now, if you take a snap of the running train then you will find a static picture of it having the following −

 A particular state which is running.

 A particular number of passengers. which will change if the snap is taken in a different time

Here, we can imagine the snap of the running train is an object having the above values. And this is true for
any real-life simple or complex system.

In a nutshell, it can be said that object diagrams are used for −

 Making the prototype of a system.

 Reverse engineering.
 Modeling complex data structures.
 Understanding the system from practical perspective.
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UML - Component Diagrams

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Component diagrams are different in terms of nature and behavior. Component diagrams are used to model
the physical aspects of a system. Now the question is, what are these physical aspects? Physical aspects are
the elements such as executables, libraries, files, documents, etc. which reside in a node.

Component diagrams are used to visualize the organization and relationships among components in a system.
These diagrams are also used to make executable systems.

Purpose of Component Diagrams

Component diagram is a special kind of diagram in UML. The purpose is also different from all other
diagrams discussed so far. It does not describe the functionality of the system but it describes the components
used to make those functionalities.

Thus from that point of view, component diagrams are used to visualize the physical components in a system.
These components are libraries, packages, files, etc.

Component diagrams can also be described as a static implementation view of a system. Static
implementation represents the organization of the components at a particular moment.

A single component diagram cannot represent the entire system but a collection of diagrams is used to
represent the whole.

The purpose of the component diagram can be summarized as −

 Visualize the components of a system.

 Construct executables by using forward and reverse engineering.
 Describe the organization and relationships of the components.

How to Draw a Component Diagram?

Component diagrams are used to describe the physical artifacts of a system. This artifact includes files,
executables, libraries, etc

The purpose of this diagram is different. Component diagrams are used during the implementation phase of an
application. However, it is prepared well in advance to visualize the implementation details.

Initially, the system is designed using different UML diagrams and then when the artifacts are ready,
component diagrams are used to get an idea of the implementation.

This diagram is very important as without it the application cannot be implemented efficiently. A well-
prepared component diagram is also important for other aspects such as application performance,
maintenance, etc.

Before drawing a component diagram, the following artifacts are to be identified clearly −

 Files used in the system.

 Libraries and other artifacts relevant to the application.
 Relationships among the artifacts.

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After identifying the artifacts, the following points need to be kept in mind.

 Use a meaningful name to identify the component for which the diagram is to be drawn.
 Prepare a mental layout before producing the using tools.
 Use notes for clarifying important points.

Following is a component diagram for order management system. Here, the artifacts are files. The diagram
shows the files in the application and their relationships. In actual, the component diagram also contains dlls,
libraries, folders, etc.

In the following diagram, four files are identified and their relationships are produced. Component diagram
cannot be matched directly with other UML diagrams discussed so far as it is drawn for completely different
purpose.

The following component diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above.

Where to Use Component Diagrams?

We have already described that component diagrams are used to visualize the static implementation view of a
system. Component diagrams are special type of UML diagrams used for different purposes.

These diagrams show the physical components of a system. To clarify it, we can say that component diagrams
describe the organization of the components in a system.

Organization can be further described as the location of the components in a system. These components are
organized in a special way to meet the system requirements.

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As we have already discussed, those components are libraries, files, executables, etc. Before implementing the
application, these components are to be organized. This component organization is also designed separately as
a part of project execution.

Component diagrams are very important from implementation perspective. Thus, the implementation team of
an application should have a proper knowledge of the component details

Component diagrams can be used to −

 Model the components of a system.

 Model the database schema.
 Model the executables of an application.
 Model the system's source code.
UML - Deployment Diagrams

Deployment diagrams are used to visualize the topology of the physical components of a system, where the
software components are deployed.

Deployment diagrams are used to describe the static deployment view of a system. Deployment diagrams
consist of nodes and their relationships.

Purpose of Deployment Diagrams

The term Deployment itself describes the purpose of the diagram. Deployment diagrams are used for
describing the hardware components, where software components are deployed. Component diagrams and
deployment diagrams are closely related.

Component diagrams are used to describe the components and deployment diagrams shows how they are
deployed in hardware.

UML is mainly designed to focus on the software artifacts of a system. However, these two diagrams are
special diagrams used to focus on software and hardware components.

Most of the UML diagrams are used to handle logical components but deployment diagrams are made to
focus on the hardware topology of a system. Deployment diagrams are used by the system engineers.

The purpose of deployment diagrams can be described as −

 Visualize the hardware topology of a system.

 Describe the hardware components used to deploy software components.
 Describe the runtime processing nodes.

How to Draw a Deployment Diagram?

Deployment diagram represents the deployment view of a system. It is related to the component diagram
because the components are deployed using the deployment diagrams. A deployment diagram consists of
nodes. Nodes are nothing but physical hardware used to deploy the application.

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Deployment diagrams are useful for system engineers. An efficient deployment diagram is very important as
it controls the following parameters −

 Performance
 Scalability
 Maintainability
 Portability

Before drawing a deployment diagram, the following artifacts should be identified −

 Nodes
 Relationships among nodes

Following is a sample deployment diagram to provide an idea of the deployment view of order management
system. Here, we have shown nodes as −

 Monitor
 Modem
 Caching server
 Server

The application is assumed to be a web-based application, which is deployed in a clustered environment using
server 1, server 2, and server 3. The user connects to the application using the Internet. The control flows from
the caching server to the clustered environment.

The following deployment diagram has been drawn considering all the points mentioned above.

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Where to Use Deployment Diagrams?

Deployment diagrams are mainly used by system engineers. These diagrams are used to describe the physical
components (hardware), their distribution, and association.

Deployment diagrams can be visualized as the hardware components/nodes on which the software
components reside.

Software applications are developed to model complex business processes. Efficient software applications are
not sufficient to meet the business requirements. Business requirements can be described as the need to
support the increasing number of users, quick response time, etc.

To meet these types of requirements, hardware components should be designed efficiently and in a cost-
effective way.

Now-a-days software applications are very complex in nature. Software applications can be standalone, web-
based, distributed, mainframe-based and many more. Hence, it is very important to design the hardware
components efficiently.

Deployment diagrams can be used −

 To model the hardware topology of a system.

 To model the embedded system.
 To model the hardware details for a client/server system.
 To model the hardware details of a distributed application.
 For Forward and Reverse engineering
UML - Use Case Diagrams

To model a system, the most important aspect is to capture the dynamic behavior. Dynamic behavior means
the behavior of the system when it is running/operating.

Only static behavior is not sufficient to model a system rather dynamic behavior is more important than static
behavior. In UML, there are five diagrams available to model the dynamic nature and use case diagram is one
of them. Now as we have to discuss that the use case diagram is dynamic in nature, there should be some
internal or external factors for making the interaction.

These internal and external agents are known as actors. Use case diagrams consists of actors, use cases and
their relationships. The diagram is used to model the system/subsystem of an application. A single use case
diagram captures a particular functionality of a system.

Hence to model the entire system, a number of use case diagrams are used.

Purpose of Use Case Diagrams

The purpose of use case diagram is to capture the dynamic aspect of a system. However, this definition is too
generic to describe the purpose, as other four diagrams (activity, sequence, collaboration, and Statechart) also

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have the same purpose. We will look into some specific purpose, which will distinguish it from other four
diagrams.

Use case diagrams are used to gather the requirements of a system including internal and external influences.
These requirements are mostly design requirements. Hence, when a system is analyzed to gather its
functionalities, use cases are prepared and actors are identified.

When the initial task is complete, use case diagrams are modelled to present the outside view.

In brief, the purposes of use case diagrams can be said to be as follows −

 Used to gather the requirements of a system.

 Used to get an outside view of a system.
 Identify the external and internal factors influencing the system.
 Show the interaction among the requirements are actors.

How to Draw a Use Case Diagram?

Use case diagrams are considered for high level requirement analysis of a system. When the requirements of a
system are analyzed, the functionalities are captured in use cases.

We can say that use cases are nothing but the system functionalities written in an organized manner. The
second thing which is relevant to use cases are the actors. Actors can be defined as something that interacts
with the system.

Actors can be a human user, some internal applications, or may be some external applications. When we are
planning to draw a use case diagram, we should have the following items identified.

 Functionalities to be represented as use case

 Actors
 Relationships among the use cases and actors.

Use case diagrams are drawn to capture the functional requirements of a system. After identifying the above
items, we have to use the following guidelines to draw an efficient use case diagram

 The name of a use case is very important. The name should be chosen in such a way so that it can
identify the functionalities performed.
 Give a suitable name for actors.
 Show relationships and dependencies clearly in the diagram.
 Do not try to include all types of relationships, as the main purpose of the diagram is to identify the
requirements.
 Use notes whenever required to clarify some important points.
Following is a sample use case diagram representing the order management system. Hence, if we look into the
diagram then we will find three use cases (Order, SpecialOrder, and NormalOrder) and one actor which is
the customer.
The SpecialOrder and NormalOrder use cases are extended from Order use case. Hence, they have extended
relationship. Another important point is to identify the system boundary, which is shown in the picture. The
actor Customer lies outside the system as it is an external user of the system.

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Where to Use a Use Case Diagram?

As we have already discussed there are five diagrams in UML to model the dynamic view of a system. Now
each and every model has some specific purpose to use. Actually these specific purposes are different angles
of a running system.

To understand the dynamics of a system, we need to use different types of diagrams. Use case diagram is one
of them and its specific purpose is to gather system requirements and actors.

Use case diagrams specify the events of a system and their flows. But use case diagram never describes how
they are implemented. Use case diagram can be imagined as a black box where only the input, output, and the
function of the black box is known.

These diagrams are used at a very high level of design. This high level design is refined again and again to get
a complete and practical picture of the system. A well-structured use case also describes the pre-condition,
post condition, and exceptions. These extra elements are used to make test cases when performing the testing.

Although use case is not a good candidate for forward and reverse engineering, still they are used in a slightly
different way to make forward and reverse engineering. The same is true for reverse engineering. Use case
diagram is used differently to make it suitable for reverse engineering.

In forward engineering, use case diagrams are used to make test cases and in reverse engineering use cases are
used to prepare the requirement details from the existing application.

Use case diagrams can be used for −

 Requirement analysis and high level design.

 Model the context of a system.

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  Reverse engineering.
 Forward engineering.
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UML - Interaction Diagrams

From the term Interaction, it is clear that the diagram is used to describe some type of interactions among the
different elements in the model. This interaction is a part of dynamic behavior of the system.

This interactive behavior is represented in UML by two diagrams known as Sequence

diagram and Collaboration diagram. The basic purpose of both the diagrams are similar.

Sequence diagram emphasizes on time sequence of messages and collaboration diagram emphasizes on the
structural organization of the objects that send and receive messages.

Purpose of Interaction Diagrams

The purpose of interaction diagrams is to visualize the interactive behavior of the system. Visualizing the
interaction is a difficult task. Hence, the solution is to use different types of models to capture the different
aspects of the interaction.

Sequence and collaboration diagrams are used to capture the dynamic nature but from a different angle.

The purpose of interaction diagram is −

 To capture the dynamic behaviour of a system.

 To describe the message flow in the system.
 To describe the structural organization of the objects.
 To describe the interaction among objects.

How to Draw an Interaction Diagram?

As we have already discussed, the purpose of interaction diagrams is to capture the dynamic aspect of a
system. So to capture the dynamic aspect, we need to understand what a dynamic aspect is and how it is
visualized. Dynamic aspect can be defined as the snapshot of the running system at a particular moment

We have two types of interaction diagrams in UML. One is the sequence diagram and the other is the
collaboration diagram. The sequence diagram captures the time sequence of the message flow from one object
to another and the collaboration diagram describes the organization of objects in a system taking part in the
message flow.

Following things are to be identified clearly before drawing the interaction diagram

 Objects taking part in the interaction.

 Message flows among the objects.
 The sequence in which the messages are flowing.
 Object organization.

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Following are two interaction diagrams modeling the order management system. The first diagram is a
sequence diagram and the second is a collaboration diagram

The Sequence Diagram

The sequence diagram has four objects (Customer, Order, SpecialOrder and NormalOrder).

The following diagram shows the message sequence for SpecialOrder object and the same can be used in case
of NormalOrder object. It is important to understand the time sequence of message flows. The message flow
is nothing but a method call of an object.
The first call is sendOrder () which is a method of Order object. The next call is confirm () which is a method
of SpecialOrder object and the last call is Dispatch () which is a method of SpecialOrder object. The
following diagram mainly describes the method calls from one object to another, and this is also the actual
scenario when the system is running.

The Collaboration Diagram

The second interaction diagram is the collaboration diagram. It shows the object organization as seen in the
following diagram. In the collaboration diagram, the method call sequence is indicated by some numbering
technique. The number indicates how the methods are called one after another. We have taken the same order
management system to describe the collaboration diagram.

Method calls are similar to that of a sequence diagram. However, difference being the sequence diagram does
not describe the object organization, whereas the collaboration diagram shows the object organization.

To choose between these two diagrams, emphasis is placed on the type of requirement. If the time sequence is
important, then the sequence diagram is used. If organization is required, then collaboration diagram is used.

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Where to Use Interaction Diagrams?

We have already discussed that interaction diagrams are used to describe the dynamic nature of a system.
Now, we will look into the practical scenarios where these diagrams are used. To understand the practical
application, we need to understand the basic nature of sequence and collaboration diagram.

The main purpose of both the diagrams are similar as they are used to capture the dynamic behavior of a
system. However, the specific purpose is more important to clarify and understand.

Sequence diagrams are used to capture the order of messages flowing from one object to another.
Collaboration diagrams are used to describe the structural organization of the objects taking part in the
interaction. A single diagram is not sufficient to describe the dynamic aspect of an entire system, so a set of
diagrams are used to capture it as a whole.

Interaction diagrams are used when we want to understand the message flow and the structural organization.
Message flow means the sequence of control flow from one object to another. Structural organization means
the visual organization of the elements in a system.

Interaction diagrams can be used −

 To model the flow of control by time sequence.

 To model the flow of control by structural organizations.
 For forward engineering.
 For reverse engineering.
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UML - Statechart Diagrams

The name of the diagram itself clarifies the purpose of the diagram and other details. It describes different
states of a component in a system. The states are specific to a component/object of a system.

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A Statechart diagram describes a state machine. State machine can be defined as a machine which defines
different states of an object and these states are controlled by external or internal events.

Activity diagram explained in the next chapter, is a special kind of a Statechart diagram. As Statechart
diagram defines the states, it is used to model the lifetime of an object.

Purpose of Statechart Diagrams

Statechart diagram is one of the five UML diagrams used to model the dynamic nature of a system. They
define different states of an object during its lifetime and these states are changed by events. Statechart
diagrams are useful to model the reactive systems. Reactive systems can be defined as a system that responds
to external or internal events.

Statechart diagram describes the flow of control from one state to another state. States are defined as a
condition in which an object exists and it changes when some event is triggered. The most important purpose
of Statechart diagram is to model lifetime of an object from creation to termination.

Statechart diagrams are also used for forward and reverse engineering of a system. However, the main
purpose is to model the reactive system.

Following are the main purposes of using Statechart diagrams −

 To model the dynamic aspect of a system.

 To model the life time of a reactive system.
 To describe different states of an object during its life time.
 Define a state machine to model the states of an object.

How to Draw a Statechart Diagram?

Statechart diagram is used to describe the states of different objects in its life cycle. Emphasis is placed on the
state changes upon some internal or external events. These states of objects are important to analyze and
implement them accurately.

Statechart diagrams are very important for describing the states. States can be identified as the condition of
objects when a particular event occurs.

Before drawing a Statechart diagram we should clarify the following points −

 Identify the important objects to be analyzed.

 Identify the states.
 Identify the events.

Following is an example of a Statechart diagram where the state of Order object is analyzed

The first state is an idle state from where the process starts. The next states are arrived for events like send
request, confirm request, and dispatch order. These events are responsible for the state changes of order
object.

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During the life cycle of an object (here order object) it goes through the following states and there may be
some abnormal exits. This abnormal exit may occur due to some problem in the system. When the entire life
cycle is complete, it is considered as a complete transaction as shown in the following figure. The initial and
final state of an object is also shown in the following figure.

Where to Use Statechart Diagrams?

From the above discussion, we can define the practical applications of a Statechart diagram. Statechart
diagrams are used to model the dynamic aspect of a system like other four diagrams discussed in this tutorial.
However, it has some distinguishing characteristics for modeling the dynamic nature.

Statechart diagram defines the states of a component and these state changes are dynamic in nature. Its
specific purpose is to define the state changes triggered by events. Events are internal or external factors
influencing the system.

Statechart diagrams are used to model the states and also the events operating on the system. When
implementing a system, it is very important to clarify different states of an object during its life time and
Statechart diagrams are used for this purpose. When these states and events are identified, they are used to
model it and these models are used during the implementation of the system.

If we look into the practical implementation of Statechart diagram, then it is mainly used to analyze the object
states influenced by events. This analysis is helpful to understand the system behavior during its execution.

The main usage can be described as −

 To model the object states of a system.

 To model the reactive system. Reactive system consists of reactive objects.

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  To identify the events responsible for state changes.
 Forward and reverse engineering.
UML - Activity Diagrams

Activity diagram is another important diagram in UML to describe the dynamic aspects of the system.

Activity diagram is basically a flowchart to represent the flow from one activity to another activity. The
activity can be described as an operation of the system.

The control flow is drawn from one operation to another. This flow can be sequential, branched, or
concurrent. Activity diagrams deal with all type of flow control by using different elements such as fork, join,
etc

Purpose of Activity Diagrams

The basic purposes of activity diagrams is similar to other four diagrams. It captures the dynamic behavior of
the system. Other four diagrams are used to show the message flow from one object to another but activity
diagram is used to show message flow from one activity to another.

Activity is a particular operation of the system. Activity diagrams are not only used for visualizing the
dynamic nature of a system, but they are also used to construct the executable system by using forward and
reverse engineering techniques. The only missing thing in the activity diagram is the message part.

It does not show any message flow from one activity to another. Activity diagram is sometimes considered as
the flowchart. Although the diagrams look like a flowchart, they are not. It shows different flows such as
parallel, branched, concurrent, and single.

The purpose of an activity diagram can be described as −

 Draw the activity flow of a system.

 Describe the sequence from one activity to another.
 Describe the parallel, branched and concurrent flow of the system.

How to Draw an Activity Diagram?

Activity diagrams are mainly used as a flowchart that consists of activities performed by the system. Activity
diagrams are not exactly flowcharts as they have some additional capabilities. These additional capabilities
include branching, parallel flow, swimlane, etc.

Before drawing an activity diagram, we must have a clear understanding about the elements used in activity
diagram. The main element of an activity diagram is the activity itself. An activity is a function performed by
the system. After identifying the activities, we need to understand how they are associated with constraints
and conditions.

Before drawing an activity diagram, we should identify the following elements −

 Activities

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  Association
 Conditions
 Constraints

Once the above-mentioned parameters are identified, we need to make a mental layout of the entire flow. This
mental layout is then transformed into an activity diagram.

Following is an example of an activity diagram for order management system. In the diagram, four activities
are identified which are associated with conditions. One important point should be clearly understood that an
activity diagram cannot be exactly matched with the code. The activity diagram is made to understand the
flow of activities and is mainly used by the business users

Following diagram is drawn with the four main activities −

 Send order by the customer

 Receipt of the order
 Confirm the order
 Dispatch the order

After receiving the order request, condition checks are performed to check if it is normal or special order.
After the type of order is identified, dispatch activity is performed and that is marked as the termination of the
process.

Where to Use Activity Diagrams?

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The basic usage of activity diagram is similar to other four UML diagrams. The specific usage is to model the
control flow from one activity to another. This control flow does not include messages.

Activity diagram is suitable for modeling the activity flow of the system. An application can have multiple
systems. Activity diagram also captures these systems and describes the flow from one system to another.
This specific usage is not available in other diagrams. These systems can be database, external queues, or any
other system.

We will now look into the practical applications of the activity diagram. From the above discussion, it is clear
that an activity diagram is drawn from a very high level. So it gives high level view of a system. This high
level view is mainly for business users or any other person who is not a technical person.

This diagram is used to model the activities which are nothing but business requirements. The diagram has
more impact on business understanding rather than on implementation details.

Activity diagram can be used for −

 Modeling work flow by using activities.

 Modeling business requirements.
 High level understanding of the system's functionalities.
 Investigating business requirements at a later stage.
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Tools for creating UML Diagrams
There are several tools available for creating Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams, which are
commonly used in software development to visually represent system architecture, design, and
implementation. Here are some popular UML diagram creating tools:
 Lucidchart: Lucidchart is a web-based diagramming tool that supports UML diagrams. It’s user-friendly
and collaborative, allowing multiple users to work on diagrams in real-time.
 Draw.io: Draw.io is a free, web-based diagramming tool that supports various diagram types, including
UML. It integrates with various cloud storage services and can be used offline.
 Visual Paradigm: Visual Paradigm provides a comprehensive suite of tools for software development,
including UML diagramming. It offers both online and desktop versions and supports a wide range of
UML diagrams.
 StarUML: StarUML is an open-source UML modeling tool with a user-friendly interface. It supports the
standard UML 2.x diagrams and allows users to customize and extend its functionality through plugins.
 Papyrus: Papyrus is an open-source UML modeling tool that is part of the Eclipse Modeling Project. It
provides a customizable environment for creating, editing, and visualizing UML diagrams.
 PlantUML: PlantUML is a text-based tool that allows you to create UML diagrams using a simple and
human-readable syntax. It’s often used in conjunction with other tools and supports a variety of diagram
types

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Forms, Triggers and Reports

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