Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Damping behavior of plant fiber composites: A review

Taiqu Liu ⇑, Pauline Butaud, Vincent Placet, Morvan Ouisse
FEMTO-ST Institute, CNRS/UFC/ENSMM/UTBM, Department of Applied Mechanics, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, F-25000 Besançon, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper reviews the damping characteristics of plant fiber composites (PFCs) with particular attention
Damping regarding their performance with respect to that of synthetic fiber composites (SFCs). Indeed, PFCs have
Loss factor become increasingly popular in many application fields. Their specific characteristics when compared to those
Dynamic mechanical analysis of synthetic fibers, such as glass fibers, make them good candidates to improve the damping behavior of com-
Plant fiber
posite materials and structures. The influences of mesoscale and microscale parameters as well as surrounding
Composites
Energy dissipation
conditions are reviewed in the present paper. Contradictory reports are sometimes found, and the existing
knowledge on the damping behavior of PFCs is sometimes deficient or ambiguous. Some key points, such as
the variability, hierarchical aspects and sensitivity of mechanical properties, are thus discussed. This review
provides a first reference for the factors that affect damping properties in PFCs to be used in engineering appli-
cations in various fields, including automotive parts, aerospace components, and musical instruments. It also
highlights the current shortcomings of knowledge on the damping of PFCs. The Ashby diagram presented here,
built from data available in the literature, constitutes a first tool for selecting materials considering the com-
promise between the loss factor and stiffness for engineering design considerations.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. On the experimental techniques for the characterization of composite damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Quasi-static and low frequency characterization: DMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Low- to mid-frequency characterization: Modal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. High-frequency characterization: Wavenumber-based approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Review of studies on the damping behavior of PFCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Mesoscale parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.1. Reinforcement type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.2. Stacking sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Microscale parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.1. Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.2. Matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2.3. Interface/interphase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2.4. Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Testing and surrounding conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3.1. Testing technique and frequency dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3.2. Environmental conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Limitations of existing PFC damping studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Declaration of competing interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: taiqu.liu@univ-fcomte.fr, taiquliu@foxmail.com (T. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.114392
Received 28 August 2020; Revised 30 June 2021; Accepted 19 July 2021
Available online 22 July 2021
0263-8223/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

1. Introduction based products are difficult to degrade in nature [18]. Plant fibers have
become increasingly considered because of their abundant reserves,
The invention of mechanical equipment accelerated the process of renewability, low cost, quick acquisition and processing, degradabil-
industrial development. Human requirements for machinery were not ity, light weight, relatively high specific modulus, and other advan-
limited to high‐efficiency characteristics but began to place greater tages [3,18–20]. The properties of many plant fibers derived from
value on comfort, performance and safety. Therefore, engineers began hemp, flax, jute, ramie, kenaf, banana, agave, doum palm, pine cone,
to look for different kinds of damping materials to reduce the effects of etc. have been investigated [21–24]. Plant fibers have become a sus-
vibration and noise [1,2]. The use of damping materials improves peo- tainable material of choice in automotive parts, aerospace compo-
ple's living and working conditions and creates quiet and comfortable nents, musical instruments, and other applications. In particular,
surroundings. With the development of the petrochemical industry, oil plant fibers are used in automotive parts in ceilings, coat racks, seat-
sources began to expand from the original fuel to byproducts [3–5]. backs, and instrument panels [25,26]. To date, plant fiber‐reinforced
Resins, asphalt, and rubber began to enter the field of large‐scale composites (PFCs) have been mainly used as a low‐cost and sustain-
industrial applications, especially for reducing vibration [6]. However, able solution to save mass. PFCs can also overcome the mechanical
these materials cannot be used alone due to their low stiffness. In most and physicochemical properties of conventional composite materials
cases, they are used together with wood or metal sheets in sandwich to a certain extent, and they can solve some critical problems that can-
structures to compensate for the shortcomings of the individual com- not be addressed by traditional materials in engineering structures.
ponents. A sandwich structure has characteristics of sound insulation Some of their intrinsic properties, for instance, their natural damping,
and vibration damping properties that cannot be provided by a single can be exploited to implement new and advanced functionalities in
material in addition to enhanced strength properties compared with structures.
those of pure wood board or metal plate [7–10]. With the development Indeed, the literature clearly notes that the loss factor of PFCs is
of high‐strength fibers such as glass fibers and carbon fibers, attempts generally much higher than that of synthetic fiber composites (SFCs).
have been made to mix fibers and polymers in a specific ratio to man- PFCs have loss factors between 0.7% and 14%, while the values typi-
ufacture fiber‐reinforced composites [11]. This type of material has cally range between 0.24% and 2.5% for SFCs. The loss factor and stor-
outstanding performance in terms of specific strength, specific modu- age modulus (or Young’s modulus) values at ambient temperature
lus, fatigue strength, impact resistance, damping and devisable charac- were collected from the literature and plotted in a stiffness‐loss map
teristics compared to that of pure metal materials or polymers [12,13]. as proposed by Lakes et al. [51,63] for different material families
In particular, it is currently desirable to reduce energy consumption by (Fig. 1). Due to their internal structures, metals exhibit high stiffness
using lightweight materials, and the advantages of composite materi- and a low loss factor. In contrast, the chemical composition of poly-
als in this respect have led to a significant trend in their use to replace mers results in low stiffness and a relatively high loss factor. The com-
traditional materials, especially in the fields of aerospace, transporta- bination of components in composite materials is currently the best
tion, wind power, etc. [14–16]. When composite materials began to way to provide compromises between stiffness and loss factor. In this
be of interest, many studies focused on increasing the strength, modu- category, PFCs globally perform better than SFCs in terms of damping.
lus, and crashworthiness of structural components [17]. At present, The sources of energy dissipation in fiber‐reinforced polymer com-
composite materials are also designed to improve the damping perfor- posites are quite well described and documented in the literature
mance of structures while retaining other primary structural functions. [12,64–67]. These sources mainly include (1) the viscoelastic nature
However, the large‐scale application of petroleum‐based com- of the matrix and/or fiber materials, (2) damping due to interphases,
pounds has also brought about some adverse effects. Engineers should and (3) damping due to inelastic and irreversible behaviors such as
now consider the environmental impact at each stage of the life cycle damage and/or plasticity. In contrast, the damping behavior of PFCs,
during the implementation of damping materials since petroleum‐ even if already documented [27,68], has not been fully elucidated.
Furthermore, various effects on damping are observed when plant
fibers are introduced into polymer matrices depending on the polymer
nature, stiffness, textile architecture and yarn lengths [27]. The phy-
sics underlying the particular behavior of PFCs is not yet fully under-
stood and requires additional research efforts. Additionally, the length
scales corresponding to all dissipation mechanisms that may occur in
these multiscale materials can result in damping occurring at various
time (or frequency) scales. Therefore, this paper aims to review the
current knowledge on the damping behavior of PFCs to outline the
needs for future research activities and to evaluate the potential of
composite materials to reach specific levels of damping. Throughout
the paper, the term damping is used to describe the physical mecha-
nisms corresponding to energy dissipation that occurs when materials
are subjected to cyclic deformations, while the term loss factor refers to
the ratio of the energy dissipated per cycle to the maximum strain
energy stored in the material during the cycle, which is widely used
to describe the damping performance of materials and structures.
In this paper, we review the existing studies on the damping behav-
ior of PFCs. The classical experimental techniques used to characterize
the damping behavior of composite materials are first discussed in Sec-
tion 2. Section 3 reviews the studies available in the open literature.
The analysis is performed using different key parameters at the mesos-
Fig. 1. Ashby diagram: loss factor vs. modulus (summarized from refs. cale (including reinforcement type and stacking sequence), at the
[10,27–62]; triangles represent measurements obtained by modal tests in the microscale (fiber, matrix, interface/interphase and porosity) and
first mode (approximately 10–200 Hz) and ambient temperature, and circles related to testing and environmental conditions (moisture and temper-
represent measurements obtained by DMA tests at 1 Hz and ambient ature). Section 4 discusses the current limitations of existing studies.
temperature). Finally, conclusions are given in Section 5.

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

2. On the experimental techniques for the characterization of 2.3. High-frequency characterization: Wavenumber-based approaches
composite damping
Marchetti et al. reviewed several wavenumber‐based approaches
In this section, the most widely used damping characterization used for the characterization of the dynamic properties of composite
techniques, such as dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), modal anal- structures in frequency ranges where modal analysis approaches
yses and wavenumber‐based approaches, are briefly described. become impractical because the increased modal density is too large
[90,91]. The loss factor and storage modulus can be computed from
2.1. Quasi-static and low frequency characterization: DMA the natural wavenumber obtained from high‐frequency analysis.
However, this type of characterization has not been widely applied
One of the most widely used nonresonance techniques for damping for PFCs at this time, so this frequency range is not addressed in this
characterization is DMA. It is usually used to characterize viscoelastic review paper. The works by Zhang et al. and Duval et al. represent first
materials with low stiffness, such as polymers or organic composite studies that remain to be completed in future research by the collec-
materials, and is widely used for the rheological analysis of polymers tion of additional data related to the damping properties of PFCs at
and elastomers, especially in the fields of chemistry and materials high frequencies [48,92].
science [69]. In particular, the glass transition temperature can be
identified through temperature sweep curves at different frequencies. 3. Review of studies on the damping behavior of PFCs
The storage modulus (E’), loss modulus (E’’) and loss factor (tan δ)
are usually identified from DMA tests to describe the viscoelastic prop- 3.1. Mesoscale parameters
erties of materials at various temperatures [28,33,69–72]. The temper-
ature range of interest is generally investigated either through This section discusses the effects of mesoscale parameters (features
temperature ramps or temperature steps. In the latter case, isothermal of laminates) on damping given the issues of reinforcement architec-
conditions are often used with a stable‐temperature stage of several ture and stacking sequence.
minutes to ensure that the sample has reached a homogeneous temper-
ature distribution [70,71,73]. The harmonic excitation is usually set 3.1.1. Reinforcement type
between 0.01 Hz and 100 Hz in most existing studies since the DMA Plant fibers can be processed into many kinds of reinforcements,
apparatus always exhibits mechanical resonances in the higher fre- such as short fibers, nonwoven fabrics, noncrimp fabrics, and woven
quency range that affect the measurement [34,74–76]. Another essen- fabrics. This variety of applications leads to composite mesostructures
tial factor that needs to be considered in DMA is the ratio of the with significant differences. This section summarizes the effects of dif-
stiffness of the sample to that of the apparatus: the stiffness of the sam- ferent kinds of reinforcement on damping performance.
ple should be much smaller than the stiffness of the system to obtain Regarding short fiber composites, Senthil Kumar et al. [93] inves-
accurate test results, especially for the storage modulus [70]. Further- tigated the influence of fiber length and weight percentage on the free
more, the deformation of the sample should be kept in the linear vis- vibration characteristics. Their study concerned banana fiber and sisal
coelastic range to meet the theoretical requirements [69]. Despite fiber polyester composites. The results show that the fiber content
these limitations in terms of frequency, DMA remains a popular tech- influences the free vibration behavior more than the fiber length does.
nique for the characterization of damping, in particular because the This result is attributed to the shear behavior at the fiber ends. The
time–temperature superposition (TTS) principle, which is verified for authors also claim that the damping of banana fiber is higher than that
a large set of polymers and composites, can be used to estimate damp- of sisal fiber owing to the smaller diameter of banana fiber and poten-
ing and stiffness properties in the higher frequency range [69,70]. tial for a thicker interface, as reported by Bledzki et al. [94].
Sreenivasan et al. reported that the dynamic characteristics of San-
2.2. Low- to mid-frequency characterization: Modal analysis sevieria cylindrica fiber‐reinforced polyester matrix composites are sig-
nificantly influenced by increases in fiber length and fiber loading but
Modal analysis is another common method for damping identifica- not by geometric progression [35]. In contrast, the loss factor of short
tion. The natural frequencies, damping ratios, and modal shapes of SFCs is higher than that of long fiber composites because long fibers
composite structures are estimated at certain resonances by using an limit the movement of polymer molecules [95–97]. The fiber–matrix
external excitation source within a specific frequency range interface is considered a significant source of energy dissipation of dis-
[10,77,78]. These methods are efficient for frequency ranges from continuous SFCs since short fibers increase the number of fiber ends
the first eigenfrequency of the structure to mid‐frequency range, which and fiber–matrix interfaces [95]. However, comparisons of discontinu-
is typically reached when the −3 dB bandwidths of subsequent modes ous, short and long PFCs under the same conditions have been rarely
are superimposed on one another; hence, the results depend not only reported.
on the materials but also on the geometry and the boundary condi- When woven reinforcements are considered, most authors report a
tions. Several excitation signals and boundary conditions can be used reduction in damping level compared to unidirectional reinforcements
for resonance testing. Techniques for damping measurement using the (UD) in transverse direction such as tapes [27,47,98–100]. Among the
logarithmic decrement method (LDM) for free vibrations of beams different weave patterns investigated, the loss factor in huckaback‐
have been reported [60,78–82]. The test configuration is important; type woven composites is higher than that of plain, satin, twill, and
several aspects are discussed in the literature, such as the location of basket woven composites because the performance depends on the
the excitation, boundary conditions, accelerometer adhesion, and mea- interlacement between the warp and weft directions, which increases
surement interference[70,77,78,83,84]. Specific techniques for com- the interactions between the fiber and matrix [101]. Additionally,
posite structures have been proposed for beams on complex shapes twisted yarns generally induce a decrease in Young’s modulus because
[85–88]. of the induced crimp but increase the damping through enhanced
Since there is usually no heating or cooling device used in modal interyarn friction [102].
analysis tests, the samples are sometimes placed in a constant‐ However, the existing reports have not found any significant effect
temperature oven to maintain the required test temperature [7,89]. of long fibers on damping compared to the effects of short fibers and
However, such a setup cannot generally be used to reach high temper- continuous reinforcements [32,48]. Further research efforts focused
atures because most instruments cannot tolerate excessive on comparing the effects of these three types of reinforcement on
temperatures. damping performance are still required.

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

Fig. 2. (a) Young’s modulus and (b) loss factor of UD fiber-reinforced epoxy composites in the longitudinal direction (measured by DMA tests at 1 Hz and ambient
temperature), summarized from refs. [27,31,33]

3.1.2. Stacking sequence for carbon fibers is approximately 25 times greater, that of glass fibers
The effect on damping of different stacking sequences using some is 8 times greater and that of flax fibers is at least 5 times greater.
common arrangements, such as 0°, 45°, and 90°, has been investigated It can also be observed that the fiber type has a significant effect on
by several authors. Regarding symmetric layups, composites often the damping properties (the fiber volume fraction can also be a factor,
show a lower damping level in the longitudinal direction at 90° in but most authors do not directly address this factor). The addition of
the outer layer and the highest damping level at 0° in the outer layer synthetic fibers into epoxy induces a decrease in damping in the longi-
[103]. The authors indicate that this pattern is related to the flexural tudinal direction. The results in Fig. 2 (b) indicate a decrease in damp-
properties of the composite structure. In particular, the shear effect ing of approximately 40% and 20% for carbon fibers and glass fibers,
is found to enhance resistance to fiber mobility and increase the effec- respectively, compared with that of neat epoxy. This result is attribu-
tive load transfer between the fiber and matrix [104]. ted to stress transfer from the matrix to the fibers and to the fact that
Stacking sequences with long UD fibers and randomly oriented the presence of stiff fibers limits the chain mobility in the matrix,
short fibers have also been studied. The results show that the stacking which implies that the friction of the intermolecular chain is reduced
sequence does not influence the dynamic mechanical properties (in- [49,108,109]. Conversely, the addition of plant fibers increases damp-
cluding storage modulus and loss factor) of the studied PFCs in the lon- ing. Damping is approximately 70% higher with flax fibers, as shown
gitudinal direction [105]. in Fig. 2 (b). This increase is attributed to the friction at the interface
Research on hybrid fibers (flax and E‐glass fiber woven fabric) but may also be due to the intrinsic damping capacity of the fibers
shows that the best damping performance is obtained in the longitudi- themselves [27,68,102]. However, damping is also sometimes
nal direction when flax fibers are distributed in the outer layer [47]. Y. reported to decrease in flax/epoxy composites [50] compared with
Li et al. found that the damping properties in hybrid composites (flax that of pure epoxy [27], but this comparison may ignore the impact
and carbon fiber) are greatly influenced by the position of the flax fiber of different test methods. Fig. 2 also shows that the loss factor obtained
layers, which are supposed to dissipate more energy than those with with flax fibers is higher than that obtained with sisal. More tests
synthetic fibers in fiber direction [45]. Contradictory results have also including a large variety of fibers in the form of continuous UD rein-
been reported in the latest literature [106] for hybrid composites made forcement and with the same matrix and similar volume fractions
of basalt and flax woven fabrics (0/90 orientation). The authors are recommended to better evaluate the influence of fiber type on
observed that the maximum damping is obtained when basalt is in the damping of composites.
the outer layer [106,107]. It was shown by Hadiji et al. that nonwoven composites reinforced
by plant fibers present higher loss factors than glass‐based composites
3.2. Microscale parameters [149]. The loss factors of polypropylene composites based on nonwo-
ven hemp, flax and kenaf reinforcements are 2 to 25 times higher than
This section discusses the effect of microscale parameters, such as those of glass‐polypropylene (PP) composites. Among the tested plant
fiber type, fiber orientation, fiber volume fraction and microstructure, fibers, higher damping is obtained with hemp and flax.
on damping. Moreover, fiber treatment methods, the interface Some authors also show that the incorporation of ramie fiber into
between fiber and matrix, and porosity are also discussed. epoxy tends to increase damping due to weak adhesion, which indi-
cates low interfacial shear stress [28]. Another reason that may explain
3.2.1. Fiber the diverse damping results with these plant fibers is the difference in
3.2.1.1. Fiber type. This section summarizes the damping characteris- the inherent morphology of the fiber surfaces [93].
tics of composites with different types of fibers. The damping performance of hybrid PFCs has also been reported.
Fig. 2 presents a summary of loss factor and Young’s modulus val- The results show that hybrid PFCs with banana/coconut sheath or
ues collected from the literature for epoxy matrices with different UD kenaf/bamboo possess higher loss factors than single fiber composites
reinforcements made from different types of plant and synthetic fibers. [112]. Hybrid fibers combine the advantages of their components and
The presented results were collected using DMA tests at 1 Hz and achieve superior performance that cannot be obtained from only one
ambient temperature. type of component; authors also claim that damping values are higher
As expected, the Young’s modulus of the composites in the longitu- for all hybrid composites, possibly due to greater energy dissipation
dinal direction is significantly higher than that of neat epoxy. The stiff- and restricted molecular mobility at the interface [113–115].
ening factor varies as a function of fiber type. Among the results in
Fig. 2 (a), compared with the stiffening factor of pure epoxy, the value

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

3.2.1.2. Fiber microstructure. Plant fibers differ from conventional Different chemical reaction times result in little difference in the
fibers in terms of composition and microstructure. Indeed, plant fibers height of the loss factor peak [32]. Some authors claim that a reduc-
often have unique microstructures and morphologies, notably different tion in the amplitude of loss factor peaks means a well‐combined load
cell wall layers and a complex cross‐sectional area that varies along the capacity due to good stress transfer at the interface [30,37]. Silane‐
fiber length [111,116–119]. In addition to this complex morphology, treated fiber composites lead to better fiber/matrix interactions than
plant fibers have a polymer‐based composition and a very hierarchical other treatments [145,146]. Alkali‐ and silane‐treated surfaces are
organization with different layers and sublayers made of a mixture of rough and are formed by the elimination of lignin and hemicellulose
carbohydrates and polyphenols [120,121]. This structure imparts vis- compounds. A rough surface enhances fiber/matrix adhesion and
coelastic properties [122–126]. These particularities also lead to speci- increases both the glass transition temperature and loss factor in the
fic static and fatigue behaviors that have been widely studied in the glassy state [145,147]. This effect can also be explained by the combi-
literature, including nonlinearity [127,128], stiffening effects [129] nation of the shear stress concentration at the fiber end and the addi-
and moisture activation of some mechanisms [130–132]. tional viscoelastic energy dissipated in the matrix material
The fiber microstructure could also be the origin of specific energy [146,148,149].
dissipation mechanisms and damping behavior. Few studies have Yadav & Gupta found that fiber coating (polylactic acid
investigated the damping behavior of plant fibers [133–136], and (PLA) + chloroform) followed by chemical treatment can improve
unfortunately, the influence of the fiber microstructure on the damp- damping at ambient temperature and could also be considered a prac-
ing of PFCs themselves has not been studied thus far. tical approach to improve the performance of composite materials for
PFCs are made of single individual fibers but also bundles of fibers. advanced applications [150].
Friction at the interface between individual fibers within the fiber bun- In general, the effect of treatment on composite damping is based
dle and internal friction within the fiber wall (between the heteroge- on changes in the fiber/matrix interface. The quality of the interface
neous polymers constituting the wall and particularly between the determines the change in damping, but some conflicting conclusions
rigid cellulose microfibrils and the amorphous polymers in which they remain.
are embedded) [27,68,102] are also potential sources of damping.
Additionally, plant fibers have a finite length, in contrast to synthetic 3.2.1.4. Fiber volume fraction. PFCs with a single type of reinforcement
fibers. The effect of such discontinuities, even under continuous rein- in the form of short fibers have been studied to investigate the influ-
forcement conditions, on the damping behavior of PFCs is unclear and ence of the fiber volume fraction on damping properties. Sathishkumar
deserves to be investigated in the future. et al. showed that damping, measured using the free vibration tech-
nique, increases with fiber content (up to 50 wt%) for sisal but
3.2.1.3. Treatment methods. Several investigations on the effect of pre- decreases with fiber content for banana fiber composites [93]. This
treating plant fibers to achieve better mechanical performance in PFCs result is attributed to the difference in the inherent morphology of
have been reported. This section summarizes the relevant treatment the fiber surface [93]. Etaati et al. also investigated the influence of
methods and their effects on composite damping; the considered meth- the fiber volume fraction on the damping behavior of short hemp
ods include functionalization using nanotubes and chemical treatment, fiber‐reinforced polypropylene composites [42]. They reported that
which may change the interface state. the composite with 30 wt% noil hemp fiber showed the highest damp-
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been proposed to enhance the ing capacity among all investigated composites for fiber volume frac-
damping properties of PFCs and SFCs [137]. Damping is further tions between 0 and 60%. Tajvidi et al. indicated that the presence
enhanced by the stick–slip action of CNTs that takes place at the CNT/- of a higher fiber content can considerably reduce damping, indicating
matrix interface. In addition, the penetrated CNTs interact with that composite materials are more elastic at higher fiber contents
microfibrils in the S2 cell wall of plant fibers, leading to effective stress [151]. The interface area increases with the number of incorporated
transfer from the matrix to the microfibrils, which contributes to fibers, which leads to stronger interactions. Therefore, the molecular
energy dissipation and enhanced damping properties [45]. In contrast, mobility of the polymer decreases, and the mechanical loss that over-
some authors claim that the presence of stiff fibers limits the chain comes intermolecular chain friction is reduced [152]. As previously
mobility in the matrix, which implies that the friction of the inter- mentioned, other reports show that the dynamic characteristics are
molecular chain is reduced [49,108,109]. significantly influenced by increases in fiber length and fiber loading
Other studies have reported the effect of microfibers. The addition by changes in interface but not in a geometric progression, as in the
of macro/microfibers decreases the damping characteristics of PFCs case for S. cylindrica fiber‐reinforced polyester matrix composites [35].
and increases the storage modulus, as the added fibers act as barriers Among nonwoven composites, the loss factor of flax/PP composites
to the free movement of the macromolecular chains. In contrast, decreases by approximately 20% when increasing the flax weight ratio
unfilled matrices have the highest damping ratio, indicating a signifi- from 30 to 70%. This decrease is attributed to the superior contribu-
cant degree of mobility [138]. tion of PP to damping [110].
The above results demonstrate that the improved interactions Increasing the fraction of synthetic fibers in hybrid fiber composites
derived from chemical treatment makes PFCs and SFCs more compat- (flax and carbon fiber) reduces damping [58], but there are also
ible and causes them to have better adhesion than untreated fiber com- reports of increased damping [153], without a clear physical explana-
posites [139,140]. Moreover, some authors claim that a high‐quality tion of this observation.
interface tends to lower energy dissipation, resulting in a lower damp- In summary, the literature often presents conflicting conclusions on
ing peak value [141,142]. The effects of chemical treatments such as the impact of fiber content on damping considering the different types
acid, alkali, ethanol, and silane agents have been studied. Chemical of fibers used and their architecture. Therefore, dedicated experimen-
modifications cause hemicellulose removal, which increases the num- tal studies and modeling approaches need to be established in future
ber of hydrogen bonds between the modified fibers and the matrix research to explain these inconsistent conclusions.
[143]. Alkali and potassium permanganate treatment of PFCs leads
to higher damping than that described in earlier reports [41,144]. 3.2.1.5. Fiber orientation. Different fiber orientations can be used dur-
The authors explain that the damping characteristics of heterogeneous ing the design of composite laminates and structures. The damping
systems are not only based on interfacial bonding but also depend on performance of PFCs with different fiber orientations has been studied
different parameters, such as changes in interfacial thickness, fiber in recent decades.
bending, broken fibers, matrix cracking and the formation of cavities The loss factor of flax/GreenPoxy 56 (GP56) composites was tested
due to fiber pullout [47]. from 0° to 90° fiber orientation using a modal method [154]. The

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

and stress fields in the sample. Moreover, the identified properties cor-
respond to coupled information between the material properties corre-
sponding to the principal directions. For this reason, it may be
preferable to focus only on the principal directions when using
DMA‐like tests or to use free‐free vibration tests that are not affected
by out‐of‐axis boundary conditions. Additionally, purely UD panels
are rarely used in practical applications where cross‐ply composites
are preferred, whose properties can be identified from longitudinal
and tangential data.

3.2.2. Matrix
This section summarizes some research results on the dynamic
mechanical properties of conventional polymers and their PFCs.
Fig. 4 summarizes some dynamic mechanical properties of pure
Fig. 3. Variation in the loss factor as a function of fiber orientation in UD matrices that are widely used in industrial production. Thermoset
composites in the longitudinal direction using modal tests: (a) flax/GP56 [38], polymers, such as epoxy, are the most widely used matrix for PFCs
(b) flax/PP [155], (c) flax/epoxy [60], and (d) glass/epoxy [156] and SFCs due to the excellent adhesion of resin and the long lifecycle.
However, thermoset polymers tend to be more brittle and less tough
than thermoplastics [1]. The reason is that high loss factor values
results show that the loss factor decreases as the frequency increases. are associated with ease of movement of side chains, functional
This result is attributed to the high internal friction between cellulose groups, segments, pendant groups, and even entire molecules in the
and hemicellulose caused by the flax fiber microstructure, especially at polymer. Moreover, the loss factor is reduced by the presence of neg-
low frequency [27,50,59,154]. A maximum loss factor is always found atively charged atoms (such as oxygen and nitrogen) in the molecules,
at 70°−75° fiber orientation for different frequencies. which reduces the motion of hydrogen bonding [160]. This phe-
In other reports, the loss factor was found to first increase and then nomenon is also interpreted as a mechanism for damping in polymer
decrease with increasing fiber angle in flax fiber‐reinforced PP [155]. blends provided by networks and interfaces [161]. Although thermo-
Some authors show that the maximum loss factor is obtained at plastic polymers exhibit higher energy dissipation than thermosets,
approximately 45° fiber orientation, which is similar to glass fiber thermosets are often preferred due to their higher stiffness and better
composites and carbon fiber composites [156–158]. This phenomenon adhesion properties [1,162].
is attributed to the in‐plane shear strain energy of fiber‐reinforced Results for materials with particle addition have also been
composites, which is the maximum at this fiber orientation [109]. reported. A mixture of agar particles restricts the mobility of the
However, the global trend is that the loss factor for a fiber orientation chains, which reduces the sharpness and the maximum value of the
at 90° is higher than that at 0°, as shown in Fig. 3, in which (a) and (b) loss factor. The viscosity is substantially enhanced by fillers at a low
are measured at approximately 500 Hz, (c) is obtained at approxi- shear rate, and in this case, the rheological behavior is utterly depen-
mately 300–400 Hz and (d) is measured at approximately 300 Hz. dent on the composition of the polymer in the interfacial region [57].
Unlike UD PFCs, the loss factor varies slightly from the longitudinal It has also been reported that the incorporation of solid fillers into the
direction (0°) to the cross direction (90°) in nonwoven PFCs [110]. polymer matrix could increase or decrease the damping of the poly-
Indeed, the anisotropy level is less pronounced in nonwoven PFCs than mer, depending on the quality of fiber–matrix bonding
in UD composites. [32,76,163,164]. Additionally, the damping factor decreases with
It should be emphasized that testing UD composites at angles other increasing biofiller content because the rigid particles restrain the
than the longitudinal and tangential directions requires close attention mobility of the polymer molecules, raise the storage modulus, and
to the experimental setup to guarantee the homogeneity of the strain reduce the loss factor [165].

Fig. 4. Loss factor and storage modulus of different polymers at 1 Hz and ambient temperature, summarized from [27,28,36,39,61,71,159] (Polylactic acid 2, 4
(PLA 2, 4), Polypropylene (PP), Polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT), Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)).

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

Fig. 5. Young’s modulus (a) and loss factor (b) of flax composites in the longitudinal direction and of the pure matrix, measured by DMA at 1 Hz and ambient
temperature (summarized from ref. [27]).

The Young’s modulus and loss factor of the more widespread ther- It was previously reported that the incorporation of stiff fibers
moset (epoxy), thermoplastic (polylactic acid 4 (PLA 4), and affects the damping behavior of matrices by changing the movement
polypropylene (PP)) polymers used for flax composites are reported of polymer chains [96,167–169]. In certain thermoset systems, the
in Fig. 5 [27] for both pure resin and UD flax composites. Although proximity of stiff fibers and the preferential adsorption and/or absorp-
the reinforcement is the same, their global damping is quite different. tion of diffusible constituents, in particular low‐molecular‐weight
The addition of plant fiber to epoxy, PLA4, and PP results in a dis- curatives, on the fiber surface or in the fiber wall may impose a rela-
tinctly different trend in loss factor but a total increase in modulus. tively high crosslink density, locally decreasing the damping behavior
This effect occurs because of the interactions between the fiber and of the resin. This configuration may also lead to some softening of the
matrix and aspects discussed in the following section. These trends matrix in the zone next to the interface because of the depletion of the
could also depend on the contribution of the internal friction in the curative [167]. This effect is particularly possible with plant fibers,
fibers to the overall damping response [27]. which have a certain affinity and/or absorption ability with curatives.
Plant fiber reinforcements are also generally composed of yarns of ele-
3.2.3. Interface/interphase mentary fibers. The friction mechanisms between fibers (intra‐yarn
As mentioned above, interfaces play a critical role in the damping friction) and the friction between the yarns (inter‐yarn friction) can
properties of composites. The properties of interfaces depend not only increase the intrinsic damping with respect to that obtained with syn-
on the manufacturing process but also on treatment, which was dis- thetic fibers [27].
cussed in the fiber treatment section, as shown in Fig. 6. This section Some studies show that the loss factor and stiffness of interleaf
focuses on the original interface. films play an essential role in the loss factor of interleaved laminates
It has been reported that a composite with weak interface bonding at test temperatures [170].
tends to dissipate more energy than one with good interface bonding
[49,166]. However, other reports show that increased damping can 3.2.4. Porosity
often be obtained by improving fiber/matrix adhesion, which may Porosity is inevitable during the manufacturing of composite mate-
activate damping phenomena such as intracell wall friction between rials, particularly when using plant fibers. However, the influence of
cellulose microfibrils and the hemicellulose/lignin matrix in each cell porosity on the damping behavior of PFCs is poorly discussed in the
wall and intercell wall friction between cell walls [102]. literature. A report on hybrid fiber composites (SFCs + PFCs)
In most cases, higher resin contents for most organic‐based com- describes the effect of the existence of voids on damping characteris-
posites should lead to higher damping due to the viscoelastic proper- tics. Damping is found to be not sensitive to the void content. This
ties of resin. However, in some cases, a reduction in the matrix result might be due to the small void content in the samples and there-
fraction increases damping. This effect is due to the interface thickness fore small contribution [47]. Regarding nonwoven PP composites, a
and interface stiffness, which also play essential roles in damping recent study by Hadiji et al based on modal analysis shows that the loss
mechanisms [12]. factor increases by 108.7% when the porosity changes from 9 to 64%

Fig. 6. Parameters related to the interface properties.

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

[110]. This result is attributed to poor adhesion between the fiber and 3.3.2.1. Moisture. The environment in which PFC materials are ser-
matrix, leading to more energy dissipation [110,171]. viced is sometimes harsh, and in most cases, the environment exhibits
Additional research on this topic regarding different types of PFCs, changes in moisture content.
such as woven patterns and matrices (thermosets or thermoplastics), is Plant fibers are sensitive to moisture and temperature due to the
necessary since not enough conclusions have been reached at this hydrophilicity of some of their wall constituents and to their hollow
time. morphology [175–178]. Therefore, the hygroscopic properties and
effects of such fibers need to be studied if PFC materials are to be used
3.3. Testing and surrounding conditions in engineering fields. Many factors affect the water absorption charac-
teristics of PFCs. External factors such as temperature, manufacturing
3.3.1. Testing technique and frequency dependence features such as the fiber fraction, fiber orientation, size and percent-
The testing techniques used may have an influence on the deter- age of voids, and interface factors such as the exposed area, surface
mined loss factor values [89]. Therefore, the damping results from treatment, component hydrophilicity, and bonding quality of
DMA tests and modal analysis tests have been compared in some stud- fiber–matrix interfaces have been proven to be critical influencing fac-
ies [60,70,89]. Regarding PFCs, Rueppel et al. describe damping mea- tors [179–181].
surement tests with three different strategies: DMA, LDM and vibration Generally, the absorption of water in PFCs is started by water enter-
beam measurements (VBM) [60]. The values obtained from DMA and ing the plant fiber through capillary transport. Materials with microc-
VBM differ significantly, which is attributed to air resistance effects, as rack defects also accelerate the diffusion of water. Plant fibers absorb
the amplitude of vibration is larger during VBM [60,172]. LDM pro- water and cause the fibers to swell, leading to microcracks in the
vides nonlinear decay for a material, and the authors recommend care- fiber–matrix interface area [182,183]. Moreover, this diffusion is
fully considering the initial parts of the displacement curve during enhanced by the aging of the material itself [181], which causes the
tests, especially for highly damping materials. It is thus essential to deformation and mechanical properties of PFCs to decline
take into account the experimental techniques used when comparing [184,185]. Many studies have shown that good interfacial properties
the damping properties of different materials. between the fiber reinforcement and matrix or better moisture absorp-
The damping properties may vary as the frequency changes. The tion resistance can reduce the effect of moisture absorption on plant
loss factor of UD or twill flax fabric‐reinforced epoxy composites shows fibers [184].
a decreasing trend for low frequencies (<500 Hz) and then stabilizes Damping generally increases with increasing relative humidity in
at higher frequencies (500–2000 Hz) [38,59,154,173]. Assarar and PFCs at the expense of Young's modulus. The damping of wood fiber
Daoud explained that the vibration behavior at low frequencies results composites is more sensitive to relative humidity than is Young's mod-
from the internal friction between cellulose and hemicellulose in plant ulus and changes by 26% to −13% under dry to humid conditions,
fibers, and this kind of friction is more pronounced at low frequencies respectively, as shown in Fig. 7 (a) [186]. Berges et al. indicated a
[27,38,59]. However, UD flax‐reinforced polypropylene or epoxy com- 50% increase in damping ratio after water vapor saturation of flax-
posites exhibit a slight increasing trend at low frequencies (<1000 Hz) tape/epoxy composites [188]. Reports on SFCs are also available,
[50,155,174]. In addition, the damping properties of UD flax/PA11 but the effect of relative humidity on stiffness is not significant
composites were obtained over a large frequency range [130,131]. In addition, the matrix of a composite material usually
(2000–10000 Hz), and it was difficult to derive a trend due to the cou- exhibits plasticization and swelling when exposed to moisture. Damp-
pling of plate vibration with aerodynamic phenomena [43]. Therefore, ing is very sensitive to changes in the stiffness of the outer layer due to
an experimental technique that can eliminate the influence of air and the plasticization of macromolecular networks, which exacerbates
show the contribution of each component (fiber, matrix and interface) energy dissipation [189]. In addition, the moisture present in the areas
to damping properties as a function of frequency should be developed at the interfaces increases friction losses [131].
in the future. Not only are PFCs more affected than SFCs by the matrix in the
presence of wet environments, but the changes in fiber molecules also
3.3.2. Environmental conditions need to be understood. Dynamic Fourier transform infrared spec-
Researchers have also paid attention to the influence of some exter- troscopy (FT‐IR) can be used since traditional macromechanical tests
nal factors in addition to the inherent factors of PFC components. In cannot provide information about the stress transfer between the fiber
this section, the effects of the external environment, such as water and the matrix [190]. As moisture is transported from the plant fibers
aging or moisture content, temperature and various coupling condi- to the interface between the fiber and matrix, the ability to transfer
tions, are summarized. stress between the fibers and the matrix is reduced [190]. The matrix

Fig. 7. Young’s modulus and loss factor of (a) a wood fiber composite and (b) different kinds of composites based on DMA tests at 1 Hz and ambient temperature
with respect to relative humidity and water absorption (summarized from ref. [173,186,187]).

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

Table 1
Main features at the mesoscale and microscale and surrounding condition parameters.

Parameters Damping source Reference

Mesoscale parameters
Fiber length Ratio of fiber length to diameter, surface contact area [93–97]
Weave pattern Interlace between the warp and weft directions [27,47,98–102]
Stacking sequence Shear effect, effective load transfer [45,104,106,107]
Microscale parameters
Fiber type Stress transfer, intrinsic damping capacity of plant fibers [49,108,109,27,68,102]
Fiber orientation In-plane shear strain energy [109]
Fiber volume fraction Increased interface or restricted mobility of the matrix [93,152]
Treatment Stress transfer, quality of interface [45,141,142]
Matrix Molecular structure, interactions at interfaces [27,160,161]
Interface Fiber/matrix adhesion [49,166]
Porosity Not enough studies on porosity –
Surrounding conditions
Moisture effect Friction losses caused by interface damage [131,145,182,183]
Temperature Internal movement of molecule chains, changes in the microstructure of the plant fibers [95,197]

bears a greater load, and the in‐phase contribution of the matrix free volume and space of internal molecular movement increase when
increases relative to that of cellulose [190]. The energy dissipation is the temperature rises, which causes the storage modulus and loss mod-
related to the strain energy of the fiber, and the friction between the ulus to decrease. An ideal damping material should have a wider tran-
different components increases with water absorption [132]. sition region and higher loss factor peaks. However, the stiffness of the
The effect of fiber orientation changes has also been studied in UD matrix of composite materials decreases significantly in the transition
composites. The sensitivity of damping in different fiber orientations zone, which requires engineers to find a suitable compromise between
to moisture decreases gradually from 0° and 90° to 45° [173]. PFC lam- stiffness and damping.
inates with 90° outer layers are profoundly affected by moisture, Damping performance is strongly related to the glass transition tem-
resulting in a more sensitive effect on damping [131]. Therefore, this perature (Tg). The incorporation of plant fibers into the matrix generally
situation should be avoided in the design of composite materials if the induces a shift in Tg toward higher temperatures and a reduction in the
materials are intended to be used in high‐humidity environments. loss factor peak due to the restriction of matrix chain movements. This
However, another reason explaining the effect of stacking sequences relationship suggests an increase in the stiffness of the fiber–matrix inter-
is that different fiber orientations undergo a different amount of water facial zone; however, contradictory effects have sometimes been
absorption before the specimen reaches saturation, which is not taken observed [32,36,37,194–196]. The effect strongly depends on the matrix
into account when discussing the effect on damping. Similar research type, the affinity of the matrix with the plant fiber and the resulting stiff-
has also been reported for SFCs [131]. In the referenced work, a dehy- ness properties at the interface between fiber and matrix.
drated flax composite specimen after water absorption is compared Some results have reported the damping properties of flax/epoxy
with the original specimen. Although a 15% decrease in the bending composites during thermal shock cycling conditions from −40 ℃ to
modulus is observed, the author claims that the damping performance 28 ℃ [197]. The maximum observed decrease in the loss factor is
is reversible because the damping in PFCs is mainly driven by the 8%. In addition, the storage modulus is reduced by approximately
water content in the fiber and by fiber friction. The effects of cracks 50%, and the dynamic mechanical properties reach an equilibrium
and interface failures are found to be negligible [173]. Several authors state due to microdamage saturation after 100 thermal shock cycles.
claim that this behavior appears to be unrecoverable in glass fiber‐ The glass transition temperature (Tg) is not affected by the thermal
reinforced polymer composites because the damping of SFCs is mainly shock cycling conditions.
determined by the damping of the matrix and the interface [12,187]. However, most of the results available to date represent a com-
The damping performance in seawater or strong acids has been bined effect of increased temperature and specimen drying since it is
studied in addition to the performance in freshwater or pure water difficult to use traditional experimental methods (such as DMA testing)
environments [62]. Research shows that plant fibers are more suscep- to maintain a constant moisture content within PFC samples while
tible than synthetic fibers to acids [191]. In addition, a silane agent has changing the temperature. Hence, more research is suggested to decor-
been proven to decrease water absorption, which is caused by reduc- relate the effects of temperature and moisture content.
ing the chance of hydrogen bonding between free –OH groups in cel- In this section, the effects of mesoscale parameters (reinforcement
lulose and water molecules [145]. V. Fiore et al. also claim that type and stacking sequence), microscale parameters (fiber, matrix,
NaHCO3 treatment shows a beneficial effect on the damping properties interface and porosity) and surrounding conditions are discussed.
of flax composites but not jute composites during exposure to salt‐fog The main features of damping sources are summarized in Table 1.
environments, which is strictly related to the fiber’s chemical compo-
sition [192]. 4. Limitations of existing PFC damping studies
In general, many reports on the effects of moisture on SFC behavior
are available, while research related to PFCs has focused more on (1) Porosity – The influence of porosity level has been recently
monotonic mechanical behavior. The effect of water‐heat coupling investigated for PFCs made of nonwoven fabrics and thermo-
on damping using different types of PFCs needs more research. plastic polymers [110]. However, the results in the literature
remain poor, particularly for short fiber composites and woven
3.3.2.2. Temperature. The dynamic mechanical properties of organic‐ fabric‐based composites. Additional research on this topic
based composites are also strongly sensitive to temperature. Tempera- regarding different types of PFCs with different matrices (ther-
ture is the first factor that affects damping properties in various exter- moset or thermoplastic) is necessary since not enough conclu-
nal environments [193]. sions have been reached at this time. In addition to the
Below the glass transition temperature, the loss factor increases porosity level, the influence of the size and distribution of
with temperature, which is attributed to matrix softening [95]. The porosity should be investigated.

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

(2) Environmental conditions – The effect of hygrothermal cou- Different parameter configurations during the composite manufactur-
pling on damping using different types of PFCs needs more ing process also have an impact on the damping performance. One study
research. At present, the influence of environmental conditions found that higher pressures appear to reduce the damping ratio due to
is generally investigated using DMA tests involving moisture alterations in the fiber–matrix bond [46]. The influence of parameters
content variations while sweeping temperature. The use of in the manufacturing process can be considered in the future.
vibration tests is also recommended in the future to obtain
direct measurements in a mid‐frequency range. 5. Conclusions
(3) Characterization at the microscale and multiscale – For the
characterization of damping, a large number of reports focus on This article critically reviews many factors that affect the damping
the macro‐ and mesoscales, while studies at the microscale are properties of PFCs in terms of mesoscale parameters, microscale param-
currently rarely seen. However, microscale measurements are eters, surrounding conditions, etc. based on recent research reports. The
required to map the damping in different constituents (the plant literature shows that PFCs have loss factor values between 0.7% and
fiber wall, the surrounding matrix and the interface) to better 14%, while the values are between 0.24% and 2.5% for SFCs. Therefore,
understand the influence of microscale parameters on damping the damping capacity of PFCs is generally much higher than that of SFCs.
at the macroscale. Particular attention must be paid to the time The damping range is also more widespread. These damping properties
scales related to each dissipation phenomenon occurring at var- are linked to the wide variety of fibers and their hierarchical organiza-
ious spatial scales. tion and complex composition. This review also points out some contra-
(4) Wideband frequency and experimental technique effects – dictory results. These contradictions are attributed to the wide variety of
Evolution with frequency – Most of the results obtained for non- PFCs studied, involving various types of plant fibers organized in differ-
woven composites as well as noncrimp and woven composites ent reinforcement architectures embedded in a very broad set of polymer
show that the loss factor varies slightly with frequency matrices. This variety sometimes prevents reaching a consensus and
[43,110]. However, it is sometimes difficult to derive a trend establishing generic conclusions. The review also shows some knowledge
on the basis of such results. Combining data collected using dif- gaps to be bridged in the future.
ferent experimental techniques for the same PFCs is suggested The main conclusions are the following:
to observe the trend of the loss factor over a wide range of
frequencies. (a) The damping characteristics of PFCs are unique because of their
microstructural and morphological properties, which are linked
Comparison of experimental techniques – The comparison of differ- to their polymeric nature, moisture sensitivity, complex inter-
ent test methods for specific PFCs under the same conditions to deter- face, and finite length, in contrast to SFCs. Quantitative analysis
mine their influence would also constitute valuable analysis for future of the influence of microstructure on damping performance is
research since many other influential parameters vary from one study rarely seen, although there have been many studies on static
to another. mechanical properties.
Use of additional techniques – In parallel to the classical DMA and (b) The diameter‐length ratio of plant fibers has a significant effect
vibration techniques, other methods, such as ultrasonic testing, on the damping of PFCs, and different reinforcement types have
nanoindentation, and scanning microdeformation microscopy, have different trends. The outer layer in the stacking sequence has a
been investigated for the damping characterization of polymers considerable effect on damping.
[118]. These techniques could also be used for PFCs. Although the (c) Interface properties between fibers and matrices have a signifi-
techniques are also limited by frequency and temperature, they can cant effect on damping performance, with sometimes contradic-
complement the limitations of other experiments on multiple scales tory interpretations. Additional studies and knowledge are
[70,89]. Wavenumber‐based approaches can be an optional method necessary to shield light on this complex issue.
to address high‐frequency‐range issues. (d) The special damping mechanisms of PFCs are mainly due to
intracellular and intercellular wall friction, intrayarn and inter-
(5) Fiber length and microstructure – Even if the influence of yarn friction, and fiber/matrix sliding. The effect of treatment
fiber length on the damping properties has already been inves- methods on composite damping is caused by changes in interfa-
tigated for short‐fiber composites, more in‐depth study is neces- cial properties between the fiber and matrix.
sary to better comprehend the influence of fiber length, fiber (e) PFCs are more sensitive than SFCs to moisture content because
ends and discontinuities on the damping behavior, particularly of the mismatch of the moisture expansion coefficients between
in noncrimp fabric composites. For such composites, the influ- the matrix and the fiber, which would induce a modification of
ence of fiber type and fiber microstructural features should also the interfacial properties.
be studied. (f) Future work can expand on these issues regarding the effect on
(6) Stress level effect – Since most PFCs exhibit nonlinear static damping properties, such as comparisons of multiscale experi-
behavior as a function of stress level, it would also be interest- mental methods, different reinforcement types, surrounding
ing to verify the linearity of the damping behavior as a function conditions, and parameters in the manufacturing process.
of the stress level.
(7) Other factors – Composite materials face fatigue issues during
long‐term service. Some effects of fatigue on damping perfor- Declaration of competing interest
mance have already been reported. The loss factor is shown to
decrease substantially in the first cycles, then· slightly decrease, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
and then stabilize before the final failure [129]. This trend interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
deserves to be explained since one may expect an increase in ence the work reported in this paper.
the damping capacity with damage creation and propagation.
Acknowledgments
The effect of various coupling conditions, such as fatigue, moisture,
and temperature, on the damping properties of PFCs should be studied The authors express their gratitude for the funding received from
in the future. the Bio Based Industries Joint Undertaking under the European
Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant

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T. Liu et al. Composite Structures 275 (2021) 114392

agreement No. 744349‐SSUCHY project and the funding received from [25] Khalfallah M, Abbès B, Abbès F, Guo YQ, Marcel V, Duval A, et al. Innovative flax
tapes reinforced Acrodur biocomposites: A new alternative for automotive
the Region Bourgogne‐Franche‐Comté under grant agreement No.
applications. Mater Des 2014;64:116–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
2016Y‐06124‐D‐BCOMP project. Financial support from the EUR MATDES.2014.07.029.
EIPHI Graduate school (contract “ANR‐17‐EURE‐0002”) is also grate- [26] Hagnell MK, Åkermo M. The economic and mechanical potential of closed loop
fully acknowledged. material usage and recycling of fibre-reinforced composite materials. J Clean
Prod 2019;223:957–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.03.156.
[27] Duc F, Bourban PE, Plummer CJGG, Månson JAEE. Damping of thermoset and
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