ee1404

Major considerations in Electrical
Machine Design
The basic components of all electromagnetic apparatus are the
field and armature windings supported by dielectric or
insulation, cooling system and mechanical parts. Therefore, the
factors for consideration in the design are,
Magnetic circuit or the flux path:
Should establish required amount of flux using minimum MMF.

The core losses should be less.
Electric circuit or windings:
Should ensure required EMF is induced with no complexity in

winding arrangement. The copper losses should be less.
Insulation:
Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts

operating at different potential and confine the current in the
prescribed paths.
Cooling system or ventilation:
Should ensure that the machine operates at the specified

temperature.
Machine parts:
Should be robust.
The art of successful design lies not only in resolving the

conflict for space between iron, copper, insulation and coolant
but also in optimization of cost of manufacturing, and operating
and maintenance charges.
The factors, apart from the above, that requires consideration

are
a) Limitation in design (saturation, current density,

insulation, temperature rise etc.,)
b) Customer’s needs
c) National and international standards
d) Convenience in production line and transportation e.

Maintenance and repairs
e) Environmental conditions etc.
Limitations in design: The materials used for the machine

and others such as cooling etc., imposes a limitation in
design. The limitations stem from saturation of iron,
current density in conductors, temperature, insulation,
mechanical properties, efficiency, power factor etc.
a. Saturation: Higher flux density reduces the volume of

iron but drives the iron to operate beyond knee of the
magnetization curve or in the region of saturation. Saturation of
iron poses a limitation on account of increased core loss and
excessive excitation required to establish a desired value of
flux. It also introduces harmonics.
b. Current density: Higher current density reduces the
volume of copper but increases the losses and temperature.
c. Temperature: poses a limitation on account of possible

damage to insulation and other materials.
d. Insulation (which is both mechanically and electrically

weak): poses a limitation on account of breakdown by
excessive voltage gradient, mechanical forces or heat.
e. Mechanical strength of the materials poses a limitation

particularly in case of large and high speed machines.
f. High efficiency and high power factor poses a

limitation on account of higher capital cost. (A low value of
efficiency and power factor on the other hand results in a high
maintenance cost).
g. Mechanical Commutation in dc motors or generators

leads to poor commutation.
Apart from the above factors Consumer, manufacturer or

standard specifications may pose a limitation.
Window space factor Kw:
Window space factor is defined as the ratio of copper
area in the window to the area of the window.
For a given window area, as the voltage rating of the
transformer increases, quantity of insulation in the window
increases, area of copper reduces. Thus the window space
factor reduces as the voltage increases.
It depends upon the relative amounts of insulation and copper
provided, which in turn depends upon the voltage rating and
output o transformers. The following empirical formulae may be
used for estimating the value of window space factor:
Kw = 10/(30+kV)
Where kV is the voltage of h.v. winding in kilo-volt. The above

formula is for transformers of rating between 50 to 200 kVA.
Space factor is larger for large outputs and smaller outputs. For
a transformer of about 1000 kVA rating K w = 12/(30+kV) and for
transformers of about 20 kVA rating K w = 8/(30 + kV). The
values of space actor for intermediate rating can be
interpolated.
Rating of machine
Rating of a motor is the power output or the designated

operating power limit based upon certain definite conditions
assigned to it by the manufacturer.
The rating of machine refer to the whole of the
numerical values of electrical and mechanical quantities with
their duration and sequence assigned to the machines by the
manufacturer and stated on the rating plate, the machine
complying with the specified conditions.
Rating of a single phase & three phase transformer in KVA is

given as
Q = 2.22 f Bm δ Kw Aw Ai * 10-3
Q = 3.33 f Bm δ Kw Aw Ai * 10-3
Where f = frequency, Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, Wb/m2
δ = current density, A/mm2
Kw = Window space factor Aw = Window area, m2
Ai = Net core area, m2
Choice of Specific Electrical and

Magnetic loadings
Specific magnetic loading:
Following are the factors which influences the performance of

the machine.
(i) Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap
leads to higher value of flux in the iron parts of the
machine which results in increased iron losses and
reduced efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher

voltage space occupied by the insulation becomes more
thus making the teeth smaller and hence higher flux
density in teeth and core.
(iii) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap

density results in decrease in leakage reactance and
hence increased value of armature current under short
circuit conditions.
(iv) Stability: The maximum power output of a machine
under steady state condition is indirectly proportional to
synchronous reactance. If higher value of flux density is
used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in
armature winding. This results in reduced value of leakage
reactance and hence increased value of power and hence
increased steady state stability.
(v) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation

of synchronous generators depends on the synchronizing
power. Higher the synchronizing power higher will be the
ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The
synchronizing power is inversely proportional to the
synchronous reactance and hence the machines designed
with higher value air gap flux density will have better
ability to operate in parallel with other machines.
Specific Electric Loading:
Following are the some of the factors which influence the

choice of specific electric
loadings.
(i) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the

number of armature of conductors which results in higher
copper loss. This will result in higher temperature rise and
reduction in efficiency.
(ii) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage

machines since the space required for the insulation will
be smaller.
(iii) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to

higher value of leakage reactance and armature reaction
and hence higher value of synchronous reactance. Such
machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of
current under short circuit condition and low value of
steady state stability limit and small value of
synchronizing power.
(iv) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses

will increase. Values of specific magnetic and specific
electric loading can be selected from Design Data Hand
Book for salient and non salient pole machines.
Separation of D and L: Inner diameter and gross length of the

stator can be calculated from D2L product obtained from the
output equation. To separate suitable relations are assumed
between D and L depending upon the type of the generator.
Salient pole machines: In case of salient pole machines either
round or rectangular pole construction is employed. In these
types of machines the diameter of the machine will be quite
larger than the axial length.
Standard specifications
1. Output : kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)

2. Voltage : V volt
3. Speed : N rpm
4. Rating : Continuous or Short time
5. Temperature rise: θ0C for an ambient temperature of

400C
6. Cooling : Natural or forced cooling
7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-

excited-shunt, series, or compound, if compound type of
connection – long or short shunt, type of compounding –
cumulative or differential, degree of compounding – over, under
or level. With or without inter poles, with or without
compensating windings,with or without equalizer rings in case
of lap winding.
8. Voltage regulation ( in case of generators) : Range

and method
9. Speed control ( in case of motors ) : range and

method of control
10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the

efficiency increases, cost of the machine also increases).
11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application –

totally enclosed, screen protected, drip proof, flame proof, etc.,
12. Size of the machine etc.,
DC MACHINES
The size of the DC machine depends on the main or leading
dimensions of the machine viz., diameter of the armature D and
armature core length L. As the output increases, the main
dimensions of the machine D and L also increases.
Output Equations and Main Dimensions of DC
Machine:
Output equation relates the output and main dimensions of the
machine. Actually it relates the power developed in the
armature and main dimensions.
E : EMF induced or back EMF Ia : armature current

φ : Average value of flux / pole
Z : Total number of armature conductors N : Speed in rpm
P : Number of poles
A : number of armature paths or circuits D : Diameter of the

armature
L : Length of the armature core
Power developed in the armature in kW = E I a x 10-3
= (φ Z N P/60
A)× Ia× 10-3
= (Pφ ) ×
(I a Z/A) × N x 10-3/60 ....... (1)
The term P φ represents the total flux and is called the

magnetic loading. Magnetic loading/unit area of the armature
surface is called the specific magnetic loading or average value
of the flux density in the air gap Bav. That is,
Bav = Pφ /π DL Wb/m2 or tesla denoted by T
Therefore Pφ = Bav π DL ................ (2)
The term (Ia Z/A) represents the total ampere-conductors on

the armature and is called the electric loading. Electric
loading/unit length of armature periphery is called the specific
electric loading q. That is,
Where C0 is called the output coefficeint of the DC machine and
is equal to 1.64 x 10-4 Bq.
Therefore D2 L = (Kw/1.64 × 10-4 B q N) m3
The above equation is called the output equation. The D 2L

product represents the size of the machine or volume of iron
used. In order that the maximum output is obtained /kg of iron
used, D2L product must be as less as possible. For this, the
values of q and Bav must be high.
Effect of higher value of q
Note: Since armature current Ia and number of parallel paths A

are constants and armature diameter D must be as less as
possible or D must be a fixed minimum value, the number of
armature conductors increases as q = Ia Z / A π D increases.
a. As q increases, number of conductors

increases, resistance increases, I 2R loss increases and therefore
the temperature of the machine increases. Temperature is a
limiting factor of any equipment or machine.
b. As q increases, number of conductors

increases, conductors/slot increases, quantity of insulation in
the slot increases, heat dissipation reduces, temperature
increases, losses increases and efficiency of the machine
reduces.
c. As q increases, number of conductors

increases, armature ampere-turns per pole ATa / pole = (Ia Z / 2
A P) increases, flux produced by the armature increases, and
therefore the effect of armature reaction increases. In order to
overcome the effect of armature reaction, field MMF has to be
increased. This calls for additional copper and increases the
cost and size of the machine.
d. As q increases, number of conductors and

turns increases, reactance voltage proportional to
(turns)2 increases. This leads to sparking commutation.
Effect of higher value of Bav
a. As Bav increases, core loss increases,

efficiency reduces.
b. As Bav increases, degree of saturation

increases, mmf required for the magnetic circuit increases. This
calls for additional copper and increases the cost of the
machine.
It is clear that there is no advantage gained by selecting higher

values of q and Bav. If the values selected are less, then D2L
will be large or the size of the machine will unnecessarily be
high. Hence optimum value of q and Bav must be selected.
In general q lies between 15000 and 50000 ampere-

conductors/m.
Lesser values are used in low capacity, low speed and high
voltage machines. In general Bav lies between 0.45 and 0.75 T.
SEPARATION OF D2L PRODUCT
Knowing the values of kW and N and assuming the values of q

and Bav, a value for
D2 L = kW/1.64 × 10-4× Bavq N can be calculated.

Let it be 0.1 m3.
Since the above expression has two unknowns namely D and L,

another expression relating D and L must be known to find out
the values of D and L.
Usually a value for the ratio armature core length L to pole

pitch is assumed to separate D2L product. The pole pitch τ
refers to the circumferential distance corresponding one pole at
diameter D. In practice L /τ lies between 0.55 and 1.1.
Therefore L = (0.55 to 1.1) τ

= (0.55 to 1.1) π D / P
If L/τ = 1.0 and P = 4, then L = 1.0 × π D / P
= 1.0 × π D / 4 = 0.785D.
Therefore D2 × 0.785 D = 0.1 or D = 0.5m. Thus L = 0.785 ×

0.5 = 0.395 m.
Note: The D2 L product can also be separated by assuming a

value for the peripheral velocity of the armature.
Magnetic circuit calculations

The different parts of the dc machine magnetic circuit / pole are
yoke, pole, air gap, armature teeth and armature core.
Therefore, the ampere magnetic circuit is the sum of the
ampere That is,AT / pole = ATy + ATp+ ATg
1. Yoke,
2. Pole,
3. Air gap,
4. Armature teeth,
5. Armature core,
6. Leakage flux ab: Mean length of the flux path corresponding
to one pole
Magnetic circuit of a 4 pole DC machine
Note: Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient LC.

All the flux produced by the pole will not pass through the
desired path i.e., air gap. Some of the flux produced by the pole
will be leaking away from the air gap. The flux that passes
through the air gap and cut by the armature conductors is the
useful flux and that flux that leaks away from the desired path
is the leakage flux
where LC is the Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient and lies

between (1.15 to 1.25). Magnitude of flux in different parts of
the magnetic circuit
a) Flux in the yoke
b) Flux in the pole
c) Flux in the air gap
d) Flux in the armature teeth
e) Flux in the armature core
Reluctance of the air gap

Where
lg = Length of air gap
t = Width (pole arc) over which the flux is passing in the air gap
L = Axial length of the armature core
y t L = Air gap area / pole over which the flux is passing in the
air gap.
Carter’s Coefficient
Carter’s gap expansion coefficient

Where Kgs is called the Carter’s gap expansion coefficient for
slots and is greater than 1.0.
Net length of Iron
Li = Net iron length of the armature core

= Ki(L-nvbv)
Real & Apparent flux densities

Although a detailed description of the design of a DC machine
is beyond the scope of this material, some design principles are
still worth mentioning. The methods presented previously are
applicable to the design of a DC machine with certain
adjustments. One of the most important special features of a
DC machine is the armature reaction and, in particular, its
compensation
According to the IEC, the armature reaction is the current
linkage set up by the currents in the armature winding or, in a
wider sense, the resulting change in the air-gap flux. Since the
brushes are on the quadrature axis, the armature current
produces the armature reaction also in the quadrature
direction; that is, transversal to the field-winding-generated
flux. Figure depicts the armature reaction in the air gap of a non
compensated DC machine.
Resulting air-gap flux density as a sum of the field winding flux
density and the armature reaction. As a result of the armature
reaction, the flux densities at the quadrature axes are not zero.
This is harmful for the commutation of the machine.
Selection of number of poles
As the armature current increases, cross sectional area of the

conductor and hence the eddy current loss in the conductor
increases. In order to reduce the eddy current loss in the
conductor, cross-sectional area of the conductor must be made
less or the current / path must be restricted.
For a normal design, current / parallel path should not be more

than about 200A. However, often, under enhanced cooling
conditions, a current / path of more than 200A is also being
used. By selecting a suitable number of paths for the machine,
current / path can be restricted and the number of poles for the
machine can be decided. While selecting the number of poles,
the following conditions must also be considered as far as
possible.
In order to decide what number of poles (more or less) is
to be used, let the different factors affecting the choice of
number of poles be discussed based on the use of more
number of poles.
Frequency
Weight of the iron used for the yoke
Weight of iron used for the armature core (from the core
loss point of view)
Weight of overhang copper
Armature reaction
Overall diameter
Length of the commutator
Flash over
Labour charges
Frequency
As the number of poles increases, frequency of the induced
EMF f = PN/120 increases core loss in the armature increases
and therefore efficiency of the machine decreases.
Weight of the iron used for the yoke

Since the flux carried by the yoke is approximately φ/2 and the
total flux φT = pφ is a constant for a given machine, flux
density in the yoke
It is clear that Ay is µ 1/p

as By is also almost constant for a given iron. Thus, as the
number of poles increases, A y and hence the weight of iron
used for the yoke reduces.
Weight of iron used for the armature core (from the core loss
point of view)
Since the flux carried by the armature core is φ /2, eddy current
loss in the armature core
Thus the weight of iron used for the armature core reduces as
the number of poles increases.
coil, overhang ∝ pole pitch goes on reducing as the number of

Weight of overhang copper: For a given active length of the
poles increases. As the overhang length reduces, the weight of

the inactive copper used at the overhang also reduces.
Armature reaction
Since the flux produced by the armature and armature ampere

turns
Overall diameter
When the number of poles is less, ATa / pole and hence the flux,
produced by the armature is more. This reduces the useful flux
in the air gap. In order to maintain a constant value of air gap
flux, flux produced by the field or the field ampere-turns must
be increased. This calls for more field coil turns and size of the
coil defined by the depth of the coil df and height of the coil hf
increases. In order that the temperature rise of the coil is not
more, depth of the field coil is generally restricted. Therefore
height of the field coil increases as the size of the field coil or
the number of turns of the coil increases. As the pole height, is
proportional to the field coil height, height of the pole and
hence the overall diameter of the machine increases with the
increase in height of the field coil.
Obviously as the number of poles increases, height of the pole

and hence the overall diameter of the machine decreases.
Length of the commutator
Since each brush arm collects the current from every two
parallel paths, current / brush arm
= 2 Ia / A and the cross sectional area of the brush / arm
Ab = 2Ia / Aδb = 2Ia / Pδb
∝1/P
reduces as the number of poles increases.
As Ab = tbwbnb and tb is generally held constant from the
commutation point of view, wbnb
reduces as Ab reduces. Hence the length of the commutator
Lc = (wbnb + clearances) reduces as Ab reduces or the number
of poles increases.
wb – width of the brush,
tb – thickness of the brush,
nb – number of brushes per spindle
Flash over
As the number of poles increases, voltage between the
segments
increases. Because of the increased

value of Eb and carbon dust collected in the space where the
mica is undercut, chances of arcing between commutator
segments increases. The arc between the segments in turn
may bridge the positive and negative brushes leading to a
dead short circuit of the armature or flash over.
Labour charges
As the number of poles increases cost of labour increases as
more number of poles are to be assembled, more field coils are
to be wound, placed on to the pole, insulate, interconnect etc.
It is clear that, when the number of poles is more, weight of

iron used for yoke and armature core, weight of inactive
copper, overall diameter, length of commutator and effect of
armature reaction reduces. On the other hand efficiency
reduces chances of flash over increases and cost of machine
increases.
Since the advantages outnumber the disadvantages, more

number of poles is preferable.
Thus, though more number of poles is preferable, it is not

advisable from the cost point of view. In general the number of
poles should be so selected that good operating characteristics
are obtained with minimum weight of active material and
minimum cost of construction.
Design of Armature
The armature winding can broadly be classified as concentrated

and distributed winding
In case of a concentrated winding, all the conductors / pole is
housed in one slot. Since the conductors / slot is more, quantity
of insulation in the slot is more, heat dissipation is less,
temperature rise is more and the efficiency of operation will be
less. Also emf induced in the armature conductors will not be
sinusoidal. Therefore
a. design calculations become complicated (because of

the complicated expression of non-sinusoidal wave).
b. Core loss increases (because of the fundamental and

harmonic components of the non-sinusoidal wave) and
efficiency reduces.
c. Communication interference may occur (because of

the higher frequency components of the non-sinusoidal wave).
Hence no concentrated winding is used in practice for a DC

machine armature.
In a distributed winding (used to overcome the disadvantages
of the concentrated winding), conductors / pole is distributed in
more number of slots. The distributed winding can be classified
as single layer winding and double layer winding.
In a single layer winding, there will be only one coil side in the
slot having any number of conductors, odd or even integer
depending on the number of turns of the coil. In a double layer
winding, there will be 2 or multiple of 2 coil sides in the slot
arranged in two layers. Obviously conductors / slot in a double
layer winding must be an even integer.
Since for a given number of conductors, poles and slots, a

single layer winding calls for less number of coils of more
number of turns, reactance voltage proportional to (turn)2 is
high. This decreases the quality of commutation or leads to
sparking commutation. Hence a single layer winding is not
generally used in DC machines. However it is much used in
alternators and induction motors where there is no
commutation involved.
Since a double layer winding calls for more number of coils of

less number of turns/coil, reactance voltage proportional to
(turn)2 is less and the quality of commutation is good. Hence
double layer windings are much used in DC machines.
Unless otherwise specified all DC machines are assumed to be

having a double layer winding.
A double layer winding can further be classified as simplex or
multiplex and lap or wave winding. In order to decide what
number of slots (more or less) is to be used, the following
merits and demerits are considered.
NUMBER OF ARMATURE SLOTS
1. As the number of slots increases, cost of punching

the slot increases, number of coils increases and hence the cost
of the machine increases.
2. As the number of slots increases, slot pitch
λs = (slot width bs + tooth width bt)
= πD/ number of slots S

decreases and hence the tooth width reduces. This makes the
tooth mechanically weak, increases the flux density in the tooth
and the core loss in the tooth. Therefore efficiency of the
machine decreases.
If the slots are less in number, then the cost of punching &
number of coils decreases, slot pitch increases, tooth becomes
mechanically strong and efficiency increases, quantity of
insulation in the slot increases, heat dissipation reduces,
temperature increases and hence the efficiency decreases.
It is clear that not much advantage is gained by the use of

either too a less or more number of slots. As a preliminary
value, the number of slots can be selected by considering the
slot pitch. The slot pitch can assumed to be between (2.5 and
3.5) cm. (This range is applicable to only to medium capacity
machines and it can be more or less for other capacity
machines).
The selection of the number of slots must also be based on the

type of winding used, quality of commutation, flux pulsation
etc.
When the number of slot per pole is a whole number, the

number slots embraced by each pole will be the same for all
positions of armature. However, the number teeth per pole will
not be same.
This causes a variation in reluctance of the air gap and the flux
in the air gap will pulsate. Pulsations of the flux in the air gap
produce iron losses in the pole shoe and give rise to magnetic
noises. On the other hand, when the slots per pole is equal to a
whole number plus half the reluctance of the flux path per pole
pair remains constant for all positions of the armature, and
there will be no pulsations or oscillations of the flux in the air
gap.
To avoid pulsations and oscillations of the flux in the air gap,

the number of slots per pole should be a whole number plus
half. When this is not possible or advisable for other reasons,
the number of slots per pole arc should an integer.
.
Number of teeth/pole shoe = 5 and flux passes through 5
teeth.
The reluctance of the air gap is inversely proportional to the
area corresponding to 5 teeth.
Number of teeth/pole shoe = 5 and flux passes through 6 teeth

when the armature is moved half tooth pitch to the right.The
reluctance of the air gap is inversely proportional to the area
corresponding to 6 teeth. The reluctance in this case is less and
the flux is more compared to the former case. Therefore, the
flux pulsates i.e. Varies in magnitude.
Number of teeth/pole shoe = (5+ 0.5) and flux passes through

6 teeth. The reluctance of the air gap is inversely proportional
to the area corresponding to 6 teeth.
Number of teeth/pole shoe = (5+0.5) and flux passes through 6
teeth when the armature is moved half tooth pitch to the
right.The reluctance of the air gap is inversely proportional 6
teeth as before. The reluctance and the flux in both the cases
remains the same in all positions of the armature. However, the
reluctance and the flux under the tips of the pole are not the
same for all the positions of armature. Therefore when the
armature rotates the flux under the pole oscillates between the
pole tips. This produces ripple in the voltage induced in the
conductors moving under poles.
The flux pulsation under inter pole causes the sparking. A small
tooth pitch helps to reduce the effect of armature slots upon
the inter poles.
To obtain good commutation, the flux density in the air gap

must decrease gradually from maximum value under the center
of the pole to zero on the center line between two poles, and
the flux densities near the neutral point must be low. A field
form that drops off rapidly from maximum value to zero not
only leads to commutation difficulties but may also give rise to
noises in machines with slotted armatures. In order to achieve
good commutation the pole shoe is designed to cover only
certain percentage of the pole pitch. The circumferential
distance covered by the pole shoe on the armature surface is
called the pole arc. The ratio of the pole arc to pole pitch is
called per unit embrace or enclosure. That is, per unit enclosure
In practice ψ lies between 0.6 and 0.7.

Design of commutator and brushes
The Commutator is an assembly of Commutator segments or
bars tapered in section. The segments made of hard drawn
copper are insulated from each other by mica or micanite, the
usual thickness of which is about 0.8 mm. The number of
commutator segments is equal to the number of active
armature coils.
.
The diameter of the commutator will generally be about (60 to
80)% of the armature diameter. Lesser values are used for high
capacity machines and higher values for low capacity
machines.
Higher values of commutator peripheral velocity are to be
avoided as it leads to lesser commutation time dt, increased
reactance voltage and sparking commutation.
The commutator peripheral velocity vc = π DC N / 60 should not
as for as possible be more than about 15 m/s. (Peripheral
velocity of 30 m/s is also being used in practice but should be
avoided whenever possible.)
The commutator segment pitch τ C = (outside width of one

segment + mica insulation between segments) = π DC /
Number of segments should not be less than 4 mm. (This
minimum segment pitch is due to 3.2 mm of copper + 0.8 mm
of mica insulation between segments.) The outer surface width
of commutator segment lies between 4 and 20 mm in practice.
The axial length of the commutator depends on the space
required
1) by the brushes with brush boxes
2) for the staggering of brushes
3) for the margin between the end of commutator and

brush and
4) for the margin between the brush and riser and width of
riser.
If there are nb brushes / brush arm or spindle or holder, placed

one beside the other on the commutator surface, then the
length of the commutator LC = (width of the brush w b + brush
box thickness 0.5 cm) number of brushes / spindle + end
clearance 2 to 4 cm + clearance for risers 2 to 4 cm +
clearance for staggering of brushes 2 to 4 cm.
If the length of the commutator (as calculated from the above
expression) leads to small dissipating surface π DC LC, then the
commutator length must be increased so that the temperature
rise of the commutator does not exceed a permissible value say
550C.
The temperature rise of the commutator can be calculated by

using the following empirical formula.
The different losses that are responsible for the temperature

rise of the commutator are
a) Brush contact loss and
b) Brush frictional loss.
Brush contact loss = voltage drop / brush set × I a
The voltage drop / brush set depend on the brush material –

Carbon, graphite, electro graphite or metalized graphite. The
voltage drop / brush set can be taken as 2.0 V for carbon
brushes. Brush frictional loss (due to all the brush arms)
= frictional torque in Nm × angular velocity
= frictional force in Newton x distance in meter × 2 π

N/60
= 9.81 μPbAball ×DC /2×2π N/60
= 9.81μPbAball vC
whereμ = coefficient of friction and depends on the brush

material. Lies between 0.22 and 0.27 for carbon brushes
Pb = Brush pressure in kg / m2 and lies between 1000 and

1500 Aball = Area of the brushes of all the brush arms in m2
= Ab × number of brush arms
= Ab × number of poles in case of lap winding
= Ab × 2 or P in case of wave winding
Ab = Cross-sectional area of the brush / brush arm
Brush Details
Since the brushes of each brush arm collets the current from
two parallel paths, current collected by each brush arm is 2 I/2
Ia and the cross-sectional area of the brush or brush arm or
holder or spindle Ab . The current density δp depends on the
brush material and can be assumed between 5.5 and 6.5 A /
cm2 for carbon.
In order to ensure a continuous supply of power and cost of

replacement of damaged or worn out brushes is cheaper, a
number of subdivided brushes are used instead of one single
brush. Thus if
i) tb is the thickness of the brush

ii) wb is the width of the brush and
iii) nb is the number of sub divided brushes
then Ab = tb wb nb
As the number of adjacent coils of the same or different slots

that are simultaneously undergoing commutation increases, the
brush width and time of commutation also increases at the
same rate and therefore the reactance voltage (the basic cause
of sparking commutation) becomes independent of brush
width.
With only one coil undergoing commutation and width of the

brush equal to one segment width, the reactance voltage and
hence the sparking increases as the slot width decreases.
Hence the brush width is made to cover more than one
segment. If the brush is too wide, then those coils which are
away from the commutating pole zone or coils not coming
under the influence of inter pole flux and undergoing
commutation leads to sparking commutation.
Hence brush width greater than the commutating zone width is

not advisable under any circumstances. Since the commutating
pole zone lies between (9 and 15)% of the pole pitch, 15% of
the commutator circumference can be considered as the
maximum width of the brush.
It has been found that the brush width should not be more than
5 segments in machines less than
50 kW and 4 segments in machines more than 50 kW.
The number of brushes / spindle can be found out by assuming

a standard brush width or a maximum current / sub divided
brush.
Standard brush width can be 1.6, 2.2 or 3.2 cm

Current/subdivided brush should not be more than 70A
Brush materials and their properties:
Performance prediction using design

values:
Based on the design data of the stator and rotor of DC Machine,
performance of the machine has to be evaluated. The
parameters for performance evaluation are
1. Iron losses,
2. No load current,
3. No load power factor,

4. Leakage reactance etc.
Based on the values of these parameters design values of

stator and rotor can be justified. Iron losses: Iron losses are
occurring in all the iron parts due to the varying magnetic field
of the machine. Iron loss has two components, hysteresis and
eddy current losses occurring in the iron parts depend upon the
frequency of the applied voltage. The frequency of the induced
voltage in rotor is equal to the slip frequency which is very low
and hence the iron losses occurring in the rotor is negligibly
small. Hence the iron losses occurring in the induction motor is
mainly due to the losses in the stator alone. Iron losses
occurring in the stator can be computed as given below.
Important Short Questions and Answers:

Design of Electrical Machines - DC Machines
1. Define gap expansion factor and give the equation
for it.
The ratio of reluctance of flux path when armature with
slot to reluctance of flux path when armature without slot.
Kgs = Ys / (Ys - Kcs Ws) > 1 slots

Kgd = L / (L-Kcd nd Wd) >1 ducts
2. What is the advantage of large number of poles?
Ø
weight of iron parts decreases
Ø
weight of copper part decreases
Ø
length of commutator reduces
Ø
overall length of machine reduces
Ø
Distortion of field form becomes less at full load
condition.
3. Why the interlope is used in a dc machine.

Ø
To reduce the armature reaction.
Ø
To improve commutation.
4. Why the brush is made up of carbon?

Ø
To reduce spark between brush and commutator.
Ø
To conduct electric current.
Ø
To avoid wear and tear due to rubbing.
5. Define leakage coefficient and give the equation for

it.
The ratio of total flux per pole to the useful flux per pole is
called leakage coefficient or leakage factor.
C1 = Ф p/Ф=1.08 to 1.25
6. Define iron stacking factor.
It is defined as the ratio of net length of armature to the gross

length of the armature.
Ki = 0.9 to 0.96
7. What is meant by peripheral speed of armature?
The distance travel by the armature per unit time is called as
peripheral speed.
n = speed in r.p.s.
D = diameter of armature in m
8. Define armature reaction.
The flux produced due to current flow to the armature

conductors opposes the main flux. This phenomenon is known
as armature reaction.
9. What are the effects of armature reaction?

Ø
Reduction in emf
Ø
Increase in iron loss
Ø
Sparking and ring fire
Ø
Delayed commutation
10. What does staggering of brushes mean?
Brushes are provided in different planes instead of same plane

at the surface of commutator to avoid the formation of ridges.
This is called staggering.
11. Mention the different modes of operation of a
D.C. Machine.
Generator mode: In this mode, the machine is driven by a

prime mover with mechanical power converted into electrical
power.
Ø
Motor mode: The machine drives a mechanical load
with the electrical power supplied converted into mechanical
power.
Ø
Brake mode: The machine works as a generator and
the electrical power developed is either pumped back to the
supply as in regenerative braking.
12. State use of a yoke in a D.C. machine.
The yoke serves as a path for flux in D.C. machine and it also
serve as an enclosure for the machine.
13. What purpose is served by the pole shoe in a D.C.

machine?
The pole shoes serve the following purposes:
Ø
They spread out the flux in the air gap.
Ø
Since they are of larger cross section, the
reluctance of the magnetic path is reduced.
Ø
They support the field coils.
14. Mention the factors that affect the size of
rotating machines.
The factors that affect the size of rotating machines are:
Ø
Speed and
Ø
Output co-efficient
15. What is known as output equation?
The output of a machine can be expressed in terms of its main

dimensions, specific magnetic and electric loadings and speed.
The equation describing this relationship is known as output
equation.
16. Derive the output equation of a D.C. machine.

Power developed by armature in KW,
Pa = Generated emf * armature current * 10-3
Pa = (П D L Bav ) (П D ac) n * 10-3
= (П2 Bav ac * 10-3) D2 L n = C0 D2 L n

where C0 = П2 Bav ac * 10-3
D = armature diameter, m L = stator core length, m n = speed,

rps
C0 is the output co-efficient
16. How is specific magnetic loading determined?

The specific magnetic loading is determined by
Ø
Maximum flux density in iron parts of machine
Ø
Magnetizing current and core losses
17. Calculate the output co-efficient of a dc shunt
generator from the given data. Bg = 0.89 Wb/m2 ; ac =
3200 amp.cond/m ; Ψ = 0.66.
Output co-efficient , C0 = П 2 Ψ Bg ac * 10-3

= П2 * 0.66 * 0.89 *
3200 * 10-3
= 185.5 KW / m3 – rps.
18. What is the range of specific magnetic loading in
D.C. Machine?
The usual range of specific magnetic loading in dc machine is
0.4 to 0.8 Wb/m2.
19. What are the factors to be considered for the
selection of number of poles in dc machine?
The factors to be considered for the selection of number of
poles in dc machine are:
Ø
Frequency
Ø
Weight of iron parts
Ø
Weight of copper
Ø Length of commutator
Ø
Lab our charges
Ø
Flash over and distortion of field mmf
20. What are the quantities that are affected by the

number of poles?
Weight of iron and copper, length of commutator and
dimension of brushes are the quantities affected by the number
of poles.
21. List the disadvantages of large number of poles.

The large number of poles results in increases of the following:
Ø
Frequency of flux reversals
Ø
Labour charges
Ø
Possibility of flash over between brush arms
22. Mention guiding factors for the selection of

number of poles.
Ø
The frequency should lie between 25 to 50 Hz.
Ø
The value of current per parallel path is limited to
200A, thus the current per brush arm should not be more than
400A.
Ø
The armature mmf should not be too large. The mmf
per pole should be in the range 5000 to 12,500 AT.
Ø
Choose the largest value of poles which satisfies the
above three conditions.
23. What are the losses at the commutator surface?

The losses at the commutator surface are the brush contact
losses and brush friction losses.
24. Write down the expression for brush friction losses.

The brush friction loss is given as Pbf = µ Pb AB Vc
Where µ = co-efficient of friction
Pb = brush contact pressure
AB = total contact area of all brushes, m2
Vc = Peripheral speed of commutator, m/s
25. What are the advantages of carbon brushes?
Ø
They lubricate and polish the commutator
Ø
If sparking occurs, they damage the commutator less
than with the copper brushes.
Ø
They provide good commutation.
26. What is the height occupied by series field coil in

a field pole?
In a field pole of compound machine, approximately 80% of the

height is occupied by shunt field coil and 20% by the series
field coil.
27. How the Ampere turns of the series field coil is

estimated?
In compound machines, the ampere turns to be developed by

the series field coil are estimated as 15 to 25% of full load
armature mmf. In series machines, the ampere turns to be
developed by the series field coil are estimated as 1.15 to 1.25
times of full load armature mmf.
28. Mention the factors to be considered for the

design of shunt field coils.
Ø
Mmf per pole and flux density
Ø
Loss dissipated from the surface of field coil
Ø
Resistance of the field coil
Ø
Current density in the field conductors
29. State the use of interpoles.
The interpoles are used in D.C. machines to neutralize the cross

magnetizing armature mmf at the interpolar axis and to
neutralize the reactance voltage in the coil undergoing
commutation.
30. State the relation between the armature and the

commutator diameter for various ratings of D.C.
machines. The diameter of the commutator is chosen as 60 to
80% of armature diameter. The limiting factor is the peripheral
speed. The typical choice of commutator diameter for various
voltage ratings are listed here:
Where D is the armature diameter.

31. Why is the value of magnetizing current not a series
design consideration in D.C.machines?
The value of magnetizing current is not a series design

consideration in D.C.machines as there is sample space on
salient poles to accommodate the required number of field
turns.
32. What should be the peripheral speed of the

commutator?
The commutator peripheral speed is generally kept below 15
m/s. Higher peripheral speeds upto 30m/s are used but should
be avoided wherever possible. The higher commutator
peripheral speeds generally lead to commutation difficulties.
33. How is the length of commutator designed?
The length of the commutator is designed based upon the

space required by the brushes and upon the surface required to
dissipate the heat generated by the commutator losses.
Length of commutator, Lc = nb ( Wb + Cb )+ C1 + C2
Where nb = number of brushes per spindle
Wb = width of each brush
Cb = clearance between the brushes
C1 = clearance allowed for staggering the brushes
C2 = clearance for allowing the end play
34. What is the purpose of slot insulation?
The conductors are placed on the slots in the armature. When

the armature rotates, the insulation of the conductors may
damage due to vibrations. This may lead to a short circuit with
armature core if the slots are not insulated.
35. State any three conditions in deciding the choice

of number of slots for a large D.C.machine.
Ø
The slot loading should be less than 1500 ampere
conductors.
Ø
The number of slots per pole should be greater than
or equal to 9 to avoid sparking.
Ø
The slot pitch should lie between 25 to 35 mm.
36. What are the factors that influence the choice of

commutator diameter?
Ø
Peripheral speed
Ø
The peripheral voltage gradient should be limited to
3V/mm
Ø
Number of coils in the armature
37. What type of copper is used for commutator

segment?
The commutator segments are made of hard drawn copper or
silver copper (0.05% silver)
38. What are the materials used for brushes in

D.C.machine?
Ø
Natural graphite
Ø
Hard carbon
Ø
Electro graphite
Ø
Metal graphite
39. What are the points to be considered while fixing

up the dimensions of the slot?
Ø
Excessive flux density
Ø
Flux pulsations
Ø
Eddy current loss in conductors
Ø
Reactance voltage
Ø
Mechanical difficulties
40. Mention the factors that govern the choice of

number of armature slots in a d.C.machine.
Ø Slot pitch
Ø
Slot loading
Ø
Commutation
Ø
Suitability for winding
Ø
Flux pulsations
41. What is back pitch?
The distance between top and bottom coil sides of a coil

measured around the back of the armature is called the back
pitch. The back pitch is measured in terms of coil sides.
42. When are the pulsations and oscillations of air

gap flux reduced to minimum?
The pulsations and oscillations of air gap flux reduced to
minimum when,
Ø
The number of slots under the pole shoe is equal
an integer plus ½.
Ø
The number of slots per pole is equal to an integer
plus ½.
43. What factor decides the minimum number of

armature coils?
The maximum voltage between adjacent commutator

segments decides the minimum number of coils.
44. Explain how depth of armature core for a D.C.

machine is determined.
Let Ǿ = Flux/pole ; Li = Net iron length of armature;
Ǿc = Flux in armature core ; dc = depth of armature core ;
Bc = Flux density in the armature core ; A c = Area of cross-
section of armature core.
Now Ǿc = Ǿ/2 and Ac = Ǿc / Bc
Also Ac = Li dc dc = Ǿ / 2 Li Bc
45. List the characteristics of wave winding.
Ø
The number of parallel paths is two.
Ø
The current through a conductor is I a / 2 , where Ia is
the armature current.
Ø
The winding will have less number of conductors with
larger area of cross-section
Ø
The emf induced in both the parallel paths will be
always equal
46. What are the applications of D.C. special motors?

The D.C. special motors are used in closed loop control system
as power actuators and to provide linear motions. They are also
used as clutches, couplings, eddy current brakes, very high
speed drives, etc.,.
47. Why square pole is preferred?
If the cross-section of the pole body is square then the length of

the mean turn of field winding is minimum. Hence to reduce the
copper requirement a square cross-section is preferred for the
poles of D.C.machine.
48. Distinguish between lap and wave windings used in

D.C. machine.
The lap and wave windings primarily differ from each other in
the following two factors:
Ø
The number of circuits between the positive and
negative brushes, i.e., number of parallel paths.
Ø
The manner in which the coil ends are connected
to the commutator Segments.
49. What are dummy coils?
The coils which are placed in armature slot for mechanical

balance but not connected electrically to the armature winding
are called dummy coils.
50. What are the different types of commutation?

The different types of commutation are:
Ø
Resistance commutation
Ø
Retarded commutation
Ø
Accelerated commutation
Ø Sinusoidal commutation
TRANSFORMERS:
Design features of power and
distribution type transformers:
Power transformer
1. Load on the transformer will be at or near the full load

through out the period of operation. When the load is less, the
transformer, which is in parallel with other transformers, may
be put out of service.
2. Generally designed to achieve maximum efficiency at or
near the full load. Therefore iron loss is made equal to full load
copper loss by using a higher value of flux density. In other
words, power transformers are generally designed for a higher
value of flux density.
3. Necessity of voltage regulation does not arise .The

voltage variation is obtained by the help of tap changers
provided generally on the high voltage side. Generally Power
transformers are deliberately designed for a higher value of
leakage reactance, so that the short-circuit current, effect of
mechanical force and hence the damage is less.
Distribution transformer
1. Load on the transformer does not remain constant but

varies instant to instant over 24 hours a day
2. Generally designed for maximum efficiency at about

half full load. In order that the all day efficiency is high, iron loss
is made less by selecting a lesser value of flux density. In other
words distribution transformers are generally designed for a
lesser value of flux density. Since the distributed transformers
are located in the vicinity of the load, voltage regulation is an
important factor.
3. Generally the distribution transformers are not equipped

with tap changers to maintain a constant voltage as it increases
the cost, maintenance charges etc., Thus the distribution
transformers are designed to have a low value of inherent
regulation by keeping down the value of leakage reactance.
Unless otherwise specified, LV winding is always placed next to
the core and HV winding over the LV winding in order to reduce
the quantity of insulation used, avoid the possibility of
breakdown of the space between the core and HV coil in case
HV coil is provided next to the core and to control the leakage
reactance. However in case of transformers where the voltage
rating is less, LV and HV windings can be arranged in any
manner
SPECIFICATION
1. Output-kVA
2. Voltage-V1/V2 with or without tap changers and tapings
3. Frequency-f Hz
4. Number of phases – One or three
5. Rating – Continuous or short time
6. Cooling – Natural or forced
7. Type – Core or shell, power or distribution
8. Type of winding connection in case of 3 phase transformers –
star-star, star-delta, delta-delta, delta-star with or without
grounded neutral
9. Efficiency, per unit impedance, location (i.e., indoor, pole or
platform mounting etc.), temperature rise etc.,
SIZE OF THE TRANSFORMER

As the iron area of the leg Ai and the window area Aw = (height
of the window Hw x Width of the window W w) increases the size
of the transformer also increases. The size of the transformer
increases as the output of the transformer increases.
NOTE:
Nomenclature:
V1 – Applied primary voltage
V2 – Secondary terminal voltage
E1, E2 – EMF induced in the primary and secondary windings per
phase in case of 3 phase
T1, T2 – Number of primary and secondary turns per phase in
case of 3 phase
I1, I2 – Primary and Secondary currents per phase in case of 3
phase
a1, a2 – Cross-sectional area of the primary and secondary
winding conductors
δ - Current density in the transformer conductor. Assumed to be
same for both LV and HV
winding.
φm – Maximum value of the (mutual or useful) flux in weber =
AiBm
Bm – Maximum value of the flux density = φm / Ai
Ai – Net iron area of the core or leg or limb = KiAg
Ki – Iron or stacking factor = 0.9 approximately
Ag – Gross area of the core
a. It is clear that V1I1 = V2I2 or volt-ampere input is equal to

volt-ampere output or kVA rating of both
primary and secondary windings is same.
b. It is clear that I1T1 = I2T2 or primary mmf is equal to
secondary mmf.
c. It is clear that E1/T1 = E2/T2 or volt/turn of both primary and
secondary is same.
Output Equations
Single phase core type transformer
Rating of the transformer in kVA = V 1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 =

4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3----(1)
Single phase shell type transformer
Note : Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design

one of the two windows as both the windows are symmetrical.
Since the LV and HV windings are placed on the central leg,
each window accommodates T1 and T2 turns of both primary
and secondary windings.
Area of copper in the window
Three phase core type transformer

Rating of the transformer in kVA = V1I1 x 10-3 = E1I1 x 10-3 = 3
x 4.44 φm f T1 x I1 x 10-3…(1)
Note: Since there are two windows, it is sufficient to design

one of the two windows, as both the windows are symmetrical.
Since each leg carries the LV &HV windings of one phase, each
window carry the LV & HV windings of two phases
Since each window carries the windings of two phases, area of

copper in the window, say due to R & Y phases
Three phase shell type transformer
[ Note: Since there are six windows, it is sufficient to design one

of the six windows, as all the windows are symmetrical. Since
each central leg carries the LV and HV windings of one phase,
each window carries windings of only one phase.]
Since each window carries LV and HV windings of only one

phase,
Window space factor Kw - Design of
Transformers
Window space factor is defined as the ratio of copper
area in the window to the area of the window.

factor reduces as the voltage increases.
It depends upon the relative amounts of insulation and copper

provided, which in turn depends upon the voltage rating and
output o transformers. The following empirical formulae may be
used for estimating the value of window space factor:
Kw = 10/(30+kV)
Where kV is the voltage of h.v. winding in kilo-volt. The above

formula is for transformers of rating between 50 to 200 kVA.
Space factor is larger for large outputs and smaller outputs. For
a transformer of about 1000 kVA rating K w = 12/(30+kV) and
for transformers of about 20 kVA rating Kw = 8/(30 + kV). The
values of space actor for intermediate rating can be
interpolated.

factor reduces as the voltage increases. A value for Kw can be
calculated by the following empirical formula.
where kVhv is the voltage of the high voltage winding expressed

in kV.
Overall dimensions
The main dimensions of the transformer are
(i) Height of window(Hw)

(ii) Width of the window(Ww)
The other important dimensions of the transformer are
(i) width of largest stamping(a)
(ii) diameter of circumscribing circle
As the iron area of the leg Ai and the window area Aw = (height
of the window Hw x Width of the window Ww) increases the size
of the transformer also increases. The size of the transformer
increases as the output of the transformer increases.
1. Output-kVA
2. Voltage-V1/V2 with or without tap changers and

tapings
3. Frequency-f Hz
4. Number of phases – One or three
5. Rating – Continuous or short time

6. Cooling – Natural or forced
7. Type – Core or shell, power or distribution
8. Type of winding connection in case of 3 phase

transformers – star-star, star-delta, delta-delta, delta-star with
or without grounded neutral
9. Efficiency, per unit impedance, location (i.e.,

indoor, pole or platform mounting etc.), temperature rise etc.,
Volt / turn equation
Rating of the transformer per phase kVA / ph = V 1I1 x 10-3 =

E1I1 x 10-3
= 4.44 φm f T1 I1 x 10-3
The term φm is called the magnetic loading and I 1T1 is called the
electric loading. The required kVA can be obtained by selecting
a higher value of φm and a lesser of I1T1 or vice-versa.
As the magnetic loading increases, flux density and hence the
core loss increases and the
efficiency of operation decreases. Similarly as the electric
loading increases, number of turns, resistance and hence the
copper loss increases. This leads to reduced efficiency of
operation. It is clear that there is no advantage by the selection
of higher values of I1T1 or φm. For an economical design they
must be selected in certain proportion. Thus in practice
Where K = 4.44 f x 103 x Kt is another constant and kVA is the
rated output of the transformer. The constant K depends on the
type of transformer-single or three phase, core or shell type,
power or distribution type, type of factory organization etc.,
Emperical values of K :
( 1.0 to 1.2) for single phase shell type
1.3 for three-phase shell type (power)
(0.75 to 0.85) for single phase core type
(0.6 to 0.7) for three phase core type (power)
0.45 for three-phase core type (distribution )
Core design
Net iron area of the leg or limb or core Ai
For a given area Ai, different types of core section that are used
in practice are circular, rectangular and square.
It is clear that the rectangular core calls for more length of
copper for the same number of turns as compared to circular
core. Therefore circular core is preferable to rectangular or
square core.
Very high values of mechanical forces under short circuit

conditions tries to deform the shape of the square or
rectangular coil (the mechanical forces try to deform to a
circular shape) and hence damage the coil and insulation.
Since this is not so in case of circular coils, circular coils are
preferable to square or rectangular coils.
Thus a circular core and a circular coil is preferable. Since the

core has to be of laminated type, circular core is not
practicable as it calls for more number of different size
laminations and poses the problem of securing them together
is in position. However, a circular core can be approximated to
a stepped core having infinite number of steps. Minimum
number of steps one and the number of steps in practice is
limited to a definite number. Whenever a stepped core is
employed a circular coil is used.
Leg or limb section details: -

The different types of leg sections used are rectangular, square
and stepped.
1. Rectangular core (with a rectangular coil)
a = width of the stamping or leg

b = gross thickness of the assembled core or width of the
transformer
Ai = net iron area of the leg or limb or core
= a xKi b for a core type transformer
Ki = iron factor or stacking factor
2a = width of the central leg
b = width of the transformer
Ai = 2a x Kib for a shell type transformer
2. (a) Square core (with a square coil)
a = width of the leg

a = width of the transformer
Ai = Kia2 for a core transformer
2a = width of the central leg
2a = width of the transformer
Ai = Ki (2a)2 for a shell type transformer
(b) Square core (with a circular coil)
a = width of the stamping or leg

= d Sin45 or d Cos45
= 0.71d where d is the diameter of the circumscribing circle
Ai = Kia2 = Ki(0.71d)2
= 0.9 x 0.5d2 for 10% insulation or Ki = 0.9
= 0.45d2
Area of the circumscribing circle Ac = πd2/4 = 0.785d2
It is clear that Ai is only 57.3% of Ac. Rest of the area 42.7% of

Ac is not being utilized usefully. In order to utilize the area
usefully, more number of steps is used. This leads to 2 stepped,
3 stepped etc core.
3. Cruciform or 2-stepped core:

a = width of the largest stamping
b = width of the smallest stamping
Gross area of the core Ag = ab + 2b(a-b)/2 = 2ab-b2
Since a=d Cosθ and b=d Sinθ
It is clear that addition of one step to a square core, enhances
the utilization of more space of the circumscribing circle area.
4. Three stepped core:
Width of the largest stamping a = 0.9d

Width of the middle stamping b = 0.7d
Width of the smallest stamping c = 0.42d
Ai =0.6d2
5. Four stepped core:
Note : As the number of steps increases, the diameter of the

circumscribing circle reduces. Though the cost of the core
increases, cost of copper and size of the coil or transformer
reduces.
Yoke section details:

The purpose of the yoke is to connect the legs providing a least
reluctance path. In order to limit the iron loss in the yoke,
operating flux density is reduced by increasing the yoke area.
Generally yoke area is made 20% more than the leg area..
Note:
1. Whenever the yoke area is different from the leg area, yoke
can considered to be of rectangular type for convenience.
2. In general height of the yoke H y can be taken as (1.0 to 1.5)

a. When there is no data about the yoke area, consider Hy = a.
The different types of yoke sections used are square,
rectangular and stepped.
Window area and core proportion
If Hw = height of the window, Ww = width of the window,

then Aw = HwWw
In order to limit the leakage reactance of the transformer, H w is
made more than Ww. In practice Hw / Ww lies between 2.5 and
3.5.
Core type transformer
Note:
1. D-distance between the two core or leg central lines
2. Width Ww is measured from one edge of the leg to the other

of the adjacent leg in case of square or rectangular core with
square or rectangular coil and between the two circumscribing
circles of adjacent legs in case of stepped legs.
3. Depth or width of the core type transformer = b in case of
rectangular core
= a in case of square or stepped core
Overall length = (Ww + 2a) or (D+a) in case of single phase
core type transformer with square or rectangular core
= (Ww+d+a) or (D+a) in case of single phase core type
transformer with a Stepped leg
= (2Ww + 2d + a) or (2D+a) in case of three phase core type
transformer with a stepped leg. No square or rectangular leg
is used for high capacity three phase transformers.
Overall height = (Hw + 2Hy) for all core type transformers.
Depth or width of the Shell type transformer = b in case of

rectangular central leg
= 2a in case of stepped central leg
Overall length = (2Ww + 4a) in case of a shell type transformer
with rectangular or square central leg
= (d + 2Ww + 2a) in case of shell type transformer with
central stepped leg
Overall height = (Hw + 2Hy) in case of a single phase shell type
transformer
= 3(Hw+2Hy) in case of a three phase shell type transformer
Winding details:
Since the applied voltage V1 is approximately equal to the

voltage induced E1 = 4.44 φm f T1 = Et T1
Number of primary turns (or turns / phase) T 1 = V1 / Et in case

of single phase transformers
= V1ph / Et in case of 3 phase transformers
Number of secondary turns (or turns / phase) T 2 = V2/ Et in case

of single phase transformers
= V2ph / Et in case of 3 phase transformers
Primary current (or current/phase) I1 = kVA x 103 / V1 in case of

single phase transformers
= kVA x 103 / 3V1ph in case of 3 phase transformers
Cross-sectional area of primary winding conductor a 1 = I1/ δ

mm2
Secondary current (or current / phase) I2 = kVA x 10 3 / V2 in

case of single phase transformers
= kVA x 103 / 3V2ph in case of 3 phase transformers
Cross-sectional area of secondary winding conductor a 2 = I2/ δ

mm2
Knowing the number of turns and cross-sectional area of the

primary and secondary winding conductors, number of
turns/layer in a window height of Hw and number of layers in a
window width of Ww can be found out.
No-load current of a transformer
The phasor sum of the magnetizing current (I m) and the loss

component of current (I1) ; Im is calculated using the MMF/m
required for the core and yoke and their respective length of
flux path. I1 is determined using the iron loss curve of the
material used for the core and yoke and the flux density
employed and their weight.
The no-load current I0 is the vectorial sum of the magnetizing

current Im and core loss or working component current Ic.
[Function of Im is to produce flux φm in the magnetic circuit
and the function of Ic is to satisfy the no load losses of the
transformer]. Thus,
No load input to the transformer = V 1I0Cosφ0 = V1Ic = No load
losses as the output is zero and input = output + losses.
Since the copper loss under no load condition is almost

negligible, the no load losses can entirely be taken as due to
core loss only. Thus the core loss component of the no load
current
Ic = core loss / V1
for single phase transformers
with the assumption that the magnetizing current is sinusoidal

(which is not true in practice)
The magnetic circuit of a transformer consists of both iron and

air path. The iron path is due to legs and yokes and air path is
due to the unavoidable joints created by the core composed of
different shaped stampings. If all the joints are assumed to be
equivalent to an air gap of l g , then the total ampere turns for
the transformer magnetic circuit is equal to AT for iron +
800,000lgBm. Therefore,
Note:
1. In case of a transformer of normal design, the no load
current will generally be less than about 2% of the full load
current.
2. No load power factor Cosφ0 = Ic/I0 and will be around 0.2.
3. Transformer copper losses:
a) The primary copper loss at no load is negligible as I 0 is very
less.
b) The secondary copper loss is zero at no load, as no current
flows in the secondary winding at no load.
4. Core or iron loss:
Total core loss = core loss in legs + core loss in yokes.
The core loss can be estimated at design stage by referring to
graph of core loss/kg versus flux density.
Core loss in leg = loss/kg in leg x weight of leg in kg
= loss / kg in leg x volume of the leg (A iHw) x density of steel or
iron used
Core loss in yoke = loss/kg in Yoke x volume of yoke (A y x mean
length of the yoke) x density of iron used
The density of iron or steel used for the transformer core lies
between 7.55 to 7.8 grams/cc.
RESISTANCE AND REACTANCE OF
TRANSFORMER.
Resistance:
Resistivity of copper at 600C ρ= 2.1 x 10-6 ohm-cm or 2.1 x 10-

8 ohm-m or 0.021 ohm/m/mm2
Mean length of turn of the primary winding L mt P = π x mean

diameter of the primary winding
Number of primary turns / phase T1 or Tp = V1ph / Et
Resistance of the secondary winding / phase rs =
Mean length of turn of the secondary winding L mt S = π x mean

diameter of the secondary winding
Number of secondary turns / phase T2 or Ts = V2ph / Et
Reactance:
[Note: 1. Useful flux: It is the flux that links with both primary
and secondary windings and is responsible in transferring the
energy Electro-magnetically from primary to secondary side.
The path of the useful flux is in the magnetic core.
2. Leakage flux: It is the flux that links only with the primary or
secondary winding and is responsible in imparting inductance
to the windings. The path of the leakage flux depends on the
geometrical configuration of the coils and the neighboring iron
masses.
3. Reactance:
a) Leakage reactance = 2πf x inductance = 2πf x Flux linkage /
current
b) Flux linkage = flux x number of turns
c) Flux =( mmf or AT) / Reluctance = AT x permeanence ∧
d) Permeanace ∧ = 1 / Reluctance = aµ0µr / l where
a = area over which the flux is established

l = length of the flux path
If x p and xs are the leakage reactances of the primary and

secondary windings, then the total leakage reactance of the
transformer referred to primary winding Xp = xp + xs = xp +
xs(Tp/Ts)2
Similarly the leakage reactance of the transformer referred to
secondary winding Xs = xp + xs = xp (Ts / Tp )2 + xs .
Estimation of the leakage flux or reactance is always difficult,

on account of the complex geometry of the leakage flux path
and great accuracy is unobtainable. A number of assumptions
are to be made to get a usable approximate expression.
Validity or the accuracy of the expression is checked against
test data
Expression for the leakage reactance of a core type

transformer with concentric LV and HV coils of equal
height or length:
Assumptions considered for the derivation:

a. Effect of magnetizing current is neglected.
b. Reluctance and effect of saturation of iron is neglected.
c. All the mmf is assumed to be used to over come the
reluctance of coil height
d. Leakage flux distribution in coil and in the space between the
LV and HV coils is assumed to be parallel to the leg axis.
Let,
bp and bs = Radial depth of primary and secondary windings
Tp and Ts = Number of primary and secondary turns per phase
for 3 phase
Ip and Is = Primary and secondary currents per phase for 3
phase
Lmt P Lmt S = Mean length of turn of primary or secondary
windings respectively
Lmt = Mean length of primary and secondary windings
considered together
L0 = Circumference of the insulation portion or duct or both
between LV and HV coils
Lc = Axial height or length of the both LV and HV coils
The total flux linkage of the primary or secondary winding is

due to
a. Leakage flux inside the primary or secondary winding and
b. Leakage flux in between the LV and HV coils
To determine the flux linkage due to the flux inside the coil,
consider an elemental strip dx at a distance ‘x’ from the edge
of the LV winding (say primary winding). Then the flux linkage
of the primary winding, due to the flux φX in the strip.
ψX = φX x number of turns linked by φX

= ampere turns producing φX permeance of the strip x number
of turns linked by φX
Considering the mean length of the strip is approximately equal
to Lmt P .
Therefore, the total flux linkage due to the flux inside the coil
If one half of the flux φ0 in between the LV and HV windings is

assumed to be linking with each windings, then the flux linkage
of the primary winding due to half of the flux φ 0 in between LV
and HV windings,
Temperature rise in Transformers
Losses dissipated in transformers in the core and windings get
converted into thermal energy and cause heating of the
corresponding transformer parts. The heat dissipation occurs as
follows: i) from the internal heated parts to the outer surface in
contact with oil by conduction ii) from oil to the tank walls by
convection and iii) from the walls of the tank to the atmosphere
by radiation and convection.
Q = Power loss(heat produced ), J/s or W
G = weight of the active material of the Machine, kg h =

specific heat, J/kg-◦C
S = cooling surface area, m2
λ = specific heat dissipation, W/ m2 -◦C

c = 1/ λ = cooling coefficient, m2 -◦C / W
θm = final steady temperature rise,◦C
The temperature of the machine rises when it is supplying load.

As the temperature rises, the heat is dissipated partly by
conduction, partly by radiation and in most cases largely by air
cooling. The temperature rise curve is exponential in nature.
Assuming the theory of heating of homogeneous bodies ,
Heat developed = heat stored + heat dissipated
Design of Tank and Tubes

Because of the losses in the transformer core and coil, the
temperature of the core and coil increases. In small capacity
transformers the surrounding air will be in a position to cool the
transformer effectively and keeps the temperature rise well
with in the permissible limits. As the capacity of the
transformer increases, the losses and the temperature rise
increases. In order to keep the temperature rise with in limits,
air may have to be blown over the transformer. This is not
advisable as the atmospheric air containing moisture, oil
particles etc., may affect the insulation. To overcome the
problem of atmospheric hazards, the transformer is placed in a
steel tank filled with oil. The oil conducts the heat from core
and coil to the tank walls. From the tank walls the heat goes
dissipated to surrounding atmosphere due to radiation and
convection. Further as the capacity of the transformer
increases, the increased loss demands a higher dissipating area
of the tank or a bigger sized tank. These calls for more space,
more volume of oil and increases the cost and transportation
problems. To overcome these difficulties, the dissipating area is
to be increased by artificial means without increasing the size
of the tank. The dissipating area can be increased by
1. fitting fins to the tank walls
2. fitting tubes to the tank and
3. using corrugated tank
4. using auxiliary radiator tanks
Since the fins are not effective in dissipating heat and

corrugated tank involves constructional difficulties, they are not
much used now a days. The tanks with tubes are much used in
practice. Tubes in more number of rows are to be avoided as
the screening of the tank and tube surfaces decreases the
dissipation. Hence, when more number of tubes are to be
provided, a radiator attached with the tank is considered. For
much larger sizes forced cooling is adopted.
Dimensions of the Tank
The dimensions of tank depends on the type and capacity of

transformer, voltage rating and electrical clearance to be
provided between the transformer and tank, clearance to
accommodate the connections and taps, clearance for base and
oil above the transformer etc.,. These clearances can assumed
to be between
(30 and 60) cm in respect of tank height (10 and 20) cm in

respect of tank length and
(10 and 20) cm in respect of tank width or breadth.
Tank height Ht = [ Hw + 2Hy or 2a + clearance (30 to 60)

cm ] for single and three phase core, and single phase shell
type transformers.
= [3(Hw + 2Hy or 2a) + clearance (30 to 60) cm ] for a three
phase shell type transformer.
Tank length Lt = [ D + Dext + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for

single phase core type transformer = [ 2D + Dext + clearance
(10 to 20) cm ] for three phase core type transformer = [ 4a +
2Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and three phase
shell type transformer.
Width or breadth of tank Wt = [ Dext + clearance (10 to 20)

cm ] for all types of transformers with a circular coil.
= [ b + Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and

three phase core type transformers having rectangular coils.
= [ b + 2Ww + clearance (10 to 20) cm ] for single and

three phase shell type transformers.
When the tank is placed on the ground, there will not be any
heat dissipation from the bottom surface of the tank. Since the
oil is not filled up to the brim of the tank, heat transfer from the
oil to the top of the tank is less and heat dissipation from the
top surface of the tank is almost negligible. Hence the effective
surface area of the tank St from which heat is getting
dissipated can assumed to be 2Ht (Lt + Wt) m2.
Heat goes dissipated to the atmosphere from tank by radiation

and convection. It has been found by experiment that 6.0W
goes radiated per m2 of plain surface per degree centigrade
difference between tank and ambient air temperature and 6.5W
goes dissipated by convection / m2 of plain surface / degree
centigrade difference in temperature between tank wall and
ambient air. Thus a total of 12.5W/m 2/0C goes dissipated to the
surrounding. If is the temperature rise, then at final steady
temperature condition, losses responsible for temperature rise
is losses dissipated or transformer losses = 12.5 S t .
Number and dimensions of tubes
If the temperature rise of the tank wall is beyond a permissible

value of about 500C, then cooling tubes are to be added to
reduce the temperature rise. Tubes can be arranged on all the
sides in one or more number of rows. As number of rows
increases, the dissipation will not proportionally increase.
Hence the number of rows of tubes are to be limited. Generally
the number of rows in practice will be less than four.
With the tubes connected to the tank, dissipation due to

radiation from a part of the tank surface screened by the tubes
is zero. However if the radiating surface of the tube, dissipating
the heat is assumed to be equal to the screened surface of the
tank, then tubes can assumed to be radiating no heat. Thus the
full tank surface can assumed to be dissipating the heat due to
both radiation and convection & can be taken as 12.5 S t watts.
Because the oil when get heated up moves up and cold oil
down, circulation of oil in the tubes will be more. Obviously, this
circulation of oil increases the heat dissipation. Because of this
siphoning action, it has been found that the convection from
the tubes increase by about 35 to 40%.
Thus if the improvement is by 35%, then the dissipation in
watts from all the tubes of area At = 1.35 x 6.5At θ = 8.78 At
θ..
Thus in case of a tank with tubes, at final steady temperature

rise condition, Losses = 12.5 St θ + 8.78 Atθ
Round, rectangular or elliptical shaped tubes can be used. The
mean length or height of the tubes is generally taken as about
90% of tank height.
In case of round tubes, 5 cm diameter tubes spaced at about

7.5cm (from centre to centre) are used. If d t is the diameter of
the tube, then dissipating area of each tube a t = πpdt x 0.9H .
t
if nt is the number of tubes, then At = atnt.
Now a days rectangular tubes of different size spaced at

convenient distances are being much used, as it provides a
greater cooling surface for a smaller volume of oil. This is true
in case of elliptical tubes also. The tubes can be arranged in
any convenient way ensuring mechanical strength and
aesthetic view.
Methods of cooling of Transformers
1. Air natural
2. Air blast
3. Oil natural
4. Oil natural – air forced
5. Oil natural water forced
6. Forced circulation of oil
7. Oil forced – air natural
8. Oil forced – air forced
9. Oil forced – water forced
TRANSFORMERS
1. Define transformation ratio.
It is defined as the ratio of secondary

terminal voltage to primary terminal voltage.
It is denoted by k.
K = Vs /Vp = Ts / Tp = Ip / Is
2. Name the types of transformer.

Based upon construction, the types are
 Core type and
 shell type transformer
Based on applications, the types are
Ø
Distribution transformers
Ø
Power transformers
Ø
Special transformers
Ø
Instrument transformers
Ø
Electronics transformers
Based on the type of connection, the types are

Ø
Single phase transformer
Ø
Three phase transformer
Based on the frequency range, the types are

Ø
Power frequency transformer
Ø
Audio frequency transformer
Ø
UHF transformers
Ø
Wide band transformers
Ø
Narrow band transformer
Ø
Pulse transformer
Based on the number of windings, the types are
Ø
Auto transformer
Ø
Two winding transformer
3. Define windows space factor or window area

constant.
It is defined as the ratio of the are of copper in the window to
the window area.
Kw = Ac / Aw < 1
Ac is the area of copper in m2
Aw is the area of window in m2
4. Define iron space factor.
It is defined as the ratio of gross core area to the area of the
circumscribing circle.
Kis = Agi / Ace < 1
Agi is the gross core area in m2
Ace is the area of circumscribing circle in m2
5. What is a function of a transformer?
Ø
It increases or decreases the voltage at same
frequency.
Ø
It transforms energy from one winding to other
winding at constant frequency.
Ø
It is used in electronic circuits with rectifying units to
convert ac to dc.
Ø
It provides isolation between to electrical circuits.
6. What is the function of transformer oil?

Ø
It provides cooling.
Ø It acts as insulation.
Ø
It protects the paper from dirt and moisture.
7. What is the cause of noise in transformer?

Ø
Mechanical forces developed during working
Ø
Loosening of stampings in the core
Ø
Expansion and contraction of oil level
8. What are the properties of transformer oil?

Ø
High dielectric strength
Ø
High resistivity and density
Ø
Low viscosity
Ø
Low impurity
Ø
Reasonable cost and flash point
9. Difference between core type and shell type

transformer.
10. Difference between distribution and power
transformer.
11. Mention the important characteristics desirable in

transformer oil.
Ø
Electric strength
Ø
Resistance to emulsion
Ø
Viscosity
Ø
Purity
Ø
Flash point
Ø
Sludge formation
12. Why is transformer oil used as cooling medium?
When transformer oil is used as coolant, the heat dissipation by

convection is 10 times more than the convection due to air
specific heat dissipation by convection due to air = 8 W/ m 2 – C.
Specific heat dissipation by convection due to oil = 80 to 100
W/ m2 – C.
13. Mention the factors to be considered for selecting
the cooling method of a transformer.
The choice of cooling method depends on KVA rating of

transformer, size, application and the site condition where it
has to be installed.
14. List the different methods of cooling of

transformer.
Ø
Air natural
Ø
Air blast
Ø
Oil natural
Ø
Oil natural – air forced
Ø
Oil natural water forced
Ø
Forced circulation of oil
Ø
Oil forced – air natural
Ø
Oil forced – air forced
Ø
Oil forced – water forced
15. Give an expression for the heating time constant of

transformer.
Where G is weight, h is specific heat, λ is the specific heat

dissipation.
16. Why cooling tubes are are provided?

Cooling tubes are provided to increase the heat dissipating area
of the tank.
17. Give the expression for magnetizing current.

The magnetizing current is given by
18. Write the expression for temperature rise in plain

walled tanks.
where Pi = iron loss ; Pc = copper loss ; St = Heat dissipating

surface of the tank
19. Why plain walled tanks are not used for large output
transformers?
The plain walled tanks are not used for large output
transformers as they are not sufficient to dissipate losses. This
is because volume and hence losses increase as cube of linear
dimensions while the dissipating surface increases as the
square of linear dimensions. Thus an increase in rating results
in an increase in loss to be dissipated per unit area giving a
higher temperature rise.
20. How is leakage reactance of winding estimated?
It is estimated by primarily estimating the distribution of

leakage flux and the resulting flux leakages of the primary and
the secondary windings. The distribution of the leakage flux
depends upon the geometrical configuration of the coils and
the neighboring iron masses and also on the permeability of the
iron.
21. Define stacking factor and give its typical value.
Its typical value is 0.9.
22. Why stepped cores are used in transformers?

When stepped cores are used, the diameters of the
circumscribing circle is minimum for a given area of the core,
which helps in reducing the length of mean turn of the winding
with consequent reduction in both cost of copper and copper
loss.
23. What is the range of flux densities used in the

design of a transformer?
When hot rolled silicon steel is used,
Ø
Bm = 1.1 to 1.4 Wb / m2 for distribution transformer
Ø
= 1.2 to 1.5 Wb / m2 for power transformer When cold
rolled silicon steel is used,
Ø
Bm = 1.5 Wb / m2 for up to 132 KV transformer
Ø
= 1.6 Wb / m2 for 132 KV to 275 KV transformer
Ø
= 1.7 Wb / m2 for 275KV to 400 KV transformer
24. Name the factors to be considered to choose the

type of winding for a core type transformer.
Ø
Current density
Ø
Short circuit current
Ø
Surge voltage
Ø
Impedance
Ø
Temperature rise
Ø
Transport facilities
25. Give typical values of core area factor for various

types of transformers.
Core area factor ( Kc ) for various transformers:
Ø
Square core Kc = 0.45
Ø
Cruciform core Kc = 0.56
Ø
Three stepped core Kc = 0.6
Ø
Four stepped core Kc = 0.62
26. List the assumptions made for calculation of

leakage flux and leakage reactance.
Ø
The primary and secondary windings have an equal
axial length
Ø
The flux paths are parallel to the windings along the
axial height
Ø
Primary winding mmf is equal to secondary winding
mmf
Ø
Half of the leakage flux in the duct links with each
winding
Ø
The length of the mean turn of the windings are equal
Ø
The reluctance of flux path through yoke is negligible
27. Define copper space factor.

For a transformer, it is the ratio of conductor area and window
area.
28. Name the various types of cross section used for
core type transformer.
Ø
Square
Ø
Rectangle
Ø
Cruciform and
Ø
Multi stepped cores
29. What is window space factor?
The window space factor is defined as the ratio of copper area

in window to total window
Window space factor = area. Copper area in window / Total
Window area
30. How the area of window is calculated?

Are of the window (Aw) = Height of window (H w) * Width of
window (Ww).
31. Why are the cores of large transformers built up of
circular cross-section?
The excessive leakage fluxes produced during short circuit and

over loads develop mechanical stresses in the coils. These
forces are radial in circular coils and there is no tendency for
the coil to change its shape. But in rectangular coils, these
forces are perpendicular and tend to deform the coil.
32. Give the expression for window width that gives the
maximum output.
The width of the window for maximum output is
Ww = D - d = 0.7 d.
Where D = distance between adjacent limbs d = width

occupied by iron
33. Give the expression for KVA rating of a single and

three phase transformer.
Rating of a single phase & three phase transformer in KVA is
given as
Q = 2.22 f Bm δ Kw Aw Ai * 10-3
Where f = frequency, Hz
Bm = maximum flux density, Wb/m2
δ = current density, A/mm2
Kw = Window space factor
Aw = Window area, m2
Ai = Net core area, m2
34. Mention different types of low voltage windings.
Ø
Cylindrical windings
Ø
Helical winding
35. What is the range of efficiency of a transformer?

The efficiency will be in the range of 94% to 99%.
36. In transformers, why the low voltage winding is

placed near the core?
The winding & core are both made of metals and so insulation
has to be placed in between them. The thickness of insulation
depends on the voltage rating of the winding. In order to
reduce the insulation requirement the low voltage winding is
placed near the core.
37. What are the disadvantages of stepped cores?
With large number of steps a large number of different sizes of

laminations have to be used. This results in higher labor
charges for shearing and assembling different types of
laminations.
38. What is the objective behind using sheet steel

stampings in the construction of electrical machines?
The stampings are used to reduce the eddy current losses. The
stampings are insulated by a thin coating of varnish, hence
when the stampings are stacked to form a core, the resistance
for the eddy current is very high.
39. What type of steel is commonly used for the core of

transformer?
The hot rolled and cold rolled silicon steel with 3 to 5%silicon
are used for the laminations of the core of transformers. The
hot rolled silicon steel allows a maximum flux density of 1.45
Wb/m2 and the cold rolled silicon steel permits a maximum flux
density of 1.8 Wb/m2.
40. What is tertiary winding?
Some three phase transformers may have a third winding

called tertiary winding apart from primary and secondary. It is
also called auxiliary winding or stabilizing winding.
The tertiary winding is provided in a transformer for any one of
the following reasons:
Ø
To supply small additional load at a different voltage
Ø
To give supply to phase compensating devices such as
capacitors which work at different voltage
Ø To limit short circuit current
Ø
To indicate voltage in high voltage testing transformer
41. How the tertiary winding is connected? Why?
The tertiary winding is normally connected in delta. When the

tertiary is connected in delta, the unbalance in the phase
voltage during unsymmetrical faults in primary or secondary is
compensated by the circulating currents flowing in the closed
delta.
42. What are the salient features of distribution

transformer?
Ø
The distribution transformers will have low iron loss
and higher value of copper loss.
Ø
The capacity of transformers will be up to 500 KVA
Ø
The transformers will have plain walled tanks are
provided with cooling tubes or radiators
Ø
The leakage reactance and regulation will be low.
42. What types of forces acts on the coils of a
transformer in the event of a short circuit on a
transformer?
During short circuit conditions the radial forces will be acting on

the coil, which is due to short circuit currents.
43. What is the range of current densities used in the

design of transformer winding?
The choice of current density depends on the allowable

temperature rise, copper loss and method of cooling. The range
of current density for various types of transformers is given
below:
Ø
δ = 1.1 to 2.2 A/mm2 - For distribution
transformers
Ø
δ = 1.1 to 2.2 A/mm2 - For small power
transformers with self oil cooling
Ø
δ = 2.2 to 3.2 A/mm2 - For large power
transformers with self oil cooling

δ = 5.4 to 6.2 A/mm2 - For large power transformers with
forced circulation of oil
44. How the heat dissipates in a transformer?

The heat dissipation in a transformer occurs by conduction,
convection and Radiation.
45. How the leakage reactance of a transformer is

reduced?
In transformers the leakage reactance is reduced by

interleaving the high voltage, and low voltage winding.
46. How the magnetic curves are used for calculating
the no-load current of a transformer?
The B –H curve can be used to find the mmf per metre for the
flux densities in yoke and core. The loss curve can be used to
estimate the iron loss per Kg for the flux densities in yoke and
core.
47. What is conservator?
A conservator is a small cylindrical drum fitted just above the

transformer main tank. It is used to allow the expansion and
contraction of oil without contact with surrounding atmosphere.
When conservator is fitted in a transformer, the tank is fully

filled with oil and the conservator is half filled with oil.
48. Why silica gel is used in breather?
The silica gel is used to absorb the moisture when the air is
drawn from atmosphere into the transformer.
49. What are the merits and demerits of using water

for forced cooling of transformers?
The advantage in forced water cooling is that large amount of

heat can be removed quickly from the transformer.
The disadvantage in forced water cooling is that the water may

leak into oil and the oil may be contaminated.
50. In mines applications transformers with oil cooling
should not be used, why?
The oil used for transformer cooling is inflammable. Hence

leakage of cooling oil may create fore accidents in mines.
Therefore oil cooled transformers are not used in mines.
Unit-4 INDUCTION MOTOR:

Introduction:
Induction motors are the ac motors which are employed as the

prime movers in most of the industries. Such motors are widely
used in industrial applications from small workshops to large
industries. These motors are employed in applications such as
centrifugal pumps, conveyers, compressors crushers, and
drilling machines etc.
Constructional Details:
Similar to DC machines an induction motor consists of a

stationary member called stator and a rotating member called
rotor. However the induction motor differs from a dc machine in
the following aspects.
1. Laminated stator
2. Absence of commutator
3. Uniform and small air gap
4. Practically almost constant speed

The AC induction motor comprises two electromagnetic parts:
• Stationary part called the stator
• Rotating part called the rotor
The stator and the rotor are each made up of
• An electric circuit, usually made of insulated copper or

aluminum winding, to carry current
• A magnetic circuit, usually made from laminated silicon steel,

to carry magnetic flux
The stator
The stator is the outer stationary part of the motor, which

consists of
• The outer cylindrical frame of the motor or

yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron or
cast aluminum alloy.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of

slotted steel laminations called stator core pressed into the
cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is
laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing losses and
heating.
• A set of insulated electrical windings, which are placed inside
the slots of the laminated stator. The cross-sectional area of
these windings must be large enough for the power rating of
the motor. For a 3-phase motor, 3 sets of windings are required,
one for each phase connected in either star or delta. Fig 1
shows the cross sectional view of an induction motor. Details of
construction of stator are shown in Figs
The rotor
Rotor is the rotating part of the induction motor. The rotor also
consists of a set of slotted silicon steel laminations pressed
together to form of a cylindrical magnetic circuit and the
electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor is of the
following nature
Squirrel cage rotor consists of a set of copper or aluminum bars

installed into the slots, which are connected to an end-ring at
each end of the rotor. The construction of this type of rotor
along with windings resembles a ‘squirrel cage’. Aluminum
rotor bars are usually die-cast into the rotor slots, which results
in a very rugged construction. Even though the aluminum rotor
bars are in direct contact with the steel laminations, practically
all the rotor current flows through the aluminum bars and not in
the lamination
Wound rotor consists of three sets of insulated windings with

connections brought out to three slip rings mounted on one end
of the shaft. The external connections to the rotor are made
through brushes onto the slip rings as shown in fig 7. Due to
the presence of slip rings such type of motors are called slip
ring motors. Sectional view of the full induction motor is shown
in Fig. 8
Some more parts, which are required to complete the

constructional details of an induction motor, are:
• Two end-flanges to support the two bearings,
one at the driving-end and the other at the non driving-end,
where the driving end will have the shaft extension.
• Two sets of bearings to support the rotating

shaft,
• Steel shaft for transmitting the mechanical

power to the load
• Cooling fan located at the non driving end to

provide forced cooling for the stator and rotor
• Terminal box on top of the yoke or on side to receive the

external electrical connections
Figure 2 to show the constructional details of the different parts

of induction motor.
Introduction to Design
The main purpose of designing an induction motor is to obtain

the complete physical dimensions of all the parts of the
machine as mentioned below to satisfy the customer
specifications. The following design details are required.
1. The main dimensions of the stator.
2 Details of stator windings.
3. Design details of rotor and its windings
4. Performance characteristics.
In order to get the above design details the designer needs the
customer specifications Rated output power, rated voltage,
number of phases, speed, frequency, connection of stator
winding, type of rotor winding, working conditions, shaft
extension details etc.
In addition to the above the designer must have the details

regarding design equations based on which the design
procedure is initiated, information regarding the various choice
of various parameters, information regarding the availability of
different materials and the limiting
values of various performance parameters such as iron and

copper losses, no load current, power factor, temperature rise
and efficiency
Output equation of Induction motor
output equation is the mathematical expression which gives the

relation between the various physical and electrical parameters
of the electrical machine.
In an induction motor the output equation can be obtained as

follows
Consider an ‘m’ phase machine, with usual notations
Out put Q in kW = Input x efficiency
Input to motor = mVph Iph cos Φ x 10-3 kW For a 3 Φ machine m =

3
Input to motor = 3Vph Iph cos Φ x 10-3 kW Assuming
Vph = Eph, Vph = Eph = 4.44 f Φ TphKw

= 2.22 f ΦZphKw
f = PNS/120 = Pns/2,
Output = 3 x 2.22 x Pns/2 x ΦZphKw Iph η cos Φ x 10-3 kW

Output = 1.11 x PΦ x 3Iph Zph x ns Kw η cos Φ x 10-3kW
PΦ = BavπDL, and 3Iph Zph/ πD = q
Output to motor = 1.11 x BavπDL x πDq x ns Kw η cos Φ x 10-3 kW
Q = (1.11 π2 Bav q Kw η cos Φ x 10-3) D2L ns kW

Q = (11 Bav q Kw η cos Φ x 10-3) D2L ns kW
Therefore Output Q = Co D2L ns kW
where
Co = (11 Bav q Kw η cos Φ x 10-3)
Vph = phase voltage ;
Iph = phase current
Zph = no of conductors/phase
Tph = no of turns/phase
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm

ns = synchronous speed in rps
p = no of poles,
q = Specific electric loading
Φ = air gap flux/pole;

Bav = Average flux density
kw = winding factor
η = efficiency cosΦ= power factor
D = Diameter of the stator,
L = Gross core length
Co = Output coefficient
Choice of Specific loadings
Specific Magnetic loading or Air gap flux density
Iron losses largely depend upon air gap flux density

Limitations :
Flux density in teeth < 1.8 Tesla
Flux density in core 1.3 – 1.5 Tesla
Advantages of Higher value of Bav
• Size of the machine reduced

• Cost of the machine decreases
• Overload capacity increases
For 50 Hz machine, 0.35 – 0.6 Tesla. The suitable values of

Bav can be selected from design data hand book.
Specific Electric loading
Total armature ampere conductor over the periphery
Advantages of Higher value of q
• Reduced size
• Reduced cost
Disadvantages of Higher value of q
• Higher amount of copper

• More copper losses
• Increased temperature rise
• Lower overload capacity
Normal range 10000 ac/m – 450000 ac/m. The suitable values

of q can be selected from design data hand book.
Choice of power factor and efficiency
Choice of power factor and efficiency under full load conditions

will increase with increase in rating of the machine. Percentage
magnetizing current and losses will be lower for a larger
machine than that of a smaller machine. Further the power
factor and efficiency will be higher for a high speed machine
than the same rated low speed machine because of better
cooling conditions. Taking into considerations all these factors
the above parameters will vary in a range based on the output
of the machine. Similar to Bav and q, efficiency and power factor
values can be selected from Design data hand book.
Separation of D and L
The output equation gives the relation between D 2L product

and output of the machine. To separate D and L for this product
a relation has to be assumed or established. Following are the
various design considerations based on which a suitable ratio
between gross length and pole pitch can be assumed.
i. To obtain minimum over all cost 1.5 to 2.0

ii. To obtain good efficiency 1.4 to 1.6
iii. To obtain good over all design 1.0 to 1.1
iv. To obtain good power factor 1.0 to 1.3
As power factor plays a very important role the performance of

induction motors it is advisable to design an induction motor for
best power factor unless specified. Hence to obtain the best
power factor the following relation will be usually assumed for
separation of D and L.
Pole pitch/ Core length = 0.18/pole pitch
or (πD/p) / L= 0.18/ (πD/p)
i.e D = 0.135P√L where D and L are in meter.
Using above relation D and L can be separated from D 2L

product. However the obtained values of D and L have to
satisfy the condition imposed on the value of peripheral speed.
Peripheral Speed
For the normal design of induction motors the calculated

diameter of the motor should be such that the peripheral speed
must be below 30 m/s. In case of specially designed rotor the
peripheral speed can be 60 m/s.
Design of Stator
Stator of an induction motor consists of stator core and stator

slots.
Stator slots: in general two types of stator slots are employed in

induction motors viz, open clots and semiclosed slots.
Operating performance of the induction motors depends upon
the shape of the slots and hence it is important to select
suitable slot for the stator slots.
(i) Open slots: In this type of slots the slot opening

will be equal to that of the width of the slots as
shown in Fig 10. In such type of slots assembly and
repair of winding are easy. However such slots will
lead to higher air gap
contraction factor and hence poor power factor.

Hence these types of slots are rarely used in
3Φ induction motors.
(ii) Semiclosed slots: In such type of slots, slot

opening is much smaller than the width of the slot
as shown in Fig 10 and Fig 11. Hence in this type of
slots assembly of windings is more difficult and
takes more time compared to open slots and
hence it is costlier. However the air gap
characteristics are better compared to open type
slots.
(iii) Tapered slots: In this type of slots also, opening

will be much smaller than the slot width. However
the slot width will be varying from top of the slot to
bottom of the slot with minimum width at the
bottom as shown in Fig. 10.
Selection of number of stator slots: Number of stator slots must
be properly selected at the design stage as such this number
affects the weight, cost and operating characteristics of the
motor. Though there are no rules for selecting the number of
stator slots considering the advantages and disadvantages of
selecting higher number slots comprise has to be set for
selecting the number of slots. Following are the advantages and
disadvantages of selecting higher number of slots.
Advantages :(i) Reduced leakage reactance.
(ii) Reduced tooth pulsation losses.
(iii) Higher over load capacity.
Disadvantages:
(i) Increased cost

(ii) Increased weight
(iii) Increased magnetizing current
(iv) Increased iron losses
(v) Poor cooling
(vi) Increased temperature rise
(vii) Reduction in efficiency
Based on the above comprise is made and the number of

slots/pole/phase may be selected as three or more for integral
slot winding. However for fractional slot windings number of
slots/pole/phase may be selected as 3.5. So selected number of
slots should satisfy the consideration of stator slot pitch at the
air gap surface, which should be between1.5 to 2.5 cm.
Stator slot pitch at the air gap surface = τss= πD/Sss where
Sss is the number of stator slots
Turns per phase
EMF equation of an induction motor is given by Eph =

4.44fΦTphkw
Hence turns per phase can be obtained from emf equation Tph
= Eph/ 4.44fΦkw
Generally the induced emf can be assumed to be equal to the

applied voltage per phase
Flux/pole, = Bav x πDL/P,

winding factor kw may be assumed as 0.955 for full pitch
distributed winding unless otherwise specified.
Number conductors /phase, Zph = 2 x Tph, and hence Total

number of stator conductors Z = 6 T ph and conductors /slot
Zs = Z/Ss or 6 Tph/Ss , where Zsis an integer for single layer
winding and even number for double layer winding.
Conductor cross section: Area of cross section of stator

conductors can be estimated from the stator current per phase
and suitably assumed value of current density for the stator
windings.
Sectional area of the stator conductor as = Is / δs where δs is
the current density in stator
windings
Stator current per phase Is = Q / (3Vph cos

ϕ )
A suitable value of current density has to be assumed

considering the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of higher value of current density:
(i) reduction in cross section

(ii) reduction in weight
(iii) reduction in cost
Disadvantages of higher value of current density
(i) increase in resistance

(ii) increase in cu loss
(iii) increase in temperature rise
(iv) reduction in efficiency
Hence higher value is assumed for low voltage machines and

small machines. Usual value of current density for stator
windings is 3 to 5 amps.
Based on the sectional area shape and size of the conductor

can be decided. If the sectional area of the conductors is below
5 mm2 then usually circular conductors are employed. If it is
above 5 mm2 then rectangular conductors will be employed.
Standard bare size of round and rectangular conductors can be
selected by referring the tables of conductors given in Design
data Hand book. In case of rectangular conductors width to
thickness ratio must be between 2.5 to 3.5.
Area of stator slot: Slot area is occupied by the conductors and
the insulation. Out of which almost more than 25 % is the
insulation. Once the number of conductors per slot is decided
approximate area of the slot can be estimated.
Slot space factor = Copper area in the slot /Area of each slot
This slot space factor so obtained will be between 0.25 and 0.4.
The detailed dimension of the slot can be estimated as follows.
Size of the slot: Normally different types of slots are employed

for carrying stator windings of induction motors. Generally full
pitched double layer windings are employed for stator
windings. For double layer windings the conductor per slot will
be even. These conductors are suitably arranged along the
depth and width of the winding. Stator slots should not be too
wide, leading to thin tooth width, which makes the tooth
mechanically weak and maximum flux density may exceed the
permissible limit. Hence slot width should be so selected such
that the flux density in tooth is between 1.6 to 1.8 Tesla.
Further the slots should not be too deep also other wise the
leakage reactance increases. As a guideline the ratio of slot
depth to slot width may assumed as 3 to 5. Slot insulation
details along the conductors are shown in Fig. 12.
Proper slot insulation as per the voltage rating of the machine

has to be provided before inserting the insulated coil in the
slots. This slot insulation is called the slot liner, thickness of
which may be taken as 0.5 mm to 0.7 mm. Suitable thickness
of insulation called coil separator separates the two layers of
coils. Thickness of coil separator is 0.5 mm to 0.7 mm for low
voltage machines and 0.8 mm to 1.2 mm for high voltage
machines. Wedge of suitable thickness (3.5 mm to 5 mm) is
placed at the top of the slot to hold the coils in position. Lip of
the slot is taken 1.0 to 2.0 mm. Figure 13 shows the coils
placed in slots.
Length of the mean Turn:
Length of the mean turn is calculated using an empirical

formula lmt = 2L + 2.3 τp + 0.24 where L is the gross length of
the stator and τp is pole pitch in meter.
Resistance of stator winding: Resistance of the stator winding

per phase is calculated using the formula = (0.021 x lmt x
Tph ) / as where lmt is in meter and as is in mm2. Using so
calculated resistance of stator winding copper losses in stator
winding can be calculated as
Total copper losses in stator winding = 3 (I s)2 rs
Flux density in stator tooth: Knowing the dimensions of stator

slot pitch, width of the slot and width of the stator tooth flux
density in the stator tooth can be calculated. The flux density in
the stator tooth is limited to 1.8 Tesla. As the stator tooth is
tapering towards the bottom, the flux density is calculated at
1/3rd height from the narrow end of the tooth. The flux density
at the 1/3rd height from the narrow end of the tooth can be
calculated as follows.
Diameter at 1/3rd height from narrow end D' = D +

1/3 x hts x 2
Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = τ's = π x D' /Ss
Tooth width at this section = b't = τ's – bs
Area of one stator tooth = a't = b't x li
Area of all the stator tooth per pole A't = b't x li x

number of teeth per pole
Mean flux density in stator teeth B't = Φ / A't
Maximum flux density in the stator teeth may be taken to be

less than 1.5 times the above
value.
Depth of stator core below the slots: There will be certain solid
portion below the slots in the stator which is called the depth of
the stator core. This depth of the stator core can be calculated
by assuming suitable value for the flux density B c in the stator
core. Generally the flux density in the stator core may be
assumed varying between 1.2 to 1.4 Tesla. Depth of the stator
core can be calculated as follows.
Flux in the stator core section Φc = ½ Φ
Area of stator core Ac = Φ/2Bc
Area of stator core Ac = Li x dcs
Hence, depth of the core = Ac / Li
Using the design data obtained so far outer diameter of the

stator core can be calculated as
Do = D + 2hss = 2 dcs where hss is the height of the

stator slot.
Solved problems: Design of Stator - Induction Motors
Problems
Ex. 1. Obtain the following design information for the stator of a
30 kW, 440 V, 3Φ, 6 pole, 50 Hz delta connected, squirrel cage
induction motor, (i) Main dimension of the stator, (ii) No. of
turns/phase (iii) No. of stator slots, (iv) No. of conductors per
slot. Assume suitable values for the missing design data.
Soln: Various missing data are assumed from referring to

Design data Hand Book or tables in Text Book considering the
size, economics and performance
Specific Magnetic loading, Bav = 0.48 Tesla
Specific Electric loading, q = 26000 ac/m

Full load efficiency, η = 0.88
Full load power factor cosΦ = 0.86
Winding factor Kw = 0.955
(i) Main dimensions
We have from output equation:

D2L = Q/ (Co ns ) m3
Co = 11 Bav q Kw η cosΦ x 10-3
= 11x 0.48 x 26000 x 0.955 x 0.88 x 0.86 x 10-3
= 99.2
and ns = 16.67 rps

D2L = 30/(99.2 x 16.67) = 0.0182 m3
Designing the m/c for bets power factor
D = 0.135P√L
= 0.135 x 6√L
Solving for D and L D = 0.33 m and L = 0.17 m
(ii) No. of stator turns
Φ = (πDL/p) Bav = (π x 0.33 x 0.17/ 6) x 0.48 = 0.141 wb
Assuming Eph =Vph = 440 volts
Tph = Eph / 4.44fΦkw = 440/(4.44 x 50 x 0.0141 x 0.955)
= 148
(iii) No. of stator slots
Assuming no of slot/pole/phase =3 Total no. of slots = 3 x 3 x 6

= 54 (iv) No of conductors /slot
Total no of conductors = 148 x 2 = 296
No. of conductors /slot = 296/54 = 5.5

Assuming 76 conductors/ slot
Total no. of conductors = 54 x 6 = 324
Revised no. of turns/phase = 162
Ex. 2 A 15 kW 440m volts 4 pole, 50 Hz, 3 phase induction

motor is built with a stator bore of 0.25 m and a core length of
0.16 m. The specific electric loading is 23000 ac/m. Using data
of this machine determine the core dimensions, number of slots
and number of stator conductors for a 11kW, 460 volts,6 pole,
50 Hz motor. Assume full load efficiency of 84 % and power
factor of 0.82. The winding factor is 0.955.
Soln: For 15 kW motor:
Motor Input = 15 /0.84 = 17.857 kW ; Synchronous

speed ns= 120 x 50 /(4 x 60) = 25 rps;
we have output coefficient Co = out put / D2Lns = 15 /( 0.252 x

0.16 x 25) = 60
we have Co = 11 Bav q Kw η cosΦ x 10-3 = 11 x Bav x 23000 x

0.955x 0.84 x 0.82 x 10-3
= 166.42 Bav
Hence Bav = 60/166.42 = 0.36 Tesla
Pole pitch τp= π D/p = π x 0.25/4 = 0.196 m; L/ τp = 0.815

For 11kW motor: the design data from 15 kW machine has to
be taken
So Bav = 0.36 Tesla; q = 23000 ac/m ; L/ τp = 0.815; and C0 =

60
Synchronous speed = 120 x 50 / (6 x 60) = 16.667 rps;
D2L = Q/ (Co ns ) m3
= 11 / (60 x 16.667) = 0.01099 m3
L/ (π D /p) = 0.815 , So L/D = 0.815

x π /6 = 0.427 or L = 0.427 D
Substituting this value in D2L product and solving for D and L
0.427 D3 = 0.01099 hence D = 0.30 m and L = 0.125 m
Number of slots: Considering the slot pitch at the air gap

between 1.5 cm and 2.5 cm
Number of slots = π x D/ τs for slot pitch 1.5 cm, Ss = π x 30 /

1.5 = 63
For slot pitch 2.5 cm Ss = π x 30 / 2.5 = 37 Hence number of

slots must be between 37 & 63
Assuming no. of stator slots /pole/phase = 3, S s = 6 x 3 x 3 =

54
Flux per pole = Bav x D x L / p = 0.36 x π x 0.3
x 0.125/6 = 7.07 x 10-3 wb
Assuming star delta connection for the machine, under running
condition using Delta connection
Stator turns per phase Tph= Eph/ (4.44 f Kw) = 460 /(4.44 x 50
x 7.07 x 10-3 x 0.955) =307
Number conductors/phase = 307 x 2,
Total number of stator conductors = 307 x 2 x 3 =1872
Number of conductors per slot = 1872/54 = 34.1 ≈ 34
Hence total number of conductor = 34 x 54 =1836.

Ex. 3 Determine main dimensions, turns/phase, number of slots,
conductor size and area of slot of 250 HP, 3 phase, 50 Hz, 400
volts, 1410 rpm, slip ring induction motor. Assume B av =
0.5wb/m2, q = 30000 ac/m, efficiency = 90 % and power factor
= 0.9, winding factor = 0.955, current density =3.5 a/mm 2, slot
space factor = 0.4 and the ratio of core length to pole pitch is
1.2. the machine is delta connected.
Ex. 4. During the preliminary design of a 270 kW, 3600 volts, 3

phase, 8 pole 50 Hz slip ring induction motor the following
design data have been obtained.
Gross length of the stator core = 0.38 m, Internal diameter of

the stator = 0.67 m, outer diameter of the stator = 0.86 m, No.
of stator slots = 96, No. of conductors /slot = 12, Based on the
above information determine the following design data for the
motor. (i) Flux per pole (ii) Gap density (iii) Conductor size (iv)
size of the slot (v) copper losses (vi) flux density in stator teeth
(vii) flux density in stator core.
Soln. (i) Flux per pole
Number of slots per phase 96/3 = 32
Number of turns per phase Tph = 32 x 12/2 = 192,
Assuming full pitched coils, kw = 0.955, Eph = Vph and star

connected stator winding,
Eph = 3600/√3 = 2078 volts,
We have Eph = 4.44fΦTphkw, ie
Φ= Eph /( 4.44fTphkw) = 2078 /( 4.44 x 50 x 192 x 0.955) = 0.051wb
(ii) Gap flux density Ag = πDL/p = π x 0.67 x 0.38 / 8 = 0.1 m2
Bg = Φ/ Ag = 0.051/ 0.1 =0.51 Tesla
(iii) Conductor size
Assuming an efficiency of 91% and a full load power factor of

0.89
Input power to the motor = 270 x 103 / 0.91 = 296703 w
Full load current per phase = 296703 / ( 3 x 2078 x 0.89) =

53.47 amps
Assuming a current density of 4.1 amp/mm 2, area of cross
section of the conductor = 53.47 /4.1 = 13.04 mm 2 as the
conductor section is > 5 mm2 rectangular conductor is selected.
Standard size of the conductor selected satisfying the
requirements is 2.5 mm x 5.5 mm.
Thus sectional area of the conductor 13.2 mm2
Size of the conductor with insulation thickness of 0.2 mm is 2.9

mm x 5.9 mm
(iv) size of the slot
12 conductors per slot are arranged in two layers with 6

conductors in each layer. Six conductors in each layer are
arranged as 2 conductors depth wise and 3 conductors width
wise. With this arrangement the width and depth of the slot can
be estimated as follows.
(a) Width of the slot
Space occupied by insulated conductor, 3 x 2.9 8.7 mm
Coil insulation, 2 x 1.0 2.0 mm
Slot liner, 2 x 0.2 0.4 mm
Clearance 0.9 mm
Total width of the slot 12.0 mm

(b) Depth of the slot
Space occupied by insulated conductor, 4 x 5.9

23.6 mm
Coil insulation, 4 x 1.0 4.0 mm
Slot liner, 3 x 0.2 0.6 mm
Coil separator, 1 x 1.0 0.5 mm
Top liner, 1 x 1.0 0.5 mm
Wedge 3.0 mm
Lip 1.5 mm
Clearance 1.3 mm
Total height of the slot 35.0 mm

Thus the dimension of the slot 12.0 mm x 35.0 mm
(v) Copper losses in stator winding
Length of the mean turn, lmt = 2L + 2.3 τp + 0.24 = 2 x 0.38 +

2.3 x π x 0.67/8 + 0.24 = 1.6 m Resistance per phase = (0.021
x lmt x Tph ) / as = 0.021 x 1.6 x 192 / 13.2 = 0.49 ohm.
Total copper losses = 3Is2rs = 3 x 53.472 x 0.49 =4203 watts
(vi) Flux density in stator tooth
Diameter at 1/3rd height, D' = D + 1/3 x hts x 2 = 0.67 + 1/3 x

0.035 x 2 = 0.693 m
Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = τ's = π x D' /Ss = π x 0.693 /96 =

0.02268 m
Tooth width at this section = b 't = τ's – bs = 0.02268 – 0.012 =

0.0168 m
assuming 3 ventilating ducts with 1cm width and iron space

factor of 0.95 Iron length li = ( 0.38 -3 x 0.01) 0.95 = 0.3325 m
Area of the stator tooth per pole A't = b't x li x number of teeth
per pole
= b't x li x Ss /p = 0.01068 x 0.3325 x

96/8
= 0.04261 m2
Mean flux density in stator teeth B't = Φ / A't = 0.051/ 0.04261

= 1.10 Tesla
Maximum flux density in stator tooth =1.5 x 1.10 = 1.65 Tesla
(vii) Flux density in stator core
Depth of the stator core dcs = ½ ( Do- D – 2 hss) = ½ ( 0.86 - 0.67

– 2 x 0.035) = 0.06 m
Area of stator core Ac = Li x dcs = 0.3325 x 0.06 = 0.01995 m2
Flux in stator core = ½ x Φ = ½ x 0.051 = 0.0255 wb
Flux density in stator core, Bc = Φc/ Ac = 0.0255/ 0.01995 =

1.28 Tesla
Design of Rotor:
There are two types of rotor construction. One is the squirrel

cage rotor and the other is the slip ring rotor. Most of the
induction motor are squirrel cage type. These are having the
advantage of rugged and simple in construction and
comparatively cheaper. However they have the disadvantage of
lower starting torque. In this type, the rotor consists of bars of
copper or aluminum accommodated in rotor slots. In case slip
ring induction motors the rotor complex in construction and
costlier with the advantage that they have the better starting
torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed
three phase windings.
Between stator and rotor is the air gap which is a very critical
part. The performance parameters of the motor like
magnetizing current, power factor, over load capacity, cooling
and noise are affected by length of the air gap. Hence length of
the air gap is selected considering the advantages and
disadvantages of larger air gap length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity

(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation
(v) Reduced noise
Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetising current

(ii) Reduced power factor
Effect of magnetizing current and its effect on the power factor

can be understood from the phasor diagram of the induction
motor shown in Fig. 14.
Magnetising current and power factor being very important
parameters in deciding the performance of induction motors,
the induction motors are designed for optimum value of air gap
or minimum air gap possible. Hence in designing the length of
the air gap following empirical formula is employed.
Air gap length lg = 0.2 + 2√DL mm
The following Fig. 15 show the different types of rotor

construction.
Number of slots: Proper numbers of rotor slots are to be selected
in relation to number of stator slots otherwise undesirable
effects will be found at the starting of the motor. Cogging and
Crawling are the two phenomena which are observed due to
wrong combination of number of rotor and stator slots. In
addition, induction motor may develop unpredictable hooks and
cusps in torque speed characteristics or the motor may run with
lot of noise. Let us discuss Cogging and Crawling phenomena in
induction motors.
Crawling: The rotating magnetic field produced in the air gap of

the will be usually nonsinusoidal and generally contains odd
harmonics of the order 3rd, 5th and 7th. The third harmonic flux
will produce the three times the magnetic poles compared to
that of the fundamental. Similarly the 5th and 7thharmonics will
produce the poles five and seven times the fundamental
respectively. The presence of harmonics in the flux wave affects
the torque speed characteristics. The Fig. 16 below shows the
effect of 7th harmonics on the torque speed characteristics of
three phase induction motor. The motor with presence of
7th harmonics is to have a tendency to run the motor at one
seventh of its normal speed. The 7 th harmonics will produce a
dip in torque speed characteristics at one seventh of its normal
speed as shown in torque speed characteristics.
Cogging: In some cases where in the number of rotor slots are
not proper in relation to number of stator slots the machine
refuses to run and remains stationary. Under such conditions
there will be a locking tendency between the rotor and stator.
Such a phenomenon is called cogging.
Hence in order to avoid such bad effects a proper number of

rotor slots are to be selected in relation to number of stator
slots. In addition rotor slots will be skewed by one slot pitch to
minimize the tendency of cogging, torque defects like
synchronous hooks and cusps and noisy operation while
running. Effect of skewing will slightly increase the rotor
resistance and increases the starting torque. However this will
increase the leakage reactance and hence reduces the starting
current and power factor.
Selection of number of rotor slots: The number of rotor slots may

be selected using the following guide lines.
(i) To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss ≠ Sr (b) Ss - Sr ≠ ±3P

(ii) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed
characteristics ≠ ±P, ±2P, ±5P.
(iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr ≠ ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)
Rotor Bar Current: Bar current in the rotor of a squirrel cage

induction motor may be determined by comparing the mmf
developed in rotor and stator.
Hence the current per rotor bar is given by Ib =
( Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ;
where Kws – winding factor for the stator, Ss – number

of stator slots, Z's – number of
conductors / stator slots, Kwr – winding factor for the
rotor, Sr – number of rotor slots, Z'r –
number of conductors / rotor slots and I'r – equivalent rotor
current in terms of stator current
and is given by I'r = 0.85 Is where is
stator current per phase.
Cross sectional area of Rotor bar: Sectional area of the rotor

conductor can be calculated by rotor bar current and assumed
value of current density for rotor bars. As cooling conditions are
better for the rotor than the stator higher current density can
be assumed. Higher current density will lead to reduced
sectional area and hence increased resistance, rotor cu losses
and reduced efficiency. With increased rotor resistance starting
torque will increase. As a guide line the rotor bar current
density can be assumed between 4 to 7 Amp/mm 2 or may be
selected from design data Hand Book.
Hence sectional area of the rotor bars can be calculated

as Ab = Ib /δb mm2. Once the cross sectional area is known the
size of the conductor may be selected form standard table
given in data hand book.
Shape and Size of the Rotor slots: Generally semiclosed slots or

closed slots with very small or narrow openings are employed
for the rotor slots. In case of fully closed slots the rotor bars are
force fit into the slots from the sides of the rotor. The rotors
with closed slots are giving better performance to the motor in
the following way. (i) As the rotor is closed the rotor surface is
smooth at the air gap and hence the motor draws lower
magnetizing current. (ii) reduced noise as the air gap
characteristics are better (iii) increased leakage reactance and
(iv) reduced starting current. (v) Over load capacity is reduced
(vi) Undesirable and complex air gap characteristics. From the
above it can be concluded that semiclosed slots are more
suitable and hence are employed in rotors.
Copper loss in rotor bars: Knowing the length of the rotor bars
and resistance of the rotor bars cu losses in the rotor bars can
be calculated.
Length of rotor bar lb = L + allowance for skewing
Rotor bar resistance = 0.021 x lb / Ab
Copper loss in rotor bars = Ib2 x rb x number of rotor bars

End Ring Current: All the rotor bars are short circuited by
connecting them to the end rings at both the end rings. The
rotating magnetic filed produced will induce an emf in the rotor
bars which will be sinusoidal over one pole pitch. As the rotor is
a short circuited body, there will be current flow because of this
emf induced. The distribution of current and end rings are as
shown in Fig. 17 below. Referring to the figure considering the
bars under one pole pitch, half of the number of bars and the
end ring carry the current in one direction and the other half in
the opposite direction. Thus the maximum end ring current may
be taken as the sum of the average current in half of the
number of bars under one pole.
Maximum end ring current Ie(max) = ½ ( Number rotor bars /
pole) Ib(av)
= ½ x Sr/P x Ib/1.11
Hence rms value of Ie = 1/2√2 x Sr/P x Ib/1.11
= 1/π x Sr/P x Ib/1.11
Area of end ring: Knowing the end ring current and assuming
suitable value for the current density in the end rings cross
section for the end ring can be calculated as
Area of each end

ring Ae = Ie / δe mm2, current density in the end ring may be
assume as 4.5 to 7.5 amp/mm2.
Copper loss in End Rings: Mean diameter of the end ring (Dme) is
assumed as 4 to 6 cms less than that of the rotor. Mean length
of the current path in end ring can be calculated
as lme = πDme. The resistance of the end ring can be calculated
as
re = 0.021 x lme / Ae
Total copper loss in end rings = 2 x Ie2 x re

Equivalent Rotor Resistance: Knowing the total copper losses in
the rotor circuit and the equivalent rotor current equivalent
rotor resistance can be calculated as follows.
Equivalent rotor resistance r'r = Total rotor copper

loss / 3 x (Ir' )2
Design of wound Rotor: These are the types of induction motors

where in rotor also carries distributed star connected 3 phase
winding. At one end of the rotor there are three slip rings
mounted on the shaft. Three ends of the winding are connected
to the slip rings. External resistances can be connected to these
slip rings at starting, which will be inserted in series with the
windings which will help in increasing the torque at starting.
Such type of induction motors are employed where high
starting torque is required.
Number of rotor slots: As mentioned earlier the number of rotor

slots should never be equal to number of stator slots. Generally
for wound rotor motors a suitable value is assumed for number
of rotor slots per pole per phase, and then total number of rotor
slots are calculated. So selected number of slots should be such
that tooth width must satisfy the flux density limitation.
Semiclosed slots are used for rotor slots.
Number of rotor Turns: Number of rotor turns are decided based

on the safety consideration of the personal working with the
induction motors. The volatge between the slip rings on open
circuit must be limited to safety values. In general the voltage
between the slip rings for low and medium voltage machines
must be limited to 400 volts. For motors with higher voltage
ratings and large size motors this voltage must be limited to
1000 volts. Based on the assumed voltage between the slip
rings comparing the induced voltage ratio in stator and rotor
the number of turns on rotor winding can be calculated.
Voltage ratio Er/ Es = (Kwr x Tr) / (Kws x Ts )
Hence rotor turns per phase Tr = (Er/Es) (Kws/Kwr)

Ts
Er = open circuit rotor voltage/phase

Es = stator voltage /phase
Kws = winding factor for stator
Kwr = winding factor for rotor
Ts = Number of stator turns/phase
Rotor Current
Rotor current can be calculated by comparing the amp-

cond on stator and rotor
Ir = (Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ;
Kws – winding factor for the stator,

Ss – number of stator slots,
Z's – number of conductors / stator slots,
Kwr – winding factor for the rotor,
Sr – number of rotor slots,
Z'r – number of conductors / rotor slots and
I'r – equivalent rotor current in terms of stator current
I'r = 0.85 Is where Is is stator current per
phase.
Area of Rotor Conductor: Area of rotor conductor can be
calculated based on the assumed value for the current density
in rotor conductor and calculated rotor current. Current density
rotor conductor can be assumed between 4 to 6 Amp/mm2
Ar = Ir / δr mm2
Ar < 5mm2 use circular conductor, else rectangular

conductor, for rectangular conductor width to thickness ratio =
2.5 to 4. Then the standard conductor size can be selected
similar to that of stator conductor.
Size of Rotor slot: Mostly Semi closed rectangular slots

employed for the rotors. Based on conductor size, number
conductors per slot and arrangement of conductors similar to
that of stator, dimension of rotor slots can be estimated. Size of
the slot must be such that the ratio of depth to width of slot
must be between 3 and 4.
Total copper loss: Length of the mean Turn can be calculated

from the empirical formula lmt = 2L +
2.3 τp + 0.08 m
Resistance of rotor winding is given by Rr = (0.021 x lmt x

Tr ) / Ar Total copper loss = 3 Ir2 Rr Watts
Flux density in rotor tooth: It is required that the dimension of

the slot is alright from the flux density consideration. Flux
density has to be calculated at 1/3 rd height from the root of the
teeth. This flux density has to be limited to 1.8 Tesla. If not the
width of the tooth has to be increased and width of the slot has
to be reduced such that the above flux density limitation is
satisfied. The flux density in rotor can be calculated by as
shown below.
Diameter at 1/3rd height Dr' = D - 2/3 x htr x 2

Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = τ'r = π x Dr' /Sr
Tooth width at this section = b'tr = τ'sr – bsr
Area of one rotor tooth = a'tr = b'tr x li
Iron length of the rotor li = (L- wd x nd)ki, ki = iron space factor
Area of all the rotor tooth / pole A'tr = b't x li x Sr /P
Mean flux density in rotor teeth B'tr = Φ / A'tr
Maximum flux density in the rotor teeth < 1.5 times B'tr
Depth of stator core below the slots: Below rotor slots there is
certain solid portion which is called depth of the core below
slots. This depth is calculated based on the flux
density and flux in the rotor core. Flux density in the rotor
core can be assumed to be between 1.2 to 1.4 Tesla. Then
depth of the core can be found as follows.
Flux in the rotor core section Φc = ½ Φ
Area of stator core Acr = Φ/2Bcr
Area of stator core Acr = Li x dcr
Hence, depth of the core dcr = Acr / Li

Inner diameter of the rotor can be calculated as follows
Inner diameter of rotor = D - 2lg - 2htr – 2 dcr
Solved problems: Design of Rotor - Induction Motors
Ex.1. During the stator design of a 3 phase, 30 kW, 400volts,

6 pole, 50Hz,squirrel cage induction motor following data has
been obtained. Gross length of the stator = 0.17 m, Internal
diameter of stator = 0.33 m, Number of stator slots = 45,
Number of conductors per slot = 12. Based on the above
design data design a suitable rotor.
Soln: (i) Diameter of the rotor

Length of the air gap lg = 0.2 + 2 √DL mm
= 0.2 + 2 √0.33 x 0.17 mm
= 0.67 mm
Outer diameter of rotor Dr = D - 2 lg
= 0.33 – 2 x 0.67 x 10-3
= 0.328 m
(ii) Number of rotor slots

(a) Ss > Sr
(b) To avoid cogging and crawling: Sr ≠ Ss, Ss - Sr ≠ ±3P Sr ≠ 45,

Ss - Sr ≠ ± 3P → 45 – 18 ≠ 27,
(c) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed

characteristics Ss - Sr ≠ ±P,
±2P, ±5P
Ss - Sr ≠ (45 – 6), (45 – 12), (45 – 03) ≠ 39, 33, 15
To avoid noisy operation Ss - Sr ≠ ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P ±2)

Ss - Sr ≠ (45 – 1) , (45 – 2), (45 – 7), (45 – 8)
Considering all the combination above Sr = 42
Rotor slot pitch = πDr / Sr = π x 32.8 / 42 = 2.45 cm (quite

satisfactory) (iii) Rotor bar current
Assuming star – delta connection for stator winding

Vph = 400 volts
Assuming η = 88 % and p.f = 0.86
Motor input = 30/0.88 = 30.1 kW
Full load stator current = input / 3 vph cosΦ
= 30.1 x 103/ 3 x 440 x 0.86

= 33 amps
I'r = 0.85 Is = 0.85 x 33 = 28 amps
Assuming Kws = 0.955 & No. of rotor cond/slot = 1
Ib = ( Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r )
= (0.955 x 45 x 12) x 28 /( 1 x 42 x 1)
343.8amps
(iv) Size of rotor bar and slot
Assuming the current density in rotor bars = 6.0 amps/mm2
A r = I r / δr mm2
Ar = 343.8/ 6.0
= 57. 3 mm2
Selecting rectangular standard conductor available
Area of conductor = 57.6 mm2
Hence standard conductor size = 13 mm x 4.5 mm
Size of rotor slot to fit the above cond = 13.5 mm x 5 mm
(v) Resistance of rotor bar
Length of rotor bar lb = L + allowance for skewing + allowance

between end rings and rotor core
lb = 0.17 +0.05 =0.22 m

= 0.021 x 0.22 / 57.6
= 8.02 x 10-5 ohm
= 343.82 x 8.02 x 10-5 x 42
= 398 watts
(vii) End ring current Ie = 1/π x Sr/P x Ib
= 1/π x 343.8 x 7
= 765.8 amps
(viii) Area of cross section of end ring Assuming a current

density of 6.5 Amp/mm2
Area of each end ring Ae = Ie / δe mm2,
= 765.7 / 6.5
= 117.8 mm2
(ix) Rotor dia Dr = 32.8 cm,
Assuming Dme 4.8 cms less than that of the rotor Dme = 28 cms
Mean length of the current path in end ring lme = πDme = 0.88 m
Resistance of each end ring re = 0.021 x lme / Ae
= 0.021 x 0.88 /117.8
= 1.57 x 10-4 ohms
= 2 x 765.72 x 1.57 x 10-4
= 184 watts
(x) Equivalent rotor resistance
Total copper loss = copper loss in bars + copper loss in

end rings
= 398 + 184 = 582 watts
Equivalent rotor resistance r' = Total rotor copper loss / (3

x Ir'2)
= 582 / ( 3 x 282)
= 0.247 ohms
Ex.3. A 3 phase 3000 volts 260 kW, 50 Hz, 10 pole squirrel cage
induction motor gave the following results during preliminary
design.
Internal diameter of the stator = 75 cm, Gross length of the

stator = 35 cm, Number of stator slots = 120, Number of
conductor per slot =10. Based on the above data calculate the
following for the squirrel cage rotor. (i) Total losses in rotor bars,
(ii) Losses in end rings, (iii) Equivalent resistance of the rotor.
Soln. (i) Total losses in rotor bars Number of stator slots = 120,
To confirm to the requirements the rotor slots can be selected

in the following way
Number of rotor slots a) Ss > Sr
(b ) To avoid cogging and crawling: Sr ≠ Ss, Ss - Sr ≠ ±3P

Sr ≠ 120, Ss - Sr ≠ ± 3P → 120 – 30 ≠ 90,
(c) To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed

characteristics Ss - Sr ≠ ±P,
±2P, ±5P
Ss - Sr ≠ (120 – 10), (120 – 20), (120 – 50) ≠ 110, 100, 70
(d) To avoid noisy operation Ss - Sr ≠ ±1, ±2, (±P ±1), (±P

±2)
Ss - Sr ≠ (120 – 1) , (120 – 2), (120 – 11), (120 –
12) ≠ 119, 118, 109, 108
Considering all the combination above Sr = 115

Rotor slot pitch = πD / Sr = π x 75 / 115 = 2.048 cm (quite
satisfactory)
Rotor bar current
Assuming η = 90 % and p.f = 0.9

Motor input = 260/0.9 = 288.88 kW
Assuming star connection
Full load stator current = input / (√3 VL cosΦ )
= 288.88 x 103/ (√3 x 3000 x 0.9)
= 61.5 amps
I'r = 0.85 Is = 0.85 x 61.5 = 52.275 amps
Assuming Kws = 0.955 & No. of rotor cond/slot = 1
Ib = ( Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r )
= (0.955 x 120 x 10) x 52.275 /( 1 x 115 x 1)
= 521 amps
Area of rotor bar
Assuming the current density in rotor bars = 6.5 amps/mm2
A b = I b / δb mm2
Ab = 521/ 6.5
= 80.2 mm2
Length of rotor bar lb = L + allowance for skewing + allowance
between end rings and rotor core
lb = 0.35 +0.05 =0.4 m
= 0.021 x 0.4 / 80.2
= 1.05 x 10-4 ohm
= 5212 x 1.05 x 10-4 x 115

= 3278 watts
(ii) Losses in end rings

End ring current Ie = 1/π x Sr/P x Ib
= 1/π x (115/10) x 521
= 1906 amps
Area of cross section of end ring

Assuming a current density of 6.5 Amp/mm2
Area of each end ring Ae = Ie / δe mm2,

= 1906/6.5
= 293.2 mm2
Air gap length lg = 0.2 + 2√DL
= 0.2 +2√0.75 x 0.35
= 1.22 mm
Rotor diameter Dr = D -2 lg
= 75 – 0.122
= 74.878 cm
Rotor dia Dr = 74.878 cm,
Assuming Dme 6.878 cms less than that of the rotor Dme = 68
cms
Mean length of the current path in end ring lme = πDme =

2.136 m
Resistance of each end ring re = 0.021 x lme / Ae
= 0.021 x 2.136 /293.2
= 1.529 x 10-4 ohms

= 2 x 19062 x 1.529 x 10-4
= 1111.55 watts
(iii) Equivalent rotor resistance
Total copper losses in the rotor = Copper loss in bars +

copper loss in end rings
= 3278 +1111.55
= 4389.55 watts
Equivalent Rotor resistance = Rotor cu loss / ( 3 I’ r

2
)
= 4389.55/(3 x 52.2752)
= 0.535 ohm
Ex.4. Following design data have been obtained during the
preliminary design of a 3 phase, 850 kW, 6.6 kV, 50 Hz, 12 pole
slip ring induction motor. Gross length of stator core = 45 cm,
internal diameter of the stator core = 122 cm, number of stator
slots = 144, Number of conductors per slot = 10. For the above
stator data design a wound rotor for the motor.
Soln : (i) Diameter of the rotor

Length of the air gap lg = 0.2 + 2 √DL mm
= 0.2 + 2 √1.22 x 0.45 mm
= 1.68 mm
Outer diameter of rotor Dr = D - 2 lg
= 1.22 – 2 x 1.68 x 10-3
= 1.217 m
(ii) Number of rotor slots : Considering all the factors for

selection of number of rotor slots, and selecting fractional slot
winding, assuming number of rotor slots per pole per phase as
3½
Total number of rotor slots = 3.5 x 12 x 3 = 126

Rotor slot pitch = π Dr / Sr
= π x 1.217 / 126
= 0.0303 m (quite satisfactory)
(iii) Number of rotor turns: For this motor the voltage between
slip rings must be less than
1000 volts. Assume the voltage between slip rings as 600 volts.
Assuming star connection for stator winding E s = 6600/√3 =
3810 volts, Assuming Kws = Kwr =1
Rotor winding will always be star connected
Total number of stator conductors = 144 x 10
Total number of stator turns per phase = 144 x 10 / (3 x 2) =

240
Rotor turns per phase Tr = (Er/Es) x (Kws/Kwr) Ts

= 600/√3 x 1 x 240 / 3810
= 22 turns
Rotor conductors per phase = 44,

Number of slots per phase = 126/3 = 42,
Therefore number of conductors per slot = 1.
Final rotor turns/phase = number of conductors per phase / 2 =

42/ 2 = 21
(iv) Rotor current
As the motor is of 850 kW, efficiency will be high, assuming an

efficiency of 92% and cos = 0.91
Input to the motor = 850/0.92 = 924 kW,
Full load stator current per phase Is = 924 x 103 / (3 x 3180 x

0.91)
= 88.8 amps
Equivalent rotor current Ir' = 0.85 Is = 0.85 x 88.8 =75.5 amps
Ir = (Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ;
= (144 x 10 x 75.5) / 126 x 1
= 863 amps
(v) Size of rotor conductors

Assuming a current density of 5 Amp/ mm2 for the rotor
conductors ,
Cross sectional area of the rotor conductor = 863/5 = 172.6

mm2
Size of the rotor conductors is too large and this conductor can
not be used as it is and hence has to be stranded. Stranding
the conductors into 4 rectangular strips of each area 43.1 mm 2,
in parallel,
Standard size of the rectangular strip selected = 11 mm x 4

mm,
Thus sectional area of the rectangular conductor 43.1 x 4 =

172.4 mm2
Size of the rectangular conductor with insulation = 11.5 mm x

4.5 mm
(vi) Size of the rotor slot
Four strips of the rectangular conductor are arranged as 2

strips widthwise and 2 strips depthwise, with this arrangement
the size of the slot can be estimated as follows
(a) width of the slot
Space occupied by the conductor

2 x4.5 9.0 mm
Slot liner 2 x 1.5 3.0 mm
Clearance 1.0 mm
Total width of the slot 13.0 mm
(b) Depth of the slot
Space occupied by the conductor 2 x11.5 23.0 mm
Slot liner 3 x 1.5 4.5 mm
Wedge 3.5 mm
Lip 1.0 mm
Clearance 1.0 mm
Total depth of the slot 34.0 mm

Thus size of the rotor slot = 13 mm x 34 mm
(vi) Resistance and copper losses
Length of the mean Turn lmt = 2L + 2.3 τp + 0.08 m

lmt = 2x 0.45 + 2.3 ( π x 1.22 / 12 ) +
0.08 m = 1.72 m
Resistance of rotor winding is given by Rr = (0.021 x lmt x

Tr ) / A r
= (0.021 x 1.72 x 21) / 172.4

= 0.0044 ohm
Total copper loss = 3 Ir2 Rr Watts
= 3 x 8632 x 0.0044
= 9831 watts
Performance Evaluation:
Based on the design data of the stator and rotor of an induction
motor, performance of the machine has to be evaluated. The
parameters for performance evaluation are iron losses, no load
current, no load power factor, leakage reactance etc. Based on
the values of these parameters design values of stator and
rotor can be justified.
Iron losses: Iron losses are occurring in all the iron parts due to
the varying magnetic field of the machine. Iron loss has two
components, hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in
the iron parts depend upon the frequency of the applied
voltage. The frequency of the induced voltage in rotor is equal
to the slip frequency which is very low and hence the iron
losses occurring in the rotor is negligibly small. Hence the iron
losses occurring in the induction motor is mainly due to the
losses in the stator alone. Iron losses occurring in the stator can
be computed as given below.
(a) Losses in stator teeth:
The following steps explain the calculation of iron loss in the

stator teeth
(i) Calculate the area of cross section of stator tooth

based on the width of the tooth at 1/3 rd height and iron
length of the core as A'ts= b'ts x li m2
(ii) Calculate the volume all the teeth in stator V ts = A'ts x
hts x Ss m3
(iii) Compute the weight of all the teeth based on volume
and density of the material as
Wts = Vts x density. ( density of the material can be

found in DDH) (7.8 x 10-3 kg/m3)
(iv) Corresponding to the operating flux density in the
stator teeth of the machine iron loss per kg of the
material can be found by referring to the graph on
pp179 of DDH.
(v) Total iron losses in teeth= Iron loss /kg x weight of all
teeth Wts ie result of (iii) x (iv)
(c) Losses in stator core
Similar to the above calculation of iron loss in teeth, iron loss

in stator core can be estimated.
(i) Calculate the area of cross section of the core as Acs =

dcs x li m2
(ii) Calculate the mean diameter of the stator core below

the slots as Dmcs= D + 2 hts + dcs m
(iii) Compute the volume of stator core as V cs = Acs x π Dmcs
m3
(iv) Calculate the weight of the stator core as W cs = Vcs x

density
(v) Corresponding to the operating flux density in the stator

core of the machine iron loss per kg of the material can be
found by referring to the graph on pp 179 of DDH.
(vi) Total iron losses in core = Iron loss /kg x weight of core
Wcs ie result of (iv) x (v)
Total iron losses in induction motor = Iron loss in stator core +

iron losses in stator teeth.
In addition friction and windage loss can be taken into account

by assuming it as 1- 2 % of the out put of the motor.
Hence total no load losses = Total iron losses + Friction and

windage loss.
No load current:
As seen from Fig 14, the no load current of an induction motor
has two components magnetizing component, Im and iron loss
component, Iw. Phase relation between these currents is shown
in Fig. 14.
Thus the no load current I0 = √(Im)2 + (Iw)2 amps

Magnetising current: Magnetising current of an induction motor
is responsible for producing the required amount of flux in the
different parts of the machine. Hence this current can be
calculated from all the magnetic circuit of the machine. The
ampere turns for all the magnetic circuit such as stator core,
stator teeth, air gap, rotor core and rotor teeth gives the total
ampere turns required for the magnetic circuit. The details of
the magnetic circuit calculations are studied in magnetic circuit
calculations. Based on the total ampere turns of the magnetic
circuit the magnetizing current can be calculated as
Magnetising current Im= p AT30 / (1.17 kw Tph )
where p – no of pairs of poles, AT 30 – Total ampere turns of the

magnetic circuit at 300 from the centre of the pole, T ph – Number
of stator turns per phase.
Iron loss component of current: This component of current is

responsible for supplying the iron losses in the magnetic circuit.
Hence this component can be calculated from no load losses
and applied voltage.
Iron loss component of current Iw= Total no load losses / ( 3 x

phase voltage)
No load Power Factor: No load power factor of an induction
motor is very poor. As the load on the machine increases the
power factor improves. No load power factor can be calculated
knowing the components of no load current.
No load power factor cosΦ0 = Iw / I0
Ex. While designing the stator of a 3 phase 10 kW, 400 volts, 50

Hz, 4 pole, wound rotor induction motor, following data are
obtained.
Internal diameter of stator = 0.19 m
Gross length = 0.125 m
Number of stator slots = 36
Number of conductors/slot = 38
Dimension of stator slot = 1.1 cm x 3.5 cm
Depth of the stator core = 3 cm
Number of rotor slots = 30
Dimension of the rotor slot = 0.7 cm x 3.0 cm
Depth of rotor core = 3.0 cm
Carter’s coefficient for the air gap = 1.33
Based on the above data, calculate the following performance
data for this motor.
(i) Flux per pole (ii) Iron losses (iii) Active component of no
load current (iv) No load current
(v) No load power factor
Soln. (i) Flux per pole
Total number of stator conductors = 36 x 38 = 1368

Stator turns per phase Tph = 1368 /6 = 228
Assuming star delta connection for the motor V ph = 400 volts
Assuming Eph = Vph = 400 volts, winding factor = 0.955
Air gap flux per pole Φ = Eph/(4.44fTph kw)

= 400/( 4.44 x 50 x 228 x 0.955)
= 0.00827 wb
(ii) Iron losses
Total Iron losses = Iron losses in stator teeth + Iron losses in
stator core Iron losses in stator teeth:
For the given stator length assuming one ventilating duct of

width 1cm and iron space factor of 0.95,
Li = (L – nd x wd)ki
= (0.125 -1 x 0.01)0.95
= 0.109 m
Diameter at 1/3rd height, D' = D + 1/3 x hts x 2 = 0.19 + 1/3 x

0.035 x 2 = 0.213 m
Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = τ's = π x D' /Ss = π x 0.213 /36 =

0.0186 m
Tooth width at this section = b 't = τ's – bs = 0.0186 – 0.011 =

0.0076 m
Area of the stator tooth per pole A't = b't x li x number of teeth
per pole
= b't x li x Ss /p = 0.0076 x 0.109 x 36/4
= 0.00746 m2
Mean flux density in stator teeth B't = Φ / A't = 0.00827/
0.00746 = 1.10 9 Tesla
Maximum flux density in stator tooth =1.5 x 1.109 = 1.66 Tesla
Volume of all the stator teeth = b 't x li x height of teeth x

number of teeth
= 0.0076 x 0.109 x 0.035 x 36
= 0.001044 m3
Weight of all the teeth = volume x density Assuming a density

of 7.8 x 103 kg/ m3
Weight of all the teeth = 0.001044 x 7.8 x 10 3 = 8.14 kg Total

iron losses in the stator teeth = Total weight x loss/kg
Iron loss in the material at a flux density of 1.66 Tesla from

graph PP-22 of DDH loss/kg = 23 w/kg
Total iron losses in the stator teeth = 23 x 8.14 = 187.22 watts

Iron losses in stator core : Sectional area of the stator core = li x
dc = 0.109 x 0.03 =
0.00327 m2
Mean diameter of the stator core below the slots = 0.19 + 2 x

0.035 + 0.03 = 0.29 m Volume of the stator core = π x D x Acs
= π x 0.29 x 0.00327 = 0.002979 m 3 Weight of the stator core
= 0.002979 x 7.8 x 103 = 23.23 kg
Flux density in stator core = Φc / Acs = 0.00827/(2 x 0.00327) =
1.264 Tesla At this flux density iron loss/kg = 17 watts/kg
Iron losses in the stator core = 17 x 23.23 = 394.91watts
Total iron losses in the stator = 187.22 + 394.91= 582.13 watts

(iii) Active component of no load current
Assuming the friction and windage losses as 1% of output

Friction and windage loss = 100 w Total no load losses = 582.13
+ 100 = 682.13 watts
Active component of no load current = Iron loss component

of current
Iw= Total no load losses / ( 3 x phase voltage) = 682.13/( 3 x

400) = 0.568 amps
(iv) Magnetising current: In order to calculate the magnetizing

current ampere turns required for the various parts of the
magnetic circuits are to be calculated.
(a) Ampere turns for the stator core:
Pole pitch at he mean diameter of the stator core = π x

D/ P = π x 0.29/ 4 = 0.23 m Length of the flux path in
stator core = 1/3 x 0.23 = 0.077 m
Ampere turns per meter at a flux density of 1.264 Tesla from

graph (PP-22 of DDH) 400
AT
Hence total ampere turns required for the stator core = 400
x 0.077 = 31
(b) Ampere turns for the stator teeth:
Length of the flux path in stator teeth = 0.035m
Flux density in stator teeth at 30 0 from the pole centre =

1.36 Bt’
= 1.36 x 1.10 9
=1.508 Tesla Ampere turns per meter at a flux density of
1.508 Tesla (from graph PP-22 of DDH) is 1000 AT
Hence total ampere turns for the stator teeth = 1000 x

0.035 = 35
(c) Ampere turns for the air gap:
Length of the air gap = 0.2 + 2√DL = 0.2 + 2√0.19 x

0.125 = 0.51 mm Average flux density in the air gap
= Φ/ (π x DL/ P) = 0.4696 Tesla
Carter’s coefficient for the air gap = 1.33
Air gap flux density at 300 from the centre of the pole
Bg = 1.36 x Bav
= 1.36 x 0.4696
= 0.6387 Tesla
Hence Ampere turns for the air gap = 796000Bgkglg
ATg = 796000 x 0.687 x 1.33 x 0.51 x

10-3 = 371 AT
(d) Ampere turns for the rotor Teeth :

Diameter of the rotor = D -2lg =0.19 – 2 x 0.00051= 0.189 m
Diameter at 1/3rd height form the narrow end of the teeth

Dr’ = D – 2 x 2/3hrs
= 0.189 – 4/3 x 0.03
= 0.149 m
Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = τ'r = π x Dr' /Sr = π x 0.149 /30 =

0.0156 m
Tooth width at this section = b 'tr = τ'r – br = 0.0156 – 0.007 =

0.0086 m
Area of the stator tooth per pole A'tr = b'tr x li x number of teeth
per pole
= 0.0086 x 0.107 x 30/4 = 0.0069 m2
Flux density in rotor teeth at 300 from pole centre = 1.36 x

0.00827/0.0069 = 1.63 Tesla
Ampere turns/m at this flux density, from graph (PP-22 of DDH)

= 2800
Length of flux path in rotor teeth = 0.03 m
Ampere turns for the rotor teeth 2800 x 0.03 = 84
(e) Ampere turns for the rotor core
Depth of the rotor core dcr = 3 cm
Area of the rotor core Acr = 0.03 x 0.107 = 0.00321 m2

Flux in the rotor = ½ x 0.00827 = 0.004135 wb
Flux density in the rotor core = 0.004135/0.00321= 1.29 Tesla
Ampere turns/m at this flux density, from graph (PP-22 of DDH)

= 380
Mean diameter of the rotor core = Dr – 2 x hrs – dcr = 0.189 – 2 x

0.03 – 0.03 = 0.099 m
Pole pitch at this section = π x 0.099 /4 = 0.078 m
Length of the flux path in rotor core = 1/3 x 0.078 = 0.026 m

Total ampere turns for the rotor core = 380 x 0.026 =10
Total Ampere turns for the magnetic circuit = 31 + 35 + 371 +

84 +10 = 531 AT Magnetising current I m = p(AT30) / (1.17 x Kw x
Tph)
= 2 x 531 /( 1.17 x 0.955 x 228)
= 4.2 amps
(v) No load current
No load current per phase Io = √( Iw2 + Im2)
= √( 0.562 + 4.22)
= 4.24 amps
(vi) No load power factor cos 0 = Iw/I0 = 0.56 /4.24 =
0.132
Magnetic leakage calculations
Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient LC.
All the flux produced by the pole will not pass through the
desired path i.e., air gap. Some of the flux produced by the pole
will be leaking away from the air gap. The flux that passes
through the air gap and cut by the armature conductors is the
useful flux and that flux that leaks away from the desired path
is the leakage flux
where LC is the Leakage factor or Leakage coefficient and lies

between (1.15 to 1.25). Magnitude of flux in different parts of
the magnetic circuit
Leakage reactance of polyphase

machines
Leakage reactance = 2πf x inductance = 2πf x Flux linkage /

current
Note:
1. Useful flux: It is the flux that links with both primary

and secondary windings and is responsible in transferring the
energy Electro-magnetically from primary to secondary side.
The path of the useful flux is in the magnetic core.
2. Leakage flux: It is the flux that links only with the

primary or secondary winding and is responsible in imparting
inductance to the windings. The path of the leakage flux
depends on the geometrical configuration of the coils and the
neighboring iron masses.
Magnetizing current
Effect of magnetizing current and its effect on the power factor

can be understood from the phasor diagram of the induction
motor shown in Fig.
Magnetizing current and power factor being very important

parameters in deciding the performance of induction motors,
the induction motors are designed for optimum value of air gap
or minimum air gap possible. Hence in designing the length of
the air gap following empirical formula is employed.
Short circuit current
Circle diagram
Both of the layers of the voltage phasor diagram have to be

circled twice in order to number all the phasors.
Operating characteristics
Now, the equivalent circuit of an asynchronous motor per

phase, the quantities of which are calculated in the machine
design, is worth recollecting. Figure 7.12 illustrates a single-
phase equivalent circuit of an ordinary induction motor per
phase, a simplified equivalent circuit anda phasor
diagram.BrainKart.com
INDUCTION MOTORS
1. Define slot space factor.

The slot space factor is the ratio of conductor area
per slot and slot area. It gives an indication of the space
occupied by the conductors and the space available for
insulation. The slot space factor for induction motor varies from
0.25 to
0.4.
2. Define distribution factor or breadth factor.

It is defined as the ratio of resultant emf when the
winding is uniformly distributed to the resultant emf when the
winding is bunched in the slot.
3. Define winding factor.

It is defined as the product of the pitch factor and
the distribution factor.
Kw = Kp * Kd
4. Why the low voltage winding is placed nearer to

the core and the high voltage winding in case of a core
type transformer.
Ø
Insulation required will be less
Ø
Less possibility for fault occurrence
Ø
Easy to provide tapings
5. Why is it possible to design alternators to
generate much higher voltage than dc generator?
In alternator the winding is provided in stator and hence
maximum voltage can be
provided.
In dc generator the winding is provided in rotor and hence it is

not possible to generate maximum voltage
6. Why rotating machines with aluminum armature

coils have increased leakage reactance?
Aluminum coils in armature require more space for

accommodation of conductors. Large size slots are designed.
Hence with large size slots the value of leakage reactance
increases.
7. Why the harmonic leakage flux in squirrel cage

induction is motor is zero?
Since the rotor current balances the stator current at every

point there is no harmonic leakage flux.
8. Stepped core section is preferred to a square

section for transformer, give reason?
Diameter of circumscribing circle can be reduced giving use of
less copper
Due to increase in core area flux density can be reduced which

results less iron loss.
9. Why choice of high specific loading in the design
of synchronous generators loads to poor voltage
regulation?
High value of specific electric loading will mean more number

of turns per phase. This will cause high value of leakage
reactance and poor voltage regulation.
10. Define real flux density.

It is defined as the ratio of actual flux through the tooth to the
tooth area.
11. List the advantages and disadvantages of using

closed type of rotor slot in squirrel cage induction
motor.
Advantages:
Ø
Low reluctances
Ø
Less magnetizing current
Ø
Quitter operation
Ø
Large leakage reactance and so starting current is
limited
Disadvantages:
Ø
Reduced over load capacity
12. Write the expression for rotor current.

Where Ts = number of turns per phase for stator
Tr = number of turns per phase for rotor
Is = Stator current
13. What are the ranges of efficiency and power factor
in induction motor?
14. The approximate efficiency of a three phase, 50

Hz, 4 pole induction motor running at 1350 rpm is
----------------------------------------
i) 90% ii) 40% iii) 65% iv) None of the above.
Ans : i) 90%
15. What is the approximate efficiency of a 60 Hz, 6

pole, 3 phase induction motor running at 1050 rpm?
i) 72% ii) 81.2% iii) 76.8% iv) 87.5%.
Ans : iv) 87.5%

16. What is integral slot winding and fractional slot
winding?
In integral slot winding, the total number of slots is chosen such

that the slots per pole are an integer, which should be a
multiple of number of phases. In fractional slot winding, the
total number of slots is chosen such that the slots per pole are
not an integer.
17. Why fractional slot winding is not used for

induction motor?
Windings with fractional number of slots per pole per phase

create asymmetrical mmf distribution around the air gap and
favour the creation of noise in the motor. Therefore, fractional
windings are not used in induction motor starter.
18. Write the expression for length of mean turn of

stator winding?
Length of mean turn of stator, Lmts = 2L + 2.3 τ + 0.24
Where L = Stator core length
τ= pole pitch = П D / p
19. Name the methods used for reducing harmonic
torques.
Ø
Chording
Ø
Integral slot winding
Ø
Skewing and
Ø
Increasing the length of air gap
20. What is Skewing?
Skewing is twisting either the stator or rotor core. The motor

noise, vibrations, cogging and synchronous cusps can be
reduced or even entirely eliminated by skewing either the
stator or the rotor.
21. Give the expression for rotor current.
Sr = Number of rotor slots

22. What is full pitch and short pitch or chording?
When the coil span is equal to pole pitch (180 deg electrical),
the winding is called full pitched winding. When the coil span is
less than pole pitch (180 deg electrical), the winding is called
short pitched or chorded.
23. What are the different types of stator windings in

induction motor?
Ø
Mush winding
Ø
Lap winding and
Ø
Wave winding
24. How the induction motor can be designed for best

power factor?
For best power factor, the pole pitch τ is chosen such that τ =
SQRT [(0.18 L)].
25. What are the ranges of specific magnetic loading

and specific electric loading in induction motor?
Specific magnetic loading = 0.3 to 0.6 Wb / m 2
Specific electric loading = 5000 to 45000 amp.cond/m
26. What are the materials used for slip rings and
brushes in induction motor?
The slip rings are made of brass or phosphor bronze. The

brushes are made of metal graphite, which is an alloy of copper
and carbon.
27. Write the expression for output equation and

output co-efficient of induction motor.
The equation for input KVA is considered as output equation in
induction motor.
The input KVA, Q = C0 D2 L ns in KVA
Output co-efficient C0 = 11 Bav ac Kws *10-3 in KVA/ m3 – rps.
28. List the advantages of using open slots.
The advantages are:
Ø
The winding coils can be formed and fully insulated
before installing and also it is easier to replace the individual
coils.
Ø
It avoids excessive slot leakage thereby reducing the
leakage reactance.
29. Give the advantages of using semi-enclosed

stator slots.
The advantages are less air gap contraction factor giving a

small value of magnetizing current, low tooth pulsation loss and
mush quiter operation(less noise). Semi enclosed slots are
mostly preferred for induction motor.
30. What is the maximum value of flux density in

stator teeth?
The maximum value of flux density in stator tooth should not
exceed 1.7 Wb/m2.
A high value of flux density leads to a higher iron loss and a
greater magnetizing mmf.
28. What are the problems that occur in induction

motor due to certain combinations of stator and rotor
slots?
The problems in induction motor due to certain combinations of

stator and rotor slots are
Ø
The motor may refuse to start
Ø
The motor may crawl at some sub-synchronous speed
Ø
Severe vibrations are developed and so the noise will be
excessive
32. . List the rules for selecting rotor slots.
 Number of stator slots should not be equal to rotor slots

satisfactory results are obtained when Sr is 15 to 30% larger or
smaller than Ss.
 The difference (Ss - Sr) should not be equal to + or - p, +

or – 2p or + or – 5 p to avoid synchronous cusps.
 The difference (Ss - Sr) should not be equal to + or - 1, +

or – 2 , + or – (p+1) or + or – (p+2) to avoid noise and
vibrations.
32. What are the main dimensions of induction
motor?
Ø
Stator core internal diameter
Ø
Stator core length
33. Why induction motor is called as rotating

transformer?
The principle of operation of induction motor is similar to that of

a transformer. The stator winding is equivalent to primary of a
transformer. The rotor winding is equivalent to short circuited
secondary of a transformer. In transformer, the secondary is
fixed but in induction motor it is allowed to rotate.
35. How slip ring motor is started?
The slip ring motor is started by using rotor resistance starter.

The starter consists of star connected variable resistances and
protection circuits. The resistances are connected to slip rings.
While starting, full resistance is included in the rotor circuit to
get high starting torque. Once the rotor starts rotating, the
resistances are gradually reduced in steps. At running
condition, the slip rings are shorted and so it is equivalent to
squirrel cage rotor.
36. What are the special features of the cage rotor of

induction machine?
Ø
The cage rotor can adopt itself for any number of
phases and poles
Ø
It is suitable for any type of starting method except
using rotor resistance starter
Ø
It is cheaper and rugged
Ø
Rotor over hang leakage reactance is lesser which
results in better power factor, greater pull out torque and over
load capacity.
37. Name the materials used to insulate the

laminations of the core of induction motor.
The materials used to insulate the laminations of the core of

induction motor are kaolin and varnish.
38. Where mush winding is used?

The mush winding is used in small induction motors of ratings
less than 5HP.
39. What is the minimum value of slot pitch of a 3 phase

induction motor?
The minimum value of slot pitch of a 3 phase induction motor is

15 mm.
40. Write the formula for air-gap in case of three

phase induction motor in terms of length and diameter.
The length of air-gap, lg = 0.2 + 2 SQRT[(D L)] in mm
Where D and L are expressed in meters.

40. What is crawling and cogging?
Crawling is a phenomenon in which the induction motor runs at

a speed lesser than sub synchronous speed.
Cogging is a phenomenon in which the induction motor refuses

to start.
42. What is harmonic induction torque and harmonic

synchronous torque?
Harmonic induction torques are torques produced by harmonic

fields due to stator winding and slots.
Harmonic synchronous torques are torques produced by the

combined effect of same order of stator and rotor harmonic
fields.
43. What is the condition for obtaining the maximum

torque in case of 3-phase induction motor?
The maximum torque occurs in induction motor when rotor

reactance is equal to rotor resistance.
44. What is runaway speed?
The runaway speed is defined as the speed which the prime

mover would have, if it is suddenly unloaded, when working at
its rated speed.
45. State three important features of turbo-alternator
rotors.
Ø
The rotors of turbo-alternators have large axial
length and small diameters
Ø
Damping torque is provided by the rotor itself and
so there is no necessity for additional damper winding
Ø
They are suitable for high speed operations and
so number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
46. Distinguish between cylindrical pole and salient

pole construction.
In cylindrical pole construction the rotor is made of solid

cylinder and slots are cut on the outer periphery of the cylinder
to accommodate field conductors.
In salient pole construction, the circular or rectangular poles are

mounted on the outer surface of a cylinder. The field coils are
fixed on the pole.
The cylindrical pole construction is suitable for high speed

operations, whereas the salient pole construction is suitable for
slow speed operations.
47. Mention the factors that govern the design of field

system of alternator.

Number of poles and voltage across each field coil

Amp-turn per pole

Copper loss in field coil

Dissipating surface of field coil
S
pecific loss dissipation and allowable temperature rise
48. Mention the different tests that conducted in an
induction motor.
 No load test or open circuit test
 Short circuit test or load test
49. Give the different runaway speeds for various

turbines.
50. What are the factors that are affected due to SCR.
 Voltage regulation
 Stability
 Short circuit current
 Parallel operation
Unit-5 Synchronous machines:

Introduction
Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field

circuit supplied by an external DC source. Synchronous
machines are having two major parts namely stationary part
stator and a rotating field system called rotor. In a synchronous
generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding
producing a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is then driven by
external means producing a rotating magnetic field, which
induces a 3-phase voltage within the stator winding. Field
windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field
(rotor windings for synchronous machines); armature windings
are the windings where the main voltage is induced (stator
windings for synchronous machines).
Types of synchronous machines
1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven

by hydraulic turbines are called hydrogenerators. These are run
at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbogenerators: These are the generators driven by
steam turbines. These generators are run at very high speed of
1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC

engines. These are run at aspeed less than 1500 rpm. Hence
the prime movers for the synchronous generators are Hydraulic
turbines, Steam turbines or IC engines
Hydraulic Turbines: Pelton wheel Turbines: Water head 400 m

and above Francis turbines: Water heads up to 380 m
Keplan Turbines: Water heads up to 50 m
Steam turbines: The synchronous generators run by steam

turbines are called turbogenerators or turbo alternators. Steam
turbines are to be run at very high speed to get higher
efficiency and hence these types of generators are run at
higher speeds.
Diesel Engines: IC engines are used as prime movers for very

small rated generators.
Construction of synchronous machines
Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient

pole or projecting poles with concentrated field windings. This
type of construction is for the machines which are driven by
hydraulic turbines or Diesel engines.
Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines:
These machines are having cylindrical smooth rotor
construction with distributed field winding in slots. This type of
rotor construction is employed for the machine driven by steam
turbines.
Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are

constructed based on the water head available and hence
these machines are low speed machines. These machines are
constructed based on the mechanical consideration. For the
given frequency the low speed demands large number of poles
and consequently large
diameter. The machine should be so connected such that it

permits the machine to be transported to the site. It is a normal
to practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force
and stress produced at twice the normal operating speed.
Stator core:
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which

consists of the outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is
made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron.
The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel

laminations called stator core pressed into the cylindrical space
inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to
reduce eddy currents, reducing losses and heating. CRGO
laminations of 0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce the iron
losses.
A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots

of the laminated stator. The cross-sectional area of these
windings must be large enough for the power rating of the
machine. For a 3-phase generator, 3 sets of windings are
required, one for each phase connected in star. Fig. 1 shows
one stator lamination of a synchronous generator.
In case of generators where the diameter is too large stator
lamination can not be punched in on circular piece. In such
cases the laminations are punched in segments. A number of
segments are assembled together to form one circular
laminations. All the laminations are insulated from each other
by a thin layer of varnish.
Rotor of water wheel generator consists of salient poles. Poles
are built with thin silicon steel laminations of 0.5mm to 0.8 mm
thickness to reduce eddy current laminations. The laminations
are clamped by heavy end plates and secured by studs or
rivets. For low speed rotors poles have the bolted on
construction for the machines with little higher peripheral
speed poles have dove tailed construction as shown in Figs.
Generally rectangular or round pole constructions are used for
such type of alternators. However the round poles have the
advantages over rectangular poles. Generators driven by water
wheel turbines are of either horizontal or vertical shaft type.
Generators with fairly higher speeds are built with horizontal
shaft and the generators with higher power ratings and low
speeds are built with vertical shaft design. Vertical shaft
generators are of two types of designs (i) Umbrella type where
in the bearing is mounted below the rotor. (ii) Suspended type
where in the bearing is mounted above the rotor.
Relative dimensions of Turbo and water

wheel alternators:
Turbo alternators are normally designed with two poles with a
speed of 3000 rpm for a 50 Hz frequency. Hence peripheral
speed is very high. As the diameter is proportional to the
peripheral speed, the diameter of the high speed machines has
to be kept low. For a given volume of the machine when the
diameter is kept low the axial length of the machine increases.
Hence a turbo alternator will have small diameter and large
axial length.
However in case of water wheel generators the speed will be

low and hence number of poles required will be large. This will
indirectly increase the diameter of the machine. Hence for a
given volume of the machine the length of the machine
reduces. Hence the water wheel generators will have large
diameter and small axial length in contrast to turbo alternators.
Introduction to Design
Synchronous machines are designed to obtain the following
information’s.
(i) Main dimensions of the stator frame.
(ii) Complete details of the stator windings.
(iii) Design details of the rotor and rotor winding.
(iv) Performance details of the machine.
To proceed with the design and arrive at the design information

the design engineer needs the following information.
(i) Specifications of the synchronous machine.
(ii) Information regarding the choice of design

parameters.
(iii) Knowledge on the availability of the

materials.
(iv) Limiting values of performance parameters.
(v) Details of Design equations

Specifications of the synchronous machine:
Important specifications required to initiate the design

procedure are as follows:
Rated output of the machine in kVA or MVA, Rated voltage of
the machine in kV, Speed, frequency, type of the machine
generator or motor, Type of rotor salient pole or non salient
pole, connection of stator winding, limit of temperature, details
of prime mover etc.
Main Dimensions:
Internal diameter and gross length of the stator forms the main
dimensions of the machine. In order to obtain the main
dimensions it is required to develop the relation between the
output and the main dimensions of the machine. This relation is
known as the output equation.
Output equations
Output of the 3 phase synchronous generator is given by

Output of the machine Q = 3Vph Iph x 10-3 kVA
Assuming Induced emf Eph = Vph
Output of the machine Q = 3Eph Iph x 10-3 kVA
Induced emf Eph = 4.44 f TphKw
= 2.22 f ZphKw
Frequency of generated emf f = PNS/120 = Pns/2,
Air gap flux per pole = Bav DL/p, and Specific electric loading q
= 3Iph Zph/ D Output of the machine Q = 3 x (2.22 x Pn s/2 x
Bav DL/p x Zphx Kw) Iph x 10 -3 kVA Output Q = (1.11 x Bav DL
x ns x Kw ) (3 x IphZph ) x 10-3 kVA
Substituting the expressions for Specific electric loadings
Output Q = (1.11 x Bav DL x ns x Kw ) ( D q ) x 10 -3 kVA Q =
(1.11 2 D2L Bav q Kw ns x 10-3) kVA
Q = (11 Bav q Kw x 10-3) D2L ns kVA
Therefore Output Q = Co D2Lns kVA or D2L = Q/ Cons m3
where Co = (11 Bav q Kw x 10-3)
Vph = phase voltage ; Iph = phase current Eph = induced EMF

per phase Zph = no of conductors/phase in stator
Ns = synchronous speed in rpm
ns = synchronous speed in rps
p = no of poles, q = Specific electric loading
= air gap flux/pole; Bav = Average flux density

kw = winding factor
From the output equation of the machine it can be seen that
the volume of the machine is directly proportional to the output
of the machine and inversely proportional to the speed of the
machine. The machines having higher speed will have reduced
size and cost. Larger values of specific loadings smaller will be
the size of the machine.
Choice of Specific loadings:

From the output equation it is seen that choice of higher value
of specific magnetic and electric loading leads to reduced cost
and size of the machine.
Specific magnetic loading:
Following are the factors which influences the performance of

the machine.
1. Iron loss: A high value of flux density in the air gap leads
to higher value of flux in the iron parts of the machine
which results in increased iron losses and reduced
efficiency.
2. Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher voltage

space occupied by the insulation becomes more thus
making the teeth smaller and hence higher flux density in
teeth and core.
3. Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap density

results in decrease in leakage reactance and hence
increased value of armature current under short circuit
conditions.
4. Stability: The maximum power output of a machine under

steady state condition is indirectly proportional to
synchronous reactance. If higher value of flux density is
used it leads to smaller number of turns per phase in
armature winding. This results in reduced value of leakage
reactance and hence increased value of power and hence
increased steady state stability.
5. Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation of

synchronous generators depends on the synchronizing
power. Higher the synchronizing power higher will be the
ability of the machine to operate in synchronism. The
synchronizing power is inversely proportional to the
synchronous reactance and hence the machines designed
with higher value air gap flux density will have better
ability to operate in parallel with other machines.
Specific Electric Loading:
Following are the some of the factors which influence the

choice of specific electric loadings.
1. Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the

number of armature of conductors which results in higher
copper loss. This will result in higher temperature rise and
reduction in efficiency.
2. Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage

machines since the space required for the insulation will
be smaller.
3. Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to higher

value of leakage reactance and armature reaction and
hence higher value of synchronous reactance. Such
machines will have poor voltage regulation, lower value of
current under short circuit condition and low value of
steady state stability limit and small value of
synchronizing power.
4. Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses will

increase. Values of specific magnetic and specific electric
loading can be selected from Design Data Hand Book for
salient and non salient pole machines.
Separation of D and L: Inner diameter and gross length of the

stator can be calculated from D2L product obtained from the
output equation. To separate suitable relations are assumed
between D and L depending upon the type of the generator.
Round Poles: The ratio of pole arc to pole pitch may be

assumed varying between 0.6 to 0.7 and pole arc may be taken
as approximately equal to axial length of the stator core. Hence
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/ p = 0.6 to 0.7
Rectangular poles: The ratio of axial length to pole pitch may
be assumed varying between 0.8 to 3 and a suitable value may
be assumed based on the design specifications.
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/ p = 0.8 to 3 Using the

above relations D and L can be separated. However once these
values are obtained diameter of the machine must satisfy the
limiting value of peripheral speed so that the rotor can
withstand centrifugal forces produced. Limiting values of
peripheral speeds are as follows:
Bolted pole construction = 45 m/s

Dove tail pole construction = 75 m/s
Normal design = 30 m/s
Design of salient pole machines

These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles
with concentrated field windings. This type of construction is for
the machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel
engines.
Rotor of water wheel generator consists of salient poles. Poles

are built with thin silicon steel laminations of 0.5mm to 0.8 mm
thickness to reduce eddy current laminations. The laminations
are clamped by heavy end plates and secured by studs or
rivets. For low speed rotors poles have the bolted on
construction for the machines with little higher peripheral
speed poles have dove tailed construction as shown in Figs.
Generally rectangular or round pole constructions are used for
such type of alternators. However the round poles have the
advantages over rectangular poles.
In case of salient pole machines either round or rectangular

pole construction is employed. In these types of machines the
diameter of the machine will be quite larger than the axial
length.

Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.6 to 0.7

Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.8 to 3
Using the above relations D and L can be separated. However

once these values are obtained diameter of the machine must
satisfy the limiting value of peripheral speed so that the rotor
can withstand centrifugal forces produced. Limiting values of
Bolted pole construction = 45 m/s Dove tail pole construction =

75 m/s Normal design = 30 m/s
Separation of D and L:
Inner diameter and gross length of the stator can be calculated
from D2L product obtained from the output equation. To
separate suitable relations are assumed between D and L
depending upon the type of the generator.
Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.6

to 0.7

Axial length of the core/ pole pitch = L/τp = 0.8

to 3
Using the above relations D and L can be separated. However

once these values are obtained diameter of the machine must
satisfy the limiting value of peripheral speed so that the rotor
can withstand centrifugal forces produced. Limiting values of
Bolted pole construction = 45 m/s Dove tail pole construction =

75 m/s Normal design = 30 m/s
Turbo alternators: These alternators will have larger speed of

the order of 3000 rpm. Hence the diameter of the machine will
be smaller than the axial length. As such the diameter of the
rotor is limited from the consideration of permissible peripheral
speed limit. Hence the internal diameter of the stator is
normally calculated based on peripheral speed. The peripheral
speed in case of turbo alternators is much higher than the
salient pole machines. Peripheral speed for these alternators
must be below 175 m/s.
Short circuit ratio
It is defined as the ratio of field current required to produce
rated voltage on open circuit to the field current reqd. to
circulate rated current on short circuit.
Explanation
The Fig shows open Circuit and short Circuit characteristics of
an alternator.
According to definition,
Effect of SCR on Machine performance
1. Voltage regulation
2. Stability
3. Parallel operation
4. Short circuit Current
5. Cost and size of the machine
1.Voltage Regulation
3. Parallel operation:
SCR = 1/ Xs, as SCR↑ Xs ↓ IXs ↑ V ↓ Psync ↓
4. Short circuit current
5. Cost and size of the machine

as SCR ↓ Xs ↑ Zs ↑ Isc ↓ and hence cost of control
equipment reduces
Size and cost of the machine as SCR Xs Zs Isc and hence cost
of control equipment reduces
For salient pole machines SCR value varies from 0.9 to 1.3
For turbo alternators SCR value varies from 0.7 to 1.1
Length of the air gap:
Length of the air gap is a very important parameter as it greatly
affects the performance of the machine. Air gap in synchronous
machine affects the value of SCR and hence it influences many
other parameters. Hence, choice of air gap length is very
critical in case of synchronous machines.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of larger air

gap. Advantages:
(i) Stability: Higher value of stability limit
(ii) Regulation: Smaller value of inherent regulation
(iii) Synchronizing power: Higher value of synchronizing
power
(iv) Cooling: Better cooling
(v) Noise: Reduction in noise
(vi) Magnetic pull: Smaller value of unbalanced magnetic
pull Disadvantages:
(i) Field mmf: Larger value of field mmf is required

(ii) Size: Larger diameter and hence larger size
(iii) Magnetic leakage: Increased magnetic leakage
(iv) Weight of copper: Higher weight of copper in the field
winding
(v) Cost: Increase over all cost.
Hence length of the air gap must be selected considering the
above factors.
Calculation of Length of air Gap: Length of the air gap is usually
estimated based on the ampere turns required for the air gap.
Armature ampere turns per pole required ATa = 1.35 Tphkw /p
Where Tph = Turns per phase, Iph = Phase current, kw =

winding factor, p = pairs of poles
No load field ampere turns per pole AT fo = SCR x Armature

ampere turns per pole ATfo = SCR x ATa
Suitable value of SCR must be assumed.
Ampere turns required for the air gap will be approximately

equal to 70 to 75 % of the no load field ampere turns per pole.
ATg = (0.7 to 0.75) ATfo
Air gap ampere turns ATg = 796000 Bgkglg
Air gap coefficient or air gap contraction factor may be

assumed varying from 1.12 to 1.18.
As a guide line, the approximate value of air gap length can be

expressed in terms of pole pitch
For salient pole alternators: lg = (0.012 to 0.016) x pole pitch

For turbo alternators: lg = (0.02 to 0.026) x pole pitch
Synchronous machines are generally designed with larger air

gap length compared to that of Induction motors.
Design of stator winding:
Stator winding is made up of former wound coils of high
conductivity copper of diamond shape. These windings must be
properly arranged such that the induced emf in all the phases
of the coils must have the same magnitude and frequency.
These emfs must have same wave shape and be displaced by
1200 to each other. Single or double layer windings may be
used depending on the requirement. The three phase windings
of the synchronous machines are always connected in star with
neutral earthed. Star connection of windings eliminates the
3rd harmonics from the line emf.
Double layer winding: Stator windings of alternators are
generally double layer lap windings either integral slot or
fractional slot windings. Full pitched or short chorded windings
may be employed. Following are the advantages and
disadvantages of double layer windings.
Advantages:
(i) Better waveform: by using short pitched coil
(ii) Saving in copper: Length of the overhang is reduced by
using short pitched coils
(iii) Lower cost of coils: saving in copper leads to reduction in
cost
(iv) Fractional slot windings: Only in double layer winding,
leads to improvement in waveform
Disadvantages:
(i) Difficulty in repair: difficult to repair lower layer coils
(ii) Difficulty in inserting the last coil: Difficulty in inserting

the last coil of the windings
(iii) Higher Insulation: More insulation is required for double
layer winding
(iv) Wider slot opening: increased air gap reluctance and
noise
Number of Slots:
The number of slots are to be properly selected because the

number of slots affect the cost and performance of the
machine. There are no rules for selecting the number of
slots. But looking into the advantages and disadvantages of
higher number of slots, suitable number of slots per pole per
phase is selected. However the following points are to be
considered for the selection of number of slots.
(a)
Advantages:
(i) Reduced leakage reactance
(ii) Better cooling
(iii) Decreased tooth ripples
Disadvantages:
(i) Higher cost
(ii) Teeth becomes mechanically weak
(iii) Higher flux density in teeth
(b) Slot loading must be less than 1500 ac/slot
(c) Slot pitch must be with in the following limitations

(i) Low voltage machines ≤ 3.5 cm
(ii) Medium voltage machines up to 6kV ≤ 5.5 cm
(iv) High voltage machines up to 15 kV ≤ 7.5 cm
Considering all the above points number of slots per pole

phase for salient pole machines may be taken as 3 to 4 and
for turbo alternators it may be selected as much higher of
the order of 7 to 9 slots per pole per phase In case of
fractional slot windings number of slots per pole per phase
may be selected as fraction 3.5.
Turns per phase:

Turns per phase can be calculated from emf equation of the
alternator.
Induced emf Eph = 4.44 f Φ TphKw
Hence turns per phase Tph = Eph / 4.44

f ΦKw
Eph = induced emf per phase
Zph = no of conductors/phase in stator
kw = winding factor may assumed as 0.955
Conductor cross section: Area of cross section of stator

conductors can be estimated from the stator current per phase
and suitably assumed value of current density for the stator
windings.
Sectional area of the stator conductor a s = Is / δs where δs is

the current density in stator windings
Is is stator current per phase
A suitable value of current density has to be assumed

considering the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of higher value of current density:
(i) reduction in cross section

(ii) reduction in weight
(iii) reduction in cost
Disadvantages of higher value of current density
(i) increase in resistance

(ii) increase in cu loss
(iii) increase in temperature rise
(iv) reduction in efficiency
Hence higher value is assumed for low voltage machines and

small machines. Usual value of current density for stator
windings is 3 to 5 amps/mm2.
Stator coils:
Two types of coils are employed in the stator windings of

alternators. They are single turn bar coils and multi turn coils.
Comparisons of the two types of coils are as follows
(i) Multi turn coil winding allows greater flexibility in the

choice of number of slots than single turn bar coils.
(ii) Multi turn coils are former wound or machine wound

where as the single turn coils are hand made.
(iii) Bending of top coils is involved in multi turn coils
where as such bends are not required in single turn
coils.
(iv) Replacing of multi turn coils difficult compared to
single turn coils.
(v) Machine made multi turn coils are cheaper than hand
made single turn coils.
(vi) End connection of multi turn coils are easier than
soldering of single turn coils.
(vii) Full transposition of the strands of the single turn coils

are required to eliminate the eddy current loss.
(viii) Each turn of the multi turn winding is to be properly

insulated thus increasing the amount of insulation and
reducing the space available for the copper in the slot.
From the above discussion it can be concluded that multi

turn coils are to be used to reduce the cost of the machine.
In case of large generators where the stator current exceeds
1500 amps single turn coils are employed.
Single turn bar windings:
The cross section of the conductors is quite large because of

larger current. Hence in order to eliminate the eddy current loss
in the conductors, stator conductors are to be stranded. Each
slot of the stator conductor consists of two stranded conductors
as shown in Fig XXX. The dimensions of individual strands are
selected based on electrical considerations and the
manufacturing requirements. Normally the width of the strands
is assumed between 4 mm to 7 mm. The depth of the strands is
limited based on the consideration of eddy current losses and
hence it should not exceed 3mm. The various strand of the bar
are transposed in such a way as to minimize the circulating
current loss.
Multi turn coils:
Multi turn coils are former wound. These coils are made up of
insulated high conductivity copper conductors. Mica paper tape
insulations are provided for the portion of coils in the slot and
varnished mica tape or cotton tape insulation is provide on the
over hang portion. The thickness of insulation is decided based
on the voltage rating of the machine. Multi turn coils are usually
arranged in double layer windings in slots as shown in Fig XXX.
Dimensions of stator slot:
Width of the slot = slot pitch – tooth width
The flux density in the stator tooth should not exceed 1.8 to 2.0
Tesla. In salient pole alternators internal diameter is quite large
and hence the flux density along the depth of the tooth does
not vary appreciably. Hence width of the tooth may be
estimated corresponding to the permissible flux density at the
middle section of the tooth. The flux density should not exceed
1.8 Tesla. However in case of turbo alternators variation of flux
density along the depth of the slot is appreciable and hence the
width of the tooth may be estimated corresponding to the flux
density at the top section of the tooth or the width of the tooth
at the air gap. The flux density at this section should not
exceed 1.8 Tesla.
For salient pole alternator:
Flux density at the middle section =
Flux / pole /( width of the tooth at the middle section x iron

length x number of teeth per pole arc) Number of teeth per
pole arc = pole arc/slot pitch
For turbo alternators:

Flux density at the top section =
Flux / pole /( width of the tooth at the top section x iron length x
number of teeth per pole pitch) As the 2/3 rd pole pitch is slotted
the number of teeth per pole pitch = 2/3 x pole pitch/( slot
pitch at top section) Slot width = slot pitch at the top section –
tooth width at the top section.
Once the width of the slot is estimated the insulation required
width wise and the space available for conductor width wise
can be estimated.
Slot insulation width wise:

(i) Conductor insulation
(ii) Mica slot liner
(iii) Binding tape over the coil
(iv) Tolerance or clearance
Space available for the conductor width wise = width of the
slot – insulation width wise
We have already calculated the area of cross section of the

conductor. Using above data on space available for the
conductor width wise depth of the conductor can be estimated.
Now the depth of the slot may be estimated as follows.
Depth of the slot:

(i) Space occupied by the conductor = depth of each
conductor x no. of conductor per slot
(ii) Conductor insulation
(iii) Mica slot liner
(iv) Mica or bituminous layers to separate the insulated
conductors
(v) Coil separator between the layers
(vi) Wedge
(vii) Lip
(viii) Tolerance or clearance

Mean length of the Turn:
The length of the mean turn depends on the following
factors
(i) Gross length of the stator core: Each turn consists of

two times the gross length of stator core.
(ii) Pole pitch: The over hang portion of the coils depend
upon the coil span which in turn depends upon the pole
pitch.
(iii) Voltage of the machine: The insulated conductor

coming out of the stator slot should have straight
length beyond the stator core which depends upon the
voltage rating of the machine.
(iv) Slot dimension: Length per turn depends on the

average size of the slot.
Hence mean length of the turn in double layer windings of

synchronous machines is estimated as follows.
lmt = 2l + 2.5 τp+ 5 kV + 15 cm
Ex. 1 Design the stator frame of a 500 kVA, 6.6 kV, 50 Hz, 3
phase, 12 pole, star connected salient pole alternator, giving
the following informations.
(i) Internal diameter and gross length of the frame

(ii) Number of stator conductors
(iii) Number of stator slots and conductors per slot
Specific magnetic and electric loadings may be assumed as
0.56 Tesla and 26000 Ac/m respectively. Peripheral speed must
be less than 40 m/s and slot must be less than 1200.
Soln:
(i) Diameter and gross length of stator: Assuming the

winding to be full pitched Kw = 0.955 Output coefficient Co =
11 x Bav q Kw x 10-3
= 11 x 0.56 x 26000 x 0.955 x 10-3
= 153
Speed in rps ns = 2f/p = 2 x 50/12 = 8.33 rps
Output Q = C0 D2Lns =
D2L = Q / C0 ns = 500/( 153 x 8.33) = 0.392 m3
Using round poles for the salient pole alternator and

assuming ratio of pole arc to pole pitch as 0.65 and pole arc
equal to core length
Pole arc/ pole pitch = core length/ pole pitch = 0.65
L = πD/p = πD/12
L = 0.17D
Substituting this relation in D2L product and solving for D and

L
D = 1.32 m and L = 0.225 m.
Peripheral speed = πDns m/s
= π x 1.32 x 8.33
= 34.6 m/s (with in limitations)
(ii) Number of stator conductors
Eph = 6600/√3 = 3810 volts
Air gap flux per pole = Bav x πDL/p
= 0.56 x π x 1.32 x 0.225/12
= 0.0436 wb
We have Eph = 4.44f Φ Tph Kw
Hence Tph = 3810/ ( 4.44 x 50 x 0.955 x 0.0436)

= 412
Total number of stator conductors/phase = 412 x 2 =824

conductors
Total number of conductors = 412 x 6 = 2472
(iii) Number of stator slots and conductors per slot
Considering the guide lines for selection of number of slots
Selecting the number of slots/pole/phase = 3

Total number of slots = 3 x 12 x 3 =108
Slot pitch = πD/S

= π x 132/ 108
= 2.84 cm (quite satisfactory)
Number of conductors per slot = 2472/108 ≈ 24

Hence total number of conductors = 24 x 108 = 2592
Turns per phase = 2592/6 = 432
Slot loading:
Full load current = 500 x 103 / (√3 x 6600) = 43.7 amps
Slot loading = current per conductor x number of conductors/

slot
= 43.7 x 24
= 1048.8 ( satisfactory)
Ex. 2. A 3 phase 1800 kVA, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz, 250 rpm, salient pole
alternator has the following design data.
Stator bore diameter = 230 cm Gross length of stator bore = 38

cm Number of stator slots = 216 Number of conductors per slot
=4
Sectional area of stator conductor = 86 mm 2 Using the above

data, calculate
(i) Flux per pole
(ii) Flux density in the air gap
(iii) Current density
(iv) Size of stator slot
Soln:
(i) Flux per pole
Eph = 3300/√3 = 1905 volts

Number of slots per phase 216/3 = 72
Number of conductors per slot = 4

Total number of conductors per phase = 72 x 4 = 288
Number of turns per phase Tph = 288/2 =144
We have from emf equation Eph = 4.44f Φ Tph Kw
Assuming Kw =0.955
Flux per pole Φ = Eph/ (4.44f Tph Kw)

= 1905/( 4.44 x 50 x 144 x 0.955)
= 0.0624 wb
(ii) Flux density in the air gap
D = 230 cm,
L = 38 cm,
Ns = 250 rpm
P = 24
Bav = Φ / πDL/p
= 0.0624 x 24 / (π x 2.3 x 0.38)
= 0.55 Tesla
(iii) Current density
Sectional area of the conductor = 86 mm2

Full load current of the machine = 1800 x 10 3 / (√3x 3300) =
314.9 amps
Hence Current density = 314.9/86

= 3.7 amp/mm2
(iv) Size of the stator slot
Before fixing up the width of the slot flux density in the

middle section of the tooth has to be assumed as 1.7 Tesla.
Based on this flux density width of the slot at the middle
section can be found.
Flux per pole = 0.0624 wb Gross length of the core = 38 cm

Assume
Number of ventilating duct = 4 Width of the ventilating duct

= 1cm Iron space factor =0.92
Net iron length of the core li =( L – nd x wd)ki
= ( 38 – 4 x 1) 0.92
= 31.28 cm
Pole pitch = πD/p
= π x 230/24
= 30.12 cm
Pole arc/ pole pitch = 0.65 ( Assumed)
Pole arc = 0.65 x pole pitch
= 0.65 x 30.12
= 19.6 cm
Number of stator teeth = 216
Slot pitch = πD/s
= π x 230/216
= 3.35 cm
Number of teeth per pole arc = pole arc/ slot pitch
= 19.6/3.35
=6
Flux density in stator teeth = flux per pole /( b t x li x number

of teeth per pole arc) bt = 0.0624/( 1.7 x
0.3128 x 6)
= 1.95 cm
Thus the width of the slot should not exceed = 3.35 – 1.95 =
1.4 cm
(i) Conductor insulation 2 x 0.5 = 1.0 mm
(ii) Micanite slot liner 2 x 1.5 = 3.0 mm
(iii) Binding tape 2 x 0.4 = 0.8 mm
(iv) tolerence = 1.2 mm
Total = 6.0 mm
Maximum space available for the conductor width wise = width
of the slot – insulation
width wise = 1.4 – 0.6
= 0.8 cm
Area of cross section of the conductor = 86 mm 2 Hence

thickness of the conductor = 86/8 = 10.75 mm
Hence the dimension of the standard conductor selected = 7.8

mm x 11.0 mm Hence the width of the conductor = 7.8 + 6.0 =
13.8 mm =1.38 cm
Arrangement of the conductor:

All the four conductors are arranged depth wise
Depth of the slot:
(i) Space occupied by the conductor 4 x 11 = 44.0 mm
(ii) Conductor insulation 4 x 2 x 0.5 = 4.0 mm
(iii) Micanite slot liner 2 x 1.5 = 3.0 mm
(iv)Bituminous insulation between the
insulated conductors (4-1) x 0.2 = 0.6 mm
(v)Binding tape on the conductors 2 x 0.4 = 0.8 mm
(vi) Lip = 1.5 mm
(vii) Wedge = 3.5 mm
(viii) Tolerance = 1.6 mm
Total 59 mm
Size of the slot = 1.38 cm x 5.9 cm
Ex.3. A water wheel generator with power output of 4750 kVA,

13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 1000 rpm, working at a pf of 0.8 has a stator
bore and gross core length of 112 cm and 98 cm respectively.
Determine the loading constants for this machine.
Using the design constants obtained from the above machine

determine the main dimensions of the water wheel generator
with 6250 kVA, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz, 750 rpm operating at a power
factor of 0.85. Also determine (i) Details of stator winding (ii)
Size of the stator slot, (iii) Copper losses in the stator winding.
For 4750 kVA Generator:

D = 112 cm
L = 98 cm
Ns = 1000 rpm
Ns = 1000/60 = 16.67 rps
kVA out put Q = C0 D2Lns C0 = Q / D2Lns

= 4750 / [(1.12)2 x 0.98 x 16.67]
= 232
Output coefficient Co = 11 x Bav q Kw x 10-3
Hence Bav x q = Co / (11 x Kw x 10-3)

= 232 / (11 x 0.955 x 10-3)
= 22200
Assuming the flux density of 0.6 Tesla
Hence q = 22200/0.6 = 37000 Ac/m

Main Dimensions of the second machine:
kVA out put Q = C0 D2Lns
C0 = 232
Q = 6250 kVA
Ns = 750 rpm
Ns = 750/60 = 12.5 rps
D2L = Q / C0 ns
= 6250 / 232 x 12.5
= 2.16 m3
For the first machine pole pitch τp = πD/p
= π x 112/6
= 58.6 cm
Core length / pole pitch = gross length/ pole pitch
= 98/58.6
= 1.67
No. of poles for the second machine p = 120f/N s= 120 x 50 /

750 = 8
Assuming the same ratio of gross length to pole pitch for the
second machine as that of first machine
L / πD/p = 1.67
L = 1.67 x πD/8
= 0.655 D
We have D2L = 2.16 m3

Substituting the value of L in D2L and solving for D & L
D = 149 cm and L = 97.5 cm
Peripheral speed for machine 1: πDNs /60 = π x 1.12 x 1000/60

= 58.5 m/s
Peripheral speed for machine 2: πDNs /60 = π x 1.49 x 750/60 =

58.5 m/s
As the peripheral speed is same for both the machines the

diameter and length of the machine are satisfactory.
Stator winding details:

Assuming star connection emf per phase Eph = 13.8/√3 =
7960 volts
We have from emf equation Eph = 4.44f Φ Tph Kw
Assuming Kw =0.955, f = 50 Hz

Assuming the air gap flux density of machine 2 same as that of
machine 1 Bav = 0.6 Tesla
Hence = Bav x πDL/p = 0.6 x π x 1.49 x 0.975/ 8 = 0.342 wb
Hence Tph = Eph/4.44f Φ Kw

= 7960/ (4.44 x 50 x 0.342 x 0.955)
= 110
Total number of Conductors =110 x 6 = 660
Full load current per phase I ph = 6250 x 103 / √3 x 13.8 x 103 =
262 amps
Assuming number of slots per pole per phase = 4 1/2 Total

number of slots = 4.5 x 8 x 3 = 108
Slot pitch = πD/s = π x 149/108 = 4.35 cm ( quite satisfactory)
Number of conductors per slot = 660/108 ≈ 6
Total number of conductors revised = 108 x 6 = 648 Number of

turns/phase = 108
Total slot loading = Iph x Cond/slot
= 262 x 6 = 1572 amp cond (quite
satisfactory)
Dimension of the stator slot:

Full load current per phase I ph = 6250 x 103 / √3 x 13.8 x 103 =
262 amps
Assuming a current density of 4.2 amps/mm2
Area of cross section of the conductor = 262/4.2 = 62.4 mm 2
Based on the allowable flux density, width of the stator tooth

can be calculated and then the width of the slot can be
estimated.
Flux density in stator tooth B t = / (Number of teeth/pole arc

x width of the teeth x Iron length)
In a large salient pole alternator the flux density in the tooth

along the depth of the tooth does not vary appreciably. Thus
the flux density at the top of the tooth may be assumed as 1.7
Tesla and the width of the tooth is calculated at the top section.
Hence number of teeth per pole arc = pole arc/ slot pitch
Assuming pole arc/ pole pitch = 0.65
Pole arc = 0.65 x 58.6 = 38.1 cm
Thus the number of teeth per pole arc = 38.1/4.35 = 9
Net Iron length = (L – ndwd) ki
Assuming 10 ventilating ducts of each 1 cm width and an iron

space factor of 0.92 Li = (97.5 -10 x 1)0.92 = 80.5 cm = 0.805
m
Bt = / (Number of teeth/pole arc x x Li) = 0.342/ ( 9 x bt x 0.805)

Assuming the flux density Bt as 1.7 Tesla
Hence width of the teeth = 2.78 cm

We have the slot pitch = 4.35 cm
Thus the slot pitch = 4.35 – 2.78 = 1.55 cm

(i) Conductor insulation 2 x 0.5 = 1.0 mm
(iii) Binding tape 2 x 0.25 = 0.5 mm
(iv) tolerence = 1.0 mm
Total = 5.5 mm
Insulation depth wise:
(i) Conductor insulation 6 x 2 x 0.5 = 6.0 mm
(iii)Bituminous insulation between the
insulated conductors (6-1) x 0.3 = 1.5 mm
(iv) coil separator between layers = 0.4 mm
(iv)Binding tape on the conductors 6 x 2 x 0.25 = 3.0
mm
(v) Lip = 1.0 mm
(vi) Wedge = 3.0 mm
(vii) Tolerance = 1.6 mm
Total 19.5 mm
Maximum space available for the conductor width wise =

width of the slot –
insulation width wise =
1.55 – 0.55
= 1.0 cm
The area of cross section of the conductor = 62.4

mm2 Approximate depth of the conductor = 62.4/ 10 = 6.2
mm Selecting the standard conductor of size 9 mm x 7 mm
Thus the area of the conductor = 63 mm2
Six conductors are arranged as 3 conductors depth wise in
two layers.
Hence width of the slot = 9 mm + 5.5 mm = 14.5 mm =
1.45 cm
Depth of the slot = 6 x 7 + 19.5 mm = 61.5 mm =6.15 cm
Copper loss in stator winding
Approximate length of the mean turn = ( 2L + 2.5 τp + 5 x kV

+ 15)
= ( 2 x 97.5 + 2.5 x 58.6 + 5 x
13.8 + 15)
= 426 cm
= 4.26 m
Resistance of the stator winding = ζ x lmt x Tph /a

= 0.021 x 4.26 x 108 / 63
= 0.153 ohm
Total Copper losses = 3 I2R
= 3 x (262)2 x 0.153
= 31500 watts
Ex. 4. Two preliminary designs are made for a 3 phase

alternator, the two designs differing only in number and size
of the slots and the dimensions of the stator conductors. The
first design uses two slots per pole per phase with 9
conductors per slot, each slot being 75 mm deep and 19 mm
wide, the mean width of the stator tooth is 25 mm. The
thickness of slot insulation is 2 mm, all other insulation may
be neglected. The second design is to have 3 slots per pole
per phase. Retaining the same flux density in the teeth and
current density in the stator conductors as in the first design,
calculate the dimensions of the stator slot for the second
design. Total height of lip and wedge may be assumed as 5
mm.
Slon.
First Design:
Slot per pole per phase q = 2
Total height of the conductor = 75 – 5 – 2 x 2 = 66 mm
Height of each conductor = 66/9 = 7.33 mm

Width of each conductor = 19 -2 x 2 = 15 mm
Area of each conductor = 7.33 xx 15 = 110 mm2
Slot pitch at mean diameter = slot width + tooth width = 19

+ 25 = 44 mm
Second Design:
Slots per pole per phase = 3
Hence, the number of stator slots in this design are 3/2

times that in the first design. Retaining the same flux
density in the teeth and current density in the stator
conductors The number of conductors per slot in this design
is 2/3 times that in the first design. Number of conductors
per slot = 2/3 x 9 = 6
Slot pitch at mean diameter = 2/3 x 44 = 29.3 mm
Tooth width at the same flux density = 2/3 x 25 = 16.7 mm

Hence slot width = 29.3 -16.7 = 12.6 mm
Width of each conductor = 12.6 – 2 x 2 = 8.6 mm Height of

each conductor = 110/8.6 = 12.8 mm Total height of the
conductor = 6 x 12.8 = 76.8 mm Conductor dimensions
12.8 x 8.6 mm2
Depth of the slot = 76.8 + 5 + 2 x 2 = 85.8 mm Slot
dimensions = 85.8 x 12.6 mm2
Ex. 5. A 1000 kVA, 3300 volts, 50 Hz, 300 rpm, 3 phase

alternator has 180 slots with 5 conductors per slot. Single
layer winding with full pitched coils is used. The winding is
star connected with one circuit per phase. Determine the
specific electric and magnetic loading if the stator bore is 2
m and core length is 0.4 m. Using the same specific
loadings determine the design details for a 1250 kVA, 3300
volts, 50 Hz, 250 rpm, 3 phase star connected alternator
having 2 circuits per phase. The machines have 60 0 phase
spread.
Slon: Total stator conductors = 180 x 5 =900 Turns per

phase = 900 / 6 = 150 Synchronous speed =300/60 =5 rps
Number of poles = 120f / Ns = 120 x 50/ 300 = 20 Slots per

pole per phase = 180/(20 x 3) = 3 Distribution factor = (sin
60/2) / (3 sin 60/6) = 0.96 For Full pitched winding, pitch
factor kp = 1 Winding factor = kp x kd = 0.96
Eph = 3300/√3 =1910 volts
Flux per pole = 1910 / ( 4.44 x 50 x 150 x 0.96) = 59.8

mwb Pole pitch = πD/p = π x 2 / 20 = 0.314 m
Area of one pole pitch Ap = pole pitch x core length = 0.314

x 0.4 = 125.6 x 10-3 m2 Specific magnetic loading = / A p =
59.8 x 10-3 / 125.6 x 10-3 = 0.476 Tesla Current per phase
Iph = 1000 x 103 / ( 3 x 1910) = 175 amps
As there is one circuit per phase current per conductor =
175 amps
Specific electric loading = 3 Iph zph/ πD = 6 Iph Tph/ πD = 6 x
175 x 150/ (π x 2) = 25000 Ac/m Peripheral speed
= πDNs/60 = π x 2 x 300/60 = 31.4 m/s
1250 kVA generator
Synchronous speed = 250/60 = 4.167 rps Number of poles

= 120f / Ns = 120 x 50/ 250 = 24 Winding factor = 0.96
Output coefficient C0 = 11 Bav q Kw x 10-3 = 11 x 0.476 x
0.96 x 25000 x 10-3 = 126
D2L = Q/ C0 ns = 1250 / (126 x 4.167) = 2.39 m3
Keeping the peripheral speed same as that of the first

machine πDNs/60 = π x D x 250/60 = 31.4 m/s
Hence D = 2.4 m and L 0.414 m
Pole pitch = πD/p = π x 2.4 / 24 = 0.314 m
Flux per pole = Bav x πDL/p = 0.476 x 0.314 x 0.414 =
0.062 wb
When there are more than one circuit per phase ( number
of parallel paths = a) Voltage per phase E ph = 4.44f Φ Tph Kw /
a; a = 2
Hence Tph = (2 x 1910) / ( 4.44 x 50 x 0.062 x 0.96) = 289

Total number of conductors = 6 Tph = 6 x 289 = 1734 Total
number of slots = 3 x 24 x 3 = 216
Number of conductors per slot = 1734/216 ≈ 8 Revised

number of conductors = 8 x 216 = 1728 Revised number of
turns per phase = 1728/ 6 = 288
Ex. 6. Determine the main dimensions of a 75 MVA, 13.8 kV, 50

Hz, 62.5 rpm, 3 phase star connected alternator. Also find
the number of stator slots, conductors per slot, conductor
area and work out the winding details. The peripheral speed
should be less than 40 m/s. Assume average gap density as
0.65 wb/m2, Specific electric loading as 40,000 AC/m and
current density as 4 amp/ mm2.
Slon:
Synchronous speed = 62.5/60 = 1.0417 rps Number of

poles = 120f / Ns = 120 x 50/ 62.5 = 96 Winding factor =
0.955
Output coefficient C0 = 11 Bav q Kw x 10-3 = 11 x 0.65 x 0.955

x 40000 x 10-3 = 273 D2L = Q/ C0 ns = 75000 / (273 x
1.0417) = 264 m3
Taking the peripheral speed as 40 m/s Peripheral speed

= πDNs/60
Hence D = 40 x 60/ π x 300 = 12.2 m and L = 1.77 m Pole

pitch = πD/p = π x 12.2 / 96 = 0.4 m
Flux per pole = Bav x πDL/p = 0.65 x 0. 4 x 1.77 = 0.46 wb

Eph = 13800/√3 = 7960 volts
Assuming one circuit per phase
Turns per phase Tph = Eph / 4.44f Φ Kw = 7960 / ( 4.44 x 50 x
0.46 x 0.955) ≈ 82
As the terminal voltage of the machine is 13.8 kV slot pitch

of about 5.5 cm should be used. Hence the number of slots
= πD / τs = π x 12.2 x 100/5.5 = 696
Number of slots per pole per phase = S/ 3p = 696 / (3 x 96)
= 2.42
The above fractional value of slots per pole per phase

indicates that fractional slot winding is used. Number of
slots and turns per phase must be finalized such that they
should not differ significantly from the earlier calculated
values.
It is also to be noted that for fractional slot winding double

layer winding is a must and hence conductors per slot must
be an even.
Assuming number of slots per pole per phase as 2.5 Total

number of slots = 2.25 x 3 x 96 = 648
Total number of conductors = 2 x 3 x T ph = 6 x 82 = 492

Hence number of conductors per slot = 492/648 = fraction
Hence a double layer winding is not possible with one

circuit per phase. Hence the number of circuits is to be
selected in such a way that number of conductors per slot
is even and the winding becomes symmetrical.
Taking the number parallel circuits as a = 8

Turns per phase Tph = a x Eph / 4.44f Φ Kw = 8 x 7960 / ( 4.44
x 50 x 0.46 x 0.955) ≈ 654 Hence total number of
conductors = 2 x 3 x Tph = 6 x 654 = 3924
Number of conductors per slot = 3924/ 648 ≈ 6 Hence the

number of conductors = 6 x 648 = 3888 Hence turns per
phase Tph = 3888/6 = 648
Current per phase = (75000 x 10 3) / ( 3 x 7960) = 3140
amps
Current in each conductor = Current per parallel path =

3140/8 = 392.5 amps Area of cross section of each
conductor = 392.5/4 = 98.125 mm2
Area of cross section of conductor being very large
conductors are stranded and used.
Ex.7. Calculate the stator dimensions for 5000 kVA, 3 phase,
50 Hz, 2 pole alternator. Take mean gap density of 0.5
wb/m2, specific electric loading of 25,000 ac/m, peripheral
velocity must not exceed 100 m/s. Air gap may be taken as
2.5 cm.
Soln: Output Q = Co D2Lns kVA Co = 11 Bav q Kw x 10-

3
Assuming Kw = 0.955
Co = 11 x 0.5 x 25000 x 0.955 x 10-3 = 130
Ns = 120f/p = 120 x 50/ 2 = 3000 ns = 3000/60 = 50 rps
D2L = Q/ Cons
= 5000/(130 x 50)
= 0.766 m3
Peripheral velocity = πDrNs/60 = 100 m/s
Dr = 100/(50 x π) = 63.5 cm
D = Dr + 2lg
= 63.5 + 2 x 2.5
= 68.5 cm
L = 163 cm
Numerical Problems: Turbo alternators
Ex.1. Calculate the stator dimensions for 5000 kVA,

3 phase, 50 Hz, 2 pole alternator. Take mean gap density of
0.5 wb/m2, specific electric loading of 25,000 ac/m,
peripheral velocity must not exceed 100 m/s. Air gap may
be taken as 2.5 cm.
Soln: Output Q = Co D2Lns kVA
Co = 11 Bav q Kw x 10-3 Assuming Kw = 0.955
Co = 11 x 0.5 x 25000 x 0.955 x 10-3 = 130
Ns = 120f/p = 120 x 50/ 2 = 3000 rpm ns = 3000/60 = 50 rps
D2L = Q/ Cons
= 5000/(130 x 50)
= 0.766 m3
Peripheral velocity = πDrNs/60 = 100 m/s
Dr = 100/(50 x π) = 63.5 cm
D = Dr + 2lg
= 63.5 + 2 x 2.5
= 68.5 cm
L = 163 cm
Ex.2. A 3000 rpm, 3 phase, 50 Hz, turbo alternator Has a core

length of 0.94 m. The average gap density
is 0.45 Tesla and the ampere conductors per m are 25000. The
peripheral speed of the rotor is 100 m/s and the length of the
air gap is 20mm. Find the kVA output of the machine when the
coils are (i) full pitched (ii) short chorded by 1/3rd pole pitch.
The winding is infinitely distributed with a phase spread of 600.
Soln:
Synchronous speed Ns = 3000 rpm ns= 3000/60 = 50 rps
Peripheral speed np = πDrNs/60 = 100 m/s
Hence diameter of the rotor Dr = 100 x 60 / (π x 3000) = 0.637

m
Hence inner diameter of stator D = Dr + 2lg

= 0.637 + 2 0.02
= 0.677 m
(i) With infinite distribution and 600 phase spread the

distribution factor may be given by where α is the phase spread
Kd = sin σ/2 / σ/2 = sin π/6 / π/6 = 0.955

With full pitched coils Kp = 1
Winding factor = Kp x Kd = 0.955
Output of the machine Q = C0 D2Lns
= 11 Bav q Kw x D2Lns x 10-3
= 11 x 0.45 x 25000 x 0.955 x 0.6672 x 0.94 x 50 x 10-3
= 2480 kVA
(ii) With chording of 1/3rd of pole pitch: chording angle α =
180/3 =600
Pitch factor = cos α /2 = 0.866
Winding factor = Kp x Kd = 0.955 x 0.866 = 0.827
Output of the machine Q = C0 D2Lns

= 11 Bav q Kw x D2Lns x 10-3
= 11 x 0.45 x 25000 x 0.827 x 0.6672 x 0.94 x 50 x 10-3
= 2147 kVA
Ex. 3. Estimate the stator dimensions, size and number of

conductors and number of slots of 15 MVA 11kV,
3 phase, 50 Hz, 2 pole turbo alternator with 600 phase spread.
Assume Specific electric loading = 36000 AC/m, specific

magnetic loading = 0.55 Tesla, Current density = 5 Amp/mm2 ,
peripheral speed = 160 m/s. The winding must be designed to
eliminate 5th harmonic.
Soln: Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/p = 120 x 50/ 2 = 3000

rpm ns= 3000/60 = 50 rps
Peripheral speed np = πDrNs/60 = 160 m/s

Hence diameter of the rotor Dr ≈D
= 160 x 60 / (π x 3000)
=1 m
With a phase spread of 600 distribution factor
Kd = sin σ/2 / σ/2 = sin π/6 / π/6 = 0.955
In order to eliminate 5th harmonic chording angle α = 180/5=
360
Pitch factor Kp = cos α /2 = 0.951
Winding factor = Kp x Kd = 0.955 x 0.951 = 0.908
Output coefficient C0 = 11 Bav q Kw x 10-3
= 11 x 0.55 x 36000x 0.908 x10-3
= 198
D2L = Q / C0 ns
= 15 000/ (198 x 50) = 1.51 m3 We have D = 1 m and D2L

=1.51 m3 Solving for L, L= 1.51 m
Flux per pole = Bav x πDL/p

= 0.55 x π x 1 x 1.51 / 2
= 1.3 wb
= 1100/√3
Eph =6360 volts
Henc Tph =
e Eph/4.44f Φ Kw
= 6360 / ( 4.44 x 50 x 1.3 x 10-3 x 0.908)
= 24
Total number of conductors = 6 x 24 =144
For the turbo alternator selecting slots/pole/phase = 5
Total number of stator slots = 5 x 2 x 3 = 30
Conductors/slot = 144 /30 = 5

can not use double layer winding, using two circuits per
phase conductors/slot = 10
Total conductors 10 x 30 = 300
Design of the field System: Salient pole Alternator:
Dimension of the pole:
(i) Axial Length of the pole: Axial length of the pole may
be assumed 1 to 1.5 cm less than that of the stator
core.
(ii) Width of the pole: Leakage factor for the pole is
assumed varying between 1.1 to 1.15.
Thus the flux in the pole body = 1.1 to 1.15
Area of the pole = Flux in the pole body/ Flux density in

the pole body. Flux density in the pole body is assumed
between 1.4 to 1.6 wb/m2.
Area of the pole = width of the pole x net axial length of the
pole.
Net axial length of the pole = gross length x stacking

factor Stacking factor may be assumed as 0.93 to
0.95.
Hence width of the pole = Area of the pole / net axial length
of the pole.
(iii) Height of the pole:
Height of the pole is decided based on the mmf to be provided
on the pole by the field winding at full load. Hence it is required
to find out the mmf to be provided on the pole at full load
before finding the height of the pole. Full load field ampere
turns required for the pole can be calculated based on the
armature ampere turns per pole.
Hence full load field ampere turns per pole can be assumed 1.7
to 2.0 times the armature ampere turns per pole.
Armature ampere turns per pole ATa = 1.35 Iph Tph Kw /p And
ATfl = (1.7 to 2.0) ATa
Height of the pole is calculated based on the height of

the filed coil required and the insulation.
Height of the filed coil:

If = current in the field coil
af = area of the field conductor
Tf = number of turns in the field coil R f = resistance of the

field coil
lmt = length of the mean turn of the field coil
sf = copper space factor hf = height of the field coil d f = depth

of the field coil
pf = permissible loss per m2 of the cooling surface of the field

coil ζ = specific resistance of copper
Watts radiated from the field coil = External surface in cm 2 x

watts/cm2
= External periphery of the field coil x Height of
the field coil x watts/cm2
Total loss in the coil = (If2 x Rf) = ( If2 x ζ x lmt x Tf / af)

Total copper area in the field coil = af x Tf = sf hf df
Hence af = sf df hf / Tf
Thus watts lost per coil = ( If2 x ζ x lmt x Tf ) Tf / sf hf df
= (If Tf)2 ζ x lmt/ sf hf df
Loss dissipated form the field coil = q f x cooling surface of the

field coil
Normally inner and outer surface of the coils are effective in

dissipating the heat. The heat dissipated from the top and
bottom surfaces are negligible.
Cooling surface of the field coil = 2 x lmt x hf
Hence loss dissipated from the field coil = 2 x lmt x hf x qf
For the temperature rise to be with in limitations
Watts lost per coil = watts radiated from the coil
(If Tf)2 ζ x lmt/ sf hf df = 2 x lmt x hf x qf
Hence hf = (If Tf) / [ 104 x √(sf df qf)]

= ATfl x 10-4/ √(sf df qf)
Depth of the field coil is assumed from 3 to 5 cm,
Copper space factor may be assumed as 0.6 to 0.8,
Loss per m2 may be assumed as 700 to 750 w/m2
Hence the height of the pole = hf + height of the pole shoe + height taken by
insulation.
Design of field winding for salient pole Alternator:
Design of the field winding is to obtain the following

information.
(i) Cross sectional area of the conductor of field winding

(ii) Current in field winding
(iii) Number of turns in field winding

(iv) Arrangement of turns
(v) Resistance of the field winding
(vi) Copper loss in the field winding
Above informations can be obtained following the following

steps
(i) Generally the exciter voltage will be in the range of
110 volts to 440 volts. 15-20 % of
voltage is kept as drop across the field controller.
Hence voltage per coil Vc = (0.8 to 0.85) exciter
voltage / Number of field coils
(ii) Assume suitable value for the depth of the field coil
(iii) Mean length of the turn in field coil is estimated from
the dimensions of the pole and the depth of the field
windings. Mean length of the turn = 2( l p + bp) + π (df +
2ti) where ti is the thickness of insulation on the pole.
(iv) Sectional area of the conductor can be calculated as

follows
Resistance of the field coil Rf = ζ x lmt x Tf / af = voltage

across the coil/ field coil
Vc/ If = ζ x lmt x Tf / af
Hence af = ζ x lmt x If Tf / Vc
(v) Field current can be estimated by assuming a suitable

value of current density in the field winding. Generally
the value of current density may be taken as 3.5 to 4
amp/mm2.
Hence If = δf x af
(vi) Number of turns in the field winding T f = Full load field

ampere turns / field current = ATfl/ If
(vii) Height of the field winding hf = ATfl x 10-4/ √(sf df qf)
(viii) Resistance of the field winding Rf = ζ x lmt x Tf / af
(ix) Copper loss in the field winding = If2 x Rf

BrainKart.com
To
Numerical Problems on Field System Design of Salient pole

machines:
Ex.1. The following information has been obtained during the

preliminary design of a 3 phase 500 kVA, 6.6 kV, 12 pole,
500 rpm, star connected salient pole alternator.
Stator diameter = 1.3 m, gross length of stator = 0.21m,

air gap flux per pole = 0.0404 wb Based on the above
information, design the field system of the alternator
giving the following details.
(i) Length of the air gap

(ii) Diameter of the rotor at the air gap surface
(iii) Dimension of the pole
Soln:
(i) Length of the air gap : Air gap flux per pole = Bav x
πDL/p
= (12 x 0.0404)/( π x1.3 x
0.21)
= 0.56 Tesla
We have ATf0 = SCR x ATa and ATa=1. 35 Iph Tph Kw /p
We have Eph = 4.44 f Tph kw and

Hence Tph x Kw = Eph/(4.44f ) = 6600/√3/ ( 4.44 x 50 x
0.0404) = 424 Full load current = 500 x 10 3/ √3 x 6600 = 43.7
amps
ATa=1. 35 Iph Tph Kw /p = 1.35 x 43.7 x 424 /6 = 4169 AT
Assuming a short circuit ratio of 1.1 AT f0 = SCR x ATa = 1.1 x
4169 = 4586 AT Assuming AT required for the air gap as 70 %
of the no load field ampere turns per pole AT g = 0.7 x ATfo = 0.7
x 4586 = 3210 AT
Assuming Carter’s coefficient for the air gap k g as 1.15 and field
form factor Kf as 0.7 Bg = Bav/Kf = 0.56/0.7 = 0.8 Tesla
We have air gap ampere turns ATg = 796000 Bg kg lg
Hence air gap length lg = 3210 / ( 796000 x 0.8 x 1.15) =
0.0044 m = 4.4 mm
(ii) Diameter of the rotor Dr = D - 2 lg = 1.2 – 2 x 0.0044 =
1.191m
(iv) Peripheral speed = πDrNs / 60 = π x 1.191 x 500/60
=31.2 m/s
(v) Dimensions of the pole : Assuming the axial length

as 1 cm less than that of the gross length of the stator
(a) Axial length of the pole Lp= 0.21 – 0.01 = 0.2 m
(b) Width of the pole: Assuming the leakage factor for
the pole as 1.15
Flux in the pole body Φp = 1.15 x 0.0404 = 0.0465 wb

Assuming flux density in the pole body as 1.5 Tesla Area
of the pole = 0.0465/1.5 = 0.031 m2
Assuming a stacking factor of 0.95
Width of the pole = area of the pole / stacking factor x

Lp = 0.031/ (0.95 x 0.2) = 0.16 m Height of the pole: Assuming
ATfl = 1.8 x ATa = 1.8 x 4169 = 7504 AT
Assuming : Depth of the field coil = 4 cm Space factor
for the filed coil = 0.7
Permissible loss per unit area = 700 w/m 2 Height

of the filed coil hf = (If Tf) / [ 104 x √(sf df qf)]
= 7504 / [104 x √(0.04 x 0.7 x
700)]
= 0.17 m
Hence the height of the pole = h f + height of the pole shoe +
height taken by insulation Assuming height of the pole shoe
+ height taken by insulation as 0.04 m
Height of the pole = 0.17 + 0.04 = 0.21 m
Ex.2. The field coils of a salient pole alternator are wound with a
single layer winding of bare copper strip 30 mm deep, with a
separating insulation of 0.15 mm thick. Determine a suitable
winding length, number of turns and thickness of the conductor
to develop an mmf of 12000 AT with a potential difference of 5
volts per coil and with a loss of 1200 w/m 2 of total coil surface.
The mean length of the turn is 1.2 m. The resistivity of copper
is 0.021 /m and mm2.
Soln. Area of field conductor af = ζ x x (If Tf ) / Vc

= 0.021 x 1.2 x 12000/ 5
= 60.4 mm2
Hence height of the conductor = 60.4/30 = 2 mm
Revised area of the conductor = 60 mm2
Total heat dissipating surface S = 2 x lmt (hf + df )
= 2 x 1.2 (hf + 0.03)
= 2.4 hf + 0.072 m2
Hence total loss dissipated Qf = 1200 (2.4 hf + 0.072) watts
= 2880 hf + 86.4 watts
Field current If = Qf/vc= (2880 hf + 86.4)/ 5 = 5.76 hf + 17.3

And If Tf = (5.76 hf + 17.3) Tf =12000
If Tf = 5.76 hf Tf + 17.3 Tf =12000
Height occupied by the conductor including insulation = 2 +

0.15 = 2.15 mm Hence height of the field winding hf = T f x
2.15 x 10-3
Substituting this value in the expression for I f Tf we get
If Tf = 5.76 x Tf x 2.15 x 10-3 Tf + 17.3 Tf =12000

Solving for Tf, Tf = 91
Hence height of the field winding = 2.15 x 91 = 196 mm
Ex. 3 Design the field coil of a 3 phase, 16 pole, 50 Hz, salient

pole alternator, based on the following design information.
Diameter of the stator = 1.0 m, gross length of the stator =
0.3 m, section of the pole body = 0.15 m x 0.3 m, height of
the pole = 0.15 m, Ampere turns per pole =6500, exciter
voltage = 110 volts, Assume missing data suitably.
Slon. Sectional area of the conductor:
Assuming 30 volts as reserve in field regulator V c = 110 –

30 / 16 = 5 volts
Assuming depth of the field coil = 3 cm, thickness of insulation
= 1 cm
Mean length of the turn = 2( lp + bp) + π (df + 2ti) = 2 ( 0.3 +
0.15) + π ( 0.03 + 2 x 0.01) = 1.05 m Sectional area of the
conductor af = ζ x lmt x If Tf / Vc
= (0.021 x 1.05 x 6000)/5 = 28.66
mm2
Standard size of the conductor available = 28.5 mm 2 with the
size 16 mm x 1.8 mm Assuming an insulation thickness of
0.5 mm over the conductor
size of the conductor = 16.5 mm x 2.3 mm Assuming an

insulation of 2mm between the layers
Actual depth of the field winding = 16.5 + 2 + 16.5 = 35 mm

or 3.5 cm Field current: Assuming a current density of 2.6
amps/ mm2
Field current If = af x δf =28.5 x 2.6 = 74 amps Number of

turns: Tf = If Tf/ If = 6000/74 = 88 turns
Arrangement of turns: As decided above 88 turns are arranged

in two layers with 44 turns in each layer. Height of each field
turn = 2.3 mm
Hence height of the field coil = 44 x 2.3 = 10.1 cm
As height of the pole is 15 cm, height of the field coil is

satisfactory. Resistance of the field coil Rf = ζ x lmt x Tf / af
= 0.021 x 1.05 x 88/ 28.5
= 0.068
Filed Copper loss: If2 Rf = 742 x 0.068 = 372 watts
Total field cu loss = 16 x 372 = 5.95 kW.
Ex.4. Design the field coil of a 500 rpm, 3 phase, 50 Hz

alternator having the following design data. Diameter of
stator = 95 cm, Core length = 30 cm, Pole body = 10 cm x
30 cm, Field ampere turns = 6000, Excitation voltage = 80
volts. Heat dissipation from the outer surface = 0.35
watts/ cm2. Assume missing data suitably.
Soln: Area of the field coil:
Number of field coils or poles = 120f/N s = 120 x 50 /500

=12 Assuming 20 volts in the field regulator
Voltage per coil = 80 -20/ 12 = 5 volts Ampere turns /pole

=6000
Pole body = 10 cm x 30 cm,
Assuming depth of the field coil = 3 cm, Thickness of

insulation = 1 cm
Mean length of the turn = 2( lp + bp) + π (df + 2ti)
= 2 ( 0.3 + 0.1) + π ( 0.03 + 2 x 0.01) =
0.957 m
Sectional area of the conductor af = ζ x lmt x If Tf / Vc

= (0.021 x 0.957 x 6000)/5 = 24.2
mm Standard size of the conductor available 14.2 mm x 1.7
2
mm
Assuming an insulation thickness of 0.5 mm over the

conductor Assuming an insulation of 1.6 mm between the
layers
Actual depth of the field winding = 14.2 + 1.6 + 14.2 = 3.0

cm
Number of turns: Heat dissipation from the outer surface =

0.35 watts/cm2 Area of the outer surface of the field coil =
( lmt + π df ) hf = (95.7 + π x 3) hf
= 105.1 hf cm2 Hence heat
dissipated = 0.35 x 105.1 hf = 36.8 hf = Vc x If
= V c x I f Tf / T f
Hence 36.8 hf = Vc x If Tf / Tf
= 5 x 6000/ Tf Hence hf Tf = 5 x 6000/ 36.8 =
815
Assuming an insulation thickness of 0.15 mm between the

conductors Height of each conductor = Height of conductor
+ insulation
= 1.7 + 0.15 = 1.85 mm =0.185 cm

Assuming that the turns are arranged in two layers
Height of turns / layer hf = 0.185 x Tf /2 Hence hf Tf = 0.185 x

Tf /2 x Tf = 815
Tf = 94
Hence height of the field coil h f = 0.185 x Tf /2 = 0.185 x

94/2 = 8.7 cm Field current If = 6000/94 = 64 amps
Resistance of the field coil Rf = ζ x lmt x Tf / af
= 0.021 x 0.957 x 94/ 24.2
= 0.078
Filed Copper loss: If2 Rf = 642 x 0.078 = 320 watts
Total field cu loss = 12 x 320 = 3.84 kW.
Design of the field System: NonSalient pole Alternator:
In case of turbo alternators, the rotor windings or the field
windings are distributed in the rotor slots. The rotor
construction of the turbo alternator is as shown in fig. below.
Normally 70% of the rotor is slotted and remaining portion is

unslotted in order to form the pole. The design of the field can
be explained as follows.
(i) Selection of rotor slots: Total number of rotor slots may

be assumed as 50 – 70 % of stator slots pitches. However
the so found rotor slots must satisfy the following
conditions in
order to avoid the undesirable effects of harmonics in the

flux density wave forms.
(a) There should be no common factor between the number of

rotor slot pitches and number of stator slot pitches.
(b) Number of wound rotor slots should be divisible by 4 for a 2

pole synchronous machine. That means the number of rotor
slots must be multiple of 4.
(c) Width of the rotor slot is limited by the stresses developed
at the rotor teeth and end rings.
(ii) Design of rotor winding
(a) Full load field mmf can be taken as twice the armature mmf.
ATfl = 2 x ATa = 2 x 1.35 x Iph x Tph x kw /p
(b) Standard exciter voltage of 110 - 220 volts may be taken.

With 15-20 % of this may be reserved for field control. Hence
voltage across each field coil Vf = (0.8 to 0.85) V/p
(c) Length of the mean turn lmt = 2L + 1.8 τp + 0.25 m

(d) Sectional area of each conductor af = ζ x lmt x (If x Tf) / vf
(e) Assume suitable value of current density in the rotor

winding. 2.5 – 3.0 amp/mm2 for conventionally cooled
machines and 8 – 12 amp/mm 2 for large and special cooled
machines.
(f) Find area of all the rotor conductors per pole = 2 x (I f x Tf) /δf
(g) Find the number of rotor conductors per pole = 2 x (I f x Tf) /
(δf x af)
(h) Number of field conductors per slot = 2 x (I f x Tf) / (δf x af x
sr), where sr is the number of rotor slots.
(i) Resistance of each field coil Rf = ζ x lmt x Tf / af
(j) Calculate the current in the field coil I f = vf/ Rf
Based on the above data dimensions may be fixed. The ratio of

slot depth to slot width may be taken between 4 and 5. Enough
insulation has to be provided such that it with stands large
amount of mechanical stress and the forces coming on the
rotor.
The following insulation may be provided for the field coil.

(i) All field conductors are provided with mica tape
insulation.
(ii) Various turns in the slots are separated from each other
by 0.3 mm mica separators.
(iii) 0.5 mm hard mica cell is provided on all the field coil.
(iv) Over the above insulation, 1.5 mm flexible mica
insulation is provided.
(v) Lastly a steel cell of o.6 mm is provided on the whole
field coil.
Ex. 1. Design the rotor of a 3 phase 20 MVA, 11 kV, 3000 rpm,
50 Hz, turbo alternator with the following design data. Diameter
at the air gap = 0.8 m, Gross length = 2.4 m, stator turns per
phase = 18, Number of stator slots = 36, Exciter voltage = 220
volts, Estimate (i) Number of rotor slots, (ii) area of the field
conductor (iii) Turns in the filed coil and (iv) Field current
Soln: (i) Number of rotor slots : Selection of rotor slots: Total

number of rotor slots may be assumed as 50 – 70 % of stator
slots. Normally 70% of the rotor is slotted and remaining
portion is unslotted.
Number of stator slots = 36
Hence number of slots pitches must be between 18 to 26

Satisfying the conditions number of rotor slot pitches = 23
Number of wound slots = 16
(ii)Area of the field conductor
Assuming 40 volts in the field regulator voltage across filed

coil = 220 – 40 /2 = 90 volts Armature ampere turns /pole
ATa=1. 35 Iph Tph Kw /p
= 1.35 x 1050 x 18 x 0.955/ 1 = 24300
AT Assuming full load field ampere turns/pole = 2 x AT a = 2 x
24300 = 48600 AT Mean length of the turn is given by lmt = 2L
+ 1.8 τp + 0.25 m
= 2 x 2.4 + 1.8 x 1.256 + 0.25
= 7.31 m
Area of the field conductor af = ζ x lmt x (If x Tf) / vf
= 0.021 x 7.31 x 48600/90
= 83.22 mm2
(iii) Number of field turns : Full load field ampere turns/pole

= 48600 AT Full load field ampere conductors/pole = 2 x
48600 AT
Assuming a current density of 2.6 amp/mm2
Area of all the rotor conductors = 2 x 48600 / 2.6 = 37400 mm 2
Number of rotor conductors/pole = 37400/84 = 445
Number of wound slots per pole = 16/2 = 8
Number of conductors per slot = 445/8 = 56

Modified value of conductors per pole = 56 x 8 = 448
Number of field turns per pole Tf = 448/2 = 224
Number of coils per pole = 8/2 = 4
(iv) Field current: Resistance of the field coil Rf = ζ x lmt x Tf / af
= 0.021 x 7.31 x 224/ 84
= 0.41
Current in the field winding If = Vc/ Rf = 90/0.41 = 219 Amps
Shape of pole face
Stator slots: in general two types of stator slots are employed in

induction motors viz, open clots and semiclosed slots.
Operating performance of the induction motors depends upon
the shape of the slots and hence it is important to select
suitable slot for the stator slots.
(i) Open slots: In this type of slots the slot opening will be
equal to that of the width of the slots as shown in Fig. In such
type of slots assembly and repair of winding are easy. However
such slots will lead to higher air gap contraction factor and
hence poor power factor. Hence these types of slots are rarely
used in 3Φ synchronous motors.
(ii) Semiclosed slots: In such type of slots, slot opening

is much smaller than the width of the slot as shown in Figs.
Hence in this type of slots assembly of windings is more difficult
and takes more time compared to open slots and hence it is
costlier. However the air gap characteristics are better
compared to open type slots.
(iii) Tapered slots: In this type of slots also, opening will

be much smaller than the slot width. However the slot width
will be varying from top of the slot to bottom of the slot with
minimum width at the bottom as shown in Fig
Armature design
Armature windings are rotating-field windings, into which the

rotating-field-induced voltage required in energy conversion is
induced. According to IEC 60050-411, the armature winding is a
winding in a synchronous machine, which, in service, receives
active power from or delivers active power to the external
electrical system. This definition also applies to a synchronous
compensator if the term ‘active power’ is replaced by ‘reactive
power’. The air-gap flux component caused by the armature
current linkage is called the armature reaction.
An armature winding determined under these conditions can

transmit power between an electrical network and a
mechanical system. Magnetizing windings create a magnetic
field required in the energy conversion. All machines do not
include a separate magnetizing winding; for instance, in
asynchronous machines, the stator winding both magnetizes
the machine and acts as a winding, where the operating
voltage is induced. The stator winding of an asynchronous
machine is similar to the armature of a synchronous machine;
however, it is not defined as an armature in the IEC standard. In
this material, the asynchronous machine stator is therefore
referred to as a rotating-field stator winding, not an armature
winding. Voltages are also induced in the rotor of an
asynchronous machine, and currents that are significant in
torque production are created. However, the rotor itself takes
only a rotor’s dissipation power (I2R) from the air-gap power of
the machine, this power being proportional to the slip;
Armature parameters
1. Number of Slots
2. Turns per phase
3. Single turn bar windings
4. Dimensions
5. Depth
6. Mean length
Design of rotor
There are two types of rotor construction. One is the squirrel

cage rotor and the other is the slip ring rotor. Most of the
induction motor are squirrel cage type. These are having the
advantage of rugged and simple in construction and
comparatively cheaper. However they have the disadvantage of
lower starting torque. In this type, the rotor consists of bars of
copper or aluminum accommodated in rotor slots. In case slip
ring induction motors the rotor complex in construction and
costlier with the advantage that they have the better starting
torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed
three phase windings. Between stator and rotor is the air gap
which is a very critical part. The performance parameters of the
motor like magnetizing current, power factor, over load
capacity, cooling and noise are affected by length of the air
gap. Hence length of the air gap is selected considering the
advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap length.
Advantages:
(i) Increased overload capacity
(ii) Increased cooling
(iii) Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull
(iv) Reduced in tooth pulsation
(v) Reduced noise

Disadvantages
(i) Increased Magnetising current
(ii) Reduced power factor

Design of damper winding
 Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient

pole alternators. Damper windings are nothing but the copper
or aluminum bars housed in the slots of the pole faces.
 The ends of the damper bars are short circuited at the ends
by short circuiting rings similar to end rings as in the case of
squirrel cage rotors.
 These damper windings are serving the function of providing

mechanical balance; provide damping effect, reduce the effect
of over voltages and damp out hunting in case of alternators.
 In case of synchronous motors they act as rotor bars and help

in self starting of the motor.
Determination of full load field MMF
Full load field mmf can be taken as twice the armature mmf.
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
1. Advantages of stationary armature and rotating field

type machine.
Ø
Since armature winding is stationary the load circuit can
be directly connected to it.
Ø
As the armature winding is fixed it is easy to provide
insulation for high Voltages.
Ø
Weight of field system is less as compared to armature so
that higher speed can be achieved.
Ø
Since the exciter supplies low voltage d.c. it requires less
amount of insulation.
2. Define critical speed?
The rotor of an alternator rotates with prime mover speed. The

rotor core is structure which has certain mass and property of
elasticity. The rotor core is designed corresponding to natural
frequency is called critical speed.
3. Give the importance of compensating winding in dc

machine.
Ø
It is provided in pole shoe.
Ø
It is connected in series with armature winding.
Ø
It is used to reduce armature reaction.
Ø
Due to this winding full range of speed variation can be
obtained.
4. Mention superiority of hydrogen over air as coolant?

Ø
Heat transfer co-efficient of hydrogen is 1.5 times
that of air.
Ø
Thermal conductivity of hydrogen is 7 times that of
air.
Ø
Density of hydrogen is 0.07 times that of air.
5. Why deep bar rotor construction is preferred in

squirrel cage induction motor?
It is preferable when high starting torque is required. Because

loose bars can be damaged quickly by mechanical vibration
and thermal cycling.
6. What is varnish impregnation?
The dipping of insulating material into varnish to improve the

resistance to moisture and creeping discharge is called varnish
impregnation.
7. How to reduce the harmonic effects?

Ø
Short pitch winding
Ø
Distributed winding
Ø
Fractional slot winding
Ø
Large air gap length
8. Define heating time constant of the machine.

The time taken by the machine to rise its temperature 63.2% of
its final steady value.
9. What are the types of stator winding?

Ø
Single layer winding
Ø
Double layer winding
10. Why is it necessary to eliminate voids or air

packets in high voltage multi lunch coils?
Since the voids carry air and air has poor thermal conductivity
heat transfer will be poor. Hence voids should be eliminated.
11. Classify synchronous machines.

Ø
Salient pole machine
Ø
Cylindrical rotor machine
12. List the advantages of revolving field system.

The advantages are
Ø
It permits the use of a stationary armature on
which the windings can be easily braced and insulated for high
voltage.
Ø
The operation of slip rings on account of their
sliding contact is under liable with large currents at high
potential difference. The use of slip ring carrying large currents
at high voltage is therefore avoided in the stationary armature
construction.
13. Write the output equation of synchronous

machine.
The output equation of an synchronous machine is given by
KVA output Q = C0 D2 L ns
Where C0 = output co-efficient
= 1.11 Π2 Bav ac Kws 10-3
Q = KVA output for alternator and KVA input for synchronous
motor.
D = Diameter of stator core, m
L = Length of stator core, m ns = Synchronous speed, rps

Bav = Specific magnetic loading, wb/m2
ac = Specific electric loading, amp.cond/m K ws= stator winding
factor
14. Mention the factors to be considered for the
selection of number of armature slots?
Ø
Balanced windings
Ø
Cost
Ø
Host spot temperature in winding
Ø
Leakage reaction
Ø
Tooth losses
Ø
Tooth flux density
15. What are the types of coils employed by the

salient pole machines?
The armature windings of salient pole machines employ two
types of coils:
Ø
Single turn bar
Ø
Multi turn
16. How are iron and friction losses of an alternator
measured?
Iron and friction losses of an alternator can be measured by

coupling the alternator to a suitable calibrated d.c. motor and
driving it at synchronous speed with normal excitation. Then,
Iron and Friction Losses = Output of motor in Watts.
17. Is the efficiency of an alternator determined by

direct loading?
As with d.c. machines, the efficiency of an alternator is not

determined by direct loading owing to the difficulty in finding a
suitable load. The efficiency is generally determined from
losses.
18. Draw a block representing the analysis method of

design.
19. Mention the advantages of analysis method.
The advantages are
Ø
It is fairly easy to program, to use and to
understand
Ø
Results in considerable time saving thereby
giving quick returns of the investments made.
Ø
The programs based upon analysis methods
are simple but they become the foundations for later day larger
and sophisticated programs.
Ø
The results of analysis method are highly
acceptable by designers.
20. What is the length of mean turn of the armature?

The length of mean turn of the armature is
Lmt = 2 L + 2.5 τ + 0.06 KV +0.2 in metre
Where 2L is the length of turn embedded in the slots
Lmt = 2.5 τ + 0.06 KV +0.2 in metre
Is the length in the overhang.
21. What is the limiting factor for the diameter of

synchronous machine?
The limiting factor for the diameter of synchronous machine is

the peripheral speed. The limiting value of peripheral speed is
175 m/sec for cylindrical rotor machines and 80 m/sec for
salient pole machines.
22. Write the expression to calculate the height of field

winding.
23. What is the total space required for field winding?
24. Give the expression to calculate the area of pole

bodies.
25. How is the copper area of field winding calculated?
26. What are the advantages of synthesis method?
The greatest advantage of synthesis method is the savings in

time in lapsed time and in engineering man hours on account of
the decision making left to the computer itself.
27. What are the disadvantages of synthesis method?
The disadvantages are
Ø
The synthesis method involves too much of logic
since the logical decisions are taken by the computer. Now, the
logical decisions have to be incorporated in the program and
before they are incorporated in the program, the teams of
engineers have to agree upon them. Firstly the logical decisions
to arrive at a optimum design are too many and then there are
too many people with too many ways to suggest to produce an
optimum design and it becomes really hard to formulate a logic
that really produces an optimum design.
Ø
The formulation of a synthesis program taking into
account the factor listed above would make it too complex. The
complex program formulated at high cost would require the use
of a large computer and also large running time involving huge
expenditure.
28. How is the efficiency of an alternator affected by

load power factor?
The efficiency of an alternator depends not only on KVA output

but also on power factor of the load. For a given load, efficiency
is maximum at unity power factor and decreases as the power
factor falls.
29. Name the two acceptable approaches to machine

design.
The two commonly acceptable approaches to machines are
Ø
Analysis method
Ø
Synthesis method
30. List few advantages of using a digital computer for

the design of electrical machines.
The advantages are
Ø
It has capabilities to store amount of data,
count integers, round off results down to integers and refers to
tables, graphs and other data in advance.
Ø
It makes it possible to select an optimized
design with a reduction in cost and improvement in
performance.
31. Give the purpose of providing damper windings in
synchronous machines.
The purpose of damper winding is
Ø
In synchronous generators, it is provided to
suppress the negative sequence field and to damp the
oscillations when the machine starts hunting.
Ø
In synchronous motor, its function is to provide
starting torque and to develop damping power when the
machine starts hunting.
32. What is the range of rotor current density?
Rotor current density ranges from about 2.5 A/mm 2 for

conventionally cooled machines. However, in modern direct
cooled generators, the rotor current density may be as high as
9.5– 14 A/mm2.
33. Write the expression for air gap length in cylindrical

rotor machine.
34. Mention the factors that govern the design of field

system of alternator.
The following factors to be considered for the design of field
system in alternator:
Ø
Number of poles and voltage across each field coil
Ø
Amp-turn per pole
Ø
Copper loss in field coil
Ø
Dissipating surface of field coil
Ø Specific loss dissipation and allowable

temperature rise
35. What is runway speed?
The runway speed is defined as the speed which the prime

mover would have, if it is suddenly unloaded, when working at
its rated load.
36. State the important features of turbo-

alternators.
Ø
The rotors of turbo-alternators have large axial length
and small diameters.
Ø
Damping torque is provided by the rotor itself and so
there is no necessity for additional damper winding.
Ø
They are suitable for high speed operations and so
number of poles is usually 2 or 4.
37. What are the prime movers used for a) salient

pole alternator b) Non-salient pole alternator?
The prime movers used for salient pole alternators are water
wheels like Kaplan turbine, Francis turbine, pelton wheel, etc.,
and diesel or petrol engines.
The prime movers used for Non-salient pole alternators are

steam turbines and gas turbines.
38. Distinguish between cylindrical pole and salient
pole construction.
In cylindrical pole construction the rotor is made of solid

cylinder and slots are cut on the outer periphery of the cylinder
to accommodate field conductors.
In salient pole construction, the circular or rectangular poles are

mounted on the outer surface of a cylinder. The field coils are
fixed on the pole.
The cylindrical pole construction is suitable for high speed

operations, whereas the salient pole construction is suitable for
the slow speed operations.
39. Salient pole alternators are not suitable for high

speeds. Why?
The salient pole rotors cannot withstand the mechanical

stresses developed at high speeds. The projecting poles may be
damaged due to mechanical stresses.
40. State the factors for separation of D and L for

cylindrical rotor machine.
The separation of D and L in cylindrical rotor machine depends
on the following factors:
Ø
Peripheral speed
Ø
Number of poles
Ø
Short circuit ratio (SCR)
41. Define pitch factor.

42. Define distribution factor.
43. Mention the advantages of fractional slot

winding.
Ø
In low speed machines with large number of
poles, the fractional slot winding will reduce tooth harmonics.
Ø
A range of machines with different speeds can be
designed with a single lamination.
Ø
The fractional slot winding reduces the harmonics
in mf and the leakage reactance of the windings.
Ø
The fractional slot winding allows only short
chorded winding. Therefore the length of mean turn of a coil
reduces which results in shorter end connections and so saving
in copper.
44. What is short circuit ratio (SCR)?
The Short circuit ratio (SCR) is defined as the ratio of field

current required to produce rated voltage on open circuit to
field current required to circulate rated current at short circuit.
It is also given by the reciprocal of synchronous reactance, X d in

p.u.
Ø
For turbo-alternators SCR is between 0.5 to
0.7.
Ø
For salient pole alternator SCR varies from 1.0
to 1.5
45. List the factors to be considered for the choice

of specific electric loading in synchronous machines.
Ø
Copper loss
Ø
Temperature rise
Ø
Synchronous reactance
Ø
Stray load losses
Ø
Voltage rating
46. Determine the total number of slots in the

stator of an alternator having 4 poles, 3 phase, 6 slots
per pole for each phase?
Total number of slots = slots/pole/phase * number of poles *

Number of phases
= 6 * 4* 3
= 72 slots.
47. How the value of SCR affects the design of

alternator.
For high stability and low regulation, the value of SCR should be
high, which requires large air gap. When the length of air gap is
large, the mmf requirement will be high and so the field system
will be large. Hence the machine will be costlier.
48. What are the advantages of large air gap in

synchronous machines?
The advantages of large air gap are:
Ø
Reduction in armature reaction
Ø
Small value of regulation
Ø
Higher value of stability
Ø
Better cooling
Ø
Lower tooth pulsation losses
Ø
Smaller unbalanced magnetic pull
49. Write the expression for the length of air gap in

salient pole synchronous machine.
50. Why alternators are rated in KVA?
The KVA rating of ac machine depends on the power factor of

the load. The power factor in turn depends on the operating
conditions. The operating conditions differ from place to place.
Therefore the KVA rating is specified for all ac machines.

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Major considerations in Electrical

Magnetic circuit or the flux path:

Should establish required amount of flux using minimum MMF.

Electric circuit or windings:

Should ensure required EMF is induced with no complexity in

Should ensure trouble free separation of machine parts

Cooling system or ventilation:

Should ensure that the machine operates at the specified

The art of successful design lies not only in resolving the

The factors, apart from the above, that requires consideration

a) Limitation in design (saturation, current density,

c) National and international standards

d) Convenience in production line and transportation e.

e) Environmental conditions etc.

Limitations in design: The materials used for the machine

a. Saturation: Higher flux density reduces the volume of

c. Temperature: poses a limitation on account of possible

d. Insulation (which is both mechanically and electrically

e. Mechanical strength of the materials poses a limitation

f. High efficiency and high power factor poses a

g. Mechanical Commutation in dc motors or generators

Apart from the above factors Consumer, manufacturer or

Where kV is the voltage of h.v. winding in kilo-volt. The above

Rating of a motor is the power output or the designated

Rating of a single phase & three phase transformer in KVA is

Bm = maximum flux density, Wb/m2

δ = current density, A/mm2

Kw = Window space factor Aw = Window area, m2

Ai = Net core area, m2

Choice of Specific Electrical and

Following are the factors which influences the performance of

(ii) Voltage: When the machine is designed for higher

(iii) Transient short circuit current: A high value of gap

(v) Parallel operation: The satisfactory parallel operation

Specific Electric Loading:

Following are the some of the factors which influence the

(i) Copper loss: Higher the value of q larger will be the

(ii) Voltage: A higher value of q can be used for low voltage

(iii) Synchronous reactance: High value of q leads to

(iv) Stray load losses: With increase of q stray load losses

Separation of D and L: Inner diameter and gross length of the

1. Output : kW (for generators), kW or Hp (for motors)

4. Rating : Continuous or Short time

5. Temperature rise: θ0C for an ambient temperature of

6. Cooling : Natural or forced cooling

7. Type: Generator or motor, separately excited or self-

8. Voltage regulation ( in case of generators) : Range

9. Speed control ( in case of motors ) : range and

10. Efficiency: must be as for as possible high (As the

11. Type of enclosure: based on the field of application –

12. Size of the machine etc.,

E : EMF induced or back EMF Ia : armature current

Z : Total number of armature conductors N : Speed in rpm

A : number of armature paths or circuits D : Diameter of the

L : Length of the armature core

Power developed in the armature in kW = E I a x 10-3

The term P φ represents the total flux and is called the

Bav = Pφ /π DL Wb/m2 or tesla denoted by T

Therefore Pφ = Bav π DL ................ (2)

The term (Ia Z/A) represents the total ampere-conductors on