Assignment Summary

For this assignment, you will create and analyze Mendelian and non-Mendelian crosses using Punnett
squares and pedigrees. You will also use chi-square hypothesis testing to draw conclusions on
inheritance patterns.

Background Information
Mendel used his experimental data to determine how alleles are passed on through gametes of offspring.
The law of segregation states that gametes receive only one of two alleles from parents. The law of
independent assortment states that alleles on different chromosomes will separate into gametes
independently of one another. These two laws can be used to predict the probability that certain alleles
will be passed on from parent to offspring. They can also be used to predict the genotype and phenotype
of offspring. Mendel studied traits that followed complete dominance inheritance patterns. These traits
have alleles that are dominant and recessive.
Not all traits follow this inheritance pattern. There are traits that have incomplete dominance, where two
alleles produce proteins that show a blended phenotype. Codominance is where two different alleles
express phenotypes at the same time. Sex-linked traits are carried on the X or Y chromosome. Some
genes are linked on autosomes. These genes are located close together on the same chromosome;
therefore, these alleles tend to be inherited together.
A chi-squared statistical test can be used to detect whether a trait is inherited through Mendelian
inheritance. You can use this equation:

χ2 – value of chi-square
Σ – sign of sum, means the total amount of elements in a sequence
O – observed number of a trait
E – expected number of a traits

Materials
• Paper
• Writing and drawing utensils
• Calculator

Assignment Instructions
For this project, you are expected to submit:
 • A completed version of this guide, featuring calculations and answers to analysis questions.

Step 1: Prepare for the project.

• Read through the guide before you begin so you know the expectations for this project.
• If anything is not clear to you, be sure to ask your teacher.
• Pay close attending to the formula given in the background information.
Step 2: Analyze patterns of inheritance.
• Use the scenarios below to predict the offspring of the cross.
• Read each scenario carefully, looking for clues to the pattern of inheritance of the traits
presented in the model.
• Complete a Punnett square and statistical analysis, if necessary, for each question.
• Answer the analysis questions that follow the scenarios.
Step 3: Evaluate your project using this checklist.
If you can check each box below, you are ready to submit your project.
• Do your Punnett squares represent the scenarios correctly?
• Did you fill out the Punnett squares with the correct genotypes and phenotypes?
• Are your Punnett squares complete and properly labeled?
• Did you conduct the chi-squared statistical tests accurately?
• Did you complete the Written Analysis section?
Step 4: Revise and submit your project.
• If you were unable to check off all of the requirements on the checklist, go back and make
sure that your project is complete. Save your project before submitting it.
• Turn in this handout to your teacher.
• Congratulations! You have completed your project
Scenarios and Calculations

Scenario 1
Albinism is a phenotype characterized by those who do not produce the pigment melanin. This affects an
individual’s skin, hair, and eye color. An individual with this disorder is homozygous recessive. Complete
and use the Punnett square to predict the probability of two individuals who are carriers for the trait having
a child with albinism.

There is a 25% chance of them having an offspring with albinism.

B b

BB Bb B

Bb bb b

Scenario 2

Corn has a dominant allele that prevents kernel color and a recessive allele that allows kernel color.
Another allele controls for kernel color; a dominant allele gives kernels a purple color and a recessive
allele gives a red color. Two plants that are heterozygous for both traits are crossed and their offspring
phenotypes are recorded below. Complete the chart to determine whether to accept or reject the null
hypothesis of a typical Mendelian dihybrid cross. Hint: Homozygous dominant or heterozygous for the
allele for the color-depositing trait will result in neither purple nor red kernels.

(Observed –Expected)2
Phenotype Expected Observed
/Expected

neither purple nor red 750 719 1.28

purple 187 200 0.9

red 63 81 5.14

X2 = __7.32___

Chi-Square Table
P- Degrees of Freedom
Value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0.05 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49 11.07 12.59 14.07 15.51

 0.01 6.64 9.21 11.34 13.28 15.09 16.81 18.48 20.09

At df = 2 and p-value of 0.05, our critical value (5.99) is smaller than our chi square (7.32) so we do
reject the null hypothesis.

Scenario 3
Fruit flies make good study organisms for heredity because they reproduce fairly quickly and have a
variety of traits that are easy to track. Two traits that are studied in fruit flies are body color and wing
length. Fruit flies can have two different body colors: gray or black. Wings are either normal or vestigial
(quite small and nonfunctional). Gray body color is dominant to black body color, and normal wings are
dominant to vestigial wings. Suppose a fly that is heterozygous for both traits was crossed with a black-
bodied fruit fly with vestigial wings. Use a Punnett square to determine the expected phenotypes and
genotypes.

GN Gn gN gn
G: Gray, g: Black
gn GgNn Ggnn ggNn ggnn
N: normal, n: vest
gn GgNn Ggnn ggNn ggnn

gn GgNn Ggnn ggNn ggnn

gn GgNn Ggnn ggNn ggnn

The above experiment is repeated many times, and the phenotypes of the offspring are collected. The
results are below. Use them to complete a chi-square analysis to see if the traits follow Mendelian
inheritance patterns for dihybrid traits. Assume that a 1:1:1:1 phenotypic ratio is expected with
independent assortment in this case.
(Observed –
Phenotype Expected Observed
Expected)2/Expected

gray, normal 575 257.78

960
wings

gray, vestigial 575 257.78

190
wings

black, normal 575 230.43

211
wings

black, vestigial 575 230.43

939
wings
X2 = _976.42_ At df = 3 and P-value of 0.05, our critical value (7.82) is smaller than our chi square
value (976.42) so we reject the null hypothesis.
Chi-Square Table
Degrees of Freedom
P-Value
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0.05 3.84 5.99 7.82 9.49 11.07 12.59 14.07 15.51

0.01 6.64 9.21 11.34 13.28 15.09 16.81 18.48 20.09

Written Analysis
•
Answer the questions below.
• Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for the Punnett square from scenario 1. What is
the probability of two individuals who are carriers for the trait having a child with albinism?
What is the inheritance pattern for albinism?
The probability for the two carriers having a child with albinism is 25% due to there being a
ratio of three non-albino to one for albinism. The inheritance pattern for albinism is a
autosomal recessive trait due to the phenotype for albinism being a recessive allele from each
parent.

• For scenario 2, accept or reject the null hypothesis that the traits follow a Mendelian inheritance
pattern. Do this by comparing the calculated chi-square value to the critical chi-square value.
Explain your reasoning.
At df = 2 and p-value of 0.05, our critical value (5.99) is smaller than our chi square (7.32) so
we do reject the null hypothesis. This means that our observed is significantly different from expected.

• For scenario 3, accept or reject the null hypothesis that the traits follow Mendelian inheritance
patterns for fruit fly wing type and body color. Explain your reasoning.

At df = 3 and P-value of 0.05, our critical value (7.82) is smaller than our chi square value (976.42) so we
reject the null hypothesis. This means that our observed data significantly deviates from the expected
1:1:1:1 phenotypic ratio.
 • Using scenario 1 and one other scenario, differentiate between the inheritance patterns of the two
organisms for the traits provided in the scenario.

With scenario 1 in mind, the inheritance pattern of the observed trait is autosomal recessive. For scenario
2, the gene that determines if the kernel is colored follows autosomal dominant inheritance for non-
colored. The color-determining gene’s expression depends on the previous gene, therefore the phenotype
effects of the color gene are not observed if the color-no-color gene is heterozygous or homozygous
dominant.