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1. Define the following terms:

a) Greenhouse gas:
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are gases in Earth's atmosphere that trap heat. They allow sunlight to
enter the atmosphere but prevent some of the heat from escaping back into space, causing the
Earth to warm. Common examples include carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide
(N₂O), and water vapor (H₂O).

b) Greenhouse effect:
The greenhouse effect refers to the process by which certain gases in Earth's atmosphere trap
heat, warming the planet. Solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, and the Earth absorbs
this energy. The planet then radiates heat (infrared radiation) back toward space, but greenhouse
gases absorb and re-radiate some of this heat, warming the atmosphere and surface.

c) Global warming:
Global warming is the long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to human
activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases like CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide.
This phenomenon is a major contributor to climate change.

d) Stratospheric ozone:
Stratospheric ozone refers to ozone (O₃) molecules found in the stratosphere, which is the
second layer of Earth's atmosphere, located about 10 to 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface.
Ozone in this layer is crucial for protecting life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the Sun.

e) Ozone layer depletion:

Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning of the ozone layer, which leads to a reduction in its
ability to absorb and block UV radiation. This depletion is primarily caused by human-made
chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that break down ozone molecules.

2. Give any six examples of greenhouse gases, explaining why they are regarded
as "greenhouse gases":

1. Carbon dioxide (CO₂):

o CO₂ absorbs infrared radiation and traps heat in the atmosphere. It is the primary
greenhouse gas emitted by human activities, especially from burning fossil fuels.
2. Methane (CH₄):
o Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, absorbing infrared radiation more effectively
than CO₂, though it is present in lower concentrations. It is released during the
production of coal, oil, and natural gas, and through agricultural practices such as
rice cultivation and livestock.
3. Nitrous oxide (N₂O):
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oN₂O absorbs infrared radiation and is released by agricultural and industrial

activities, particularly the use of fertilizers. It is more effective than CO₂ in
trapping heat, though present in smaller amounts.
4. Water vapor (H₂O):
o Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas. It amplifies the greenhouse
effect because it increases as the atmosphere warms, which then leads to more
water vapor and more warming.
5. Ozone (O₃):
o Ozone in the troposphere (the lower atmosphere) is a greenhouse gas because it
absorbs infrared radiation and contributes to warming. It is formed by chemical
reactions involving pollutants such as vehicle exhaust.
6. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):
o CFCs are synthetic chemicals that, despite being used in refrigeration and air-
conditioning, have a high global warming potential because they absorb infrared
radiation. They also contribute to ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

3. The greenhouse effect is commonly referred to as a “bad thing”. Explain.

While the greenhouse effect is a natural and necessary process that keeps Earth warm enough to
support life, human activities have enhanced this effect by significantly increasing the
concentration of greenhouse gases, especially CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide. This
enhancement leads to global warming, which disrupts weather patterns, causes sea-level rise,
leads to more extreme weather events, and negatively affects ecosystems and biodiversity.
Therefore, while the natural greenhouse effect is beneficial, the enhanced greenhouse effect
caused by human activity is harmful.

4. (a) List any five effects of global warming.

1. Rising sea levels:

Melting polar ice caps and glaciers, along with thermal expansion of seawater, lead to
rising sea levels, which can flood coastal regions.
2. More extreme weather events:
Global warming is linked to an increase in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes,
heatwaves, droughts, and heavy rainfall events.
3. Ocean acidification:
Increased CO₂ levels in the atmosphere also lead to higher levels of CO₂ being absorbed
by the oceans, causing a decrease in the pH of seawater. This can harm marine life,
especially coral reefs and shell-forming organisms.
4. Loss of biodiversity:
Changes in climate conditions disrupt ecosystems, forcing many species to migrate or
face extinction, leading to a loss of biodiversity.
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5. Impact on agriculture:
Changing rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and more frequent droughts can
reduce crop yields and threaten food security.

4. (b) Outline the possible measures that can be taken to slow down global
warming.

1. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions:

By transitioning to renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro), improving energy
efficiency, and reducing fossil fuel use, emissions of CO₂ and other greenhouse gases can
be minimized.
2. Promoting carbon capture and storage (CCS):
Capturing CO₂ emissions from power plants and industrial sources and storing them
underground or using them in other applications.
3. Increasing afforestation and reforestation:
Planting more trees to absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere and restore natural carbon sinks.
4. Switching to more sustainable agriculture:
Using farming practices that reduce methane emissions, improve soil carbon storage, and
promote sustainable food production.
5. Improving transportation efficiency:
Encouraging the use of electric vehicles, increasing fuel efficiency standards, and
promoting public transport to reduce emissions from the transportation sector.

5. Describe the formation and destruction of ozone by the Chapman mechanism.

Formation of ozone:
The Chapman mechanism describes the formation of ozone in the stratosphere through the
photodissociation of oxygen molecules (O₂) by ultraviolet (UV) light:

1. UV light splits oxygen molecules (O₂) into individual oxygen atoms (O):

 O2+UV light→2O

2. The free oxygen atoms then react with other O₂ molecules to form ozone (O₃):

O+O2→O3

Destruction of ozone:
Ozone is destroyed by the absorption of UV radiation, which breaks it down into O₂ and O:

1. Ozone absorbs UV-C radiation and breaks down into O₂ and O

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 O3+UV-C light→O2+O

1. 
2. The free oxygen atom (O) can then react with another O₃ molecule to destroy ozone:

O+O3→2O2\text{O} + \text{O}_3 \rightarrow 2\text{O}_2O+O3→2O2

6. Describe the two steps and the overall reaction by which a species X, such as
NO, catalytically destroys ozone in the stratosphere.

Step 1:
The catalyst (such as nitric oxide, NO) reacts with ozone (O₃) to form NO₂ and O₂:

NO+O3→NO2+O2

Step 2:
The NO₂ formed in Step 1 can be photodissociated by UV radiation, releasing NO and an
oxygen atom:

NO2+UV light→NO+O

Overall reaction:
The overall result is the destruction of ozone, with NO acting as a catalyst. For each cycle, NO
can destroy multiple ozone molecules without being consumed:

NO+O3→NO2+O2 NO2+UV light→NO+O\text{NO}_2 + \text{UV light} \rightarrow \text{NO} + \

text{O}NO2+UV light→NO+O

This cycle repeats, leading to the breakdown of ozone.

7. Define the term "Total column ozone." If the overhead ozone concentration at
a point above the Earth's surface is 250 DU, what is the equivalent thickness in
millimeters of pure ozone at 1.0 atm pressure?

Total Column Ozone:

Total column ozone refers to the total amount of ozone present in a vertical column of the
atmosphere, from the Earth's surface to the top of the atmosphere. It is usually measured in
Dobson Units (DU), where 1 Dobson Unit represents a layer of ozone that would be 0.01
millimeters thick at standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm).

Conversion to Thickness in Millimeters: To convert the ozone concentration in Dobson Units

(DU) to the equivalent thickness of pure ozone at 1.0 atm pressure, you use the following
relationship:
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Thickness (in mm)=Ozone Concentration (in DU)100\text{Thickness (in mm)} = \frac{\

text{Ozone Concentration (in DU)}}{100}Thickness (in mm)=100Ozone Concentration (in DU)

For an ozone concentration of 250 DU:

Thickness in mm = ozone conc (in DU)/100

For 250 DU

= 250/100 = 2.5 mm

So, the equivalent thickness of pure ozone at 1 atm pressure is 2.5 mm.

8. Outline any four consequences of the ozone layer depletion.

1. Increased UV Radiation:
Ozone absorbs the majority of the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Depletion of
the ozone layer leads to higher levels of UV-B and UV-C radiation reaching the Earth's
surface. This increases the risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues for
humans, as well as affecting plant and animal life.
2. Damage to Marine Ecosystems:
Increased UV radiation can harm phytoplankton, which are crucial for the marine food
web and for carbon fixation in the oceans. This could disrupt entire marine ecosystems
and impact fish populations.
3. Agricultural Impact:
Crops like wheat, rice, and maize are sensitive to increased UV radiation, which can
reduce yields, affect crop quality, and threaten global food security.
4. Disruption of Ecosystem Functions:
UV radiation can damage DNA and proteins in various organisms, leading to reduced
biodiversity. This could affect species across the food chain, from microbes to higher-
level predators.

9. (a) Describe the Montreal Protocol.

The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty signed in 1987 that aims to protect the ozone
layer by phasing out the production and use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), particularly
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. The protocol has been remarkably successful, with
many countries committing to eliminate or reduce the use of substances that contribute to ozone
depletion. The treaty has been ratified by almost all countries globally, making it one of the most
successful environmental agreements in history.

Key features of the Montreal Protocol:

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 Phasing out the use of CFCs, halons, and other ODS.

 Periodic amendments to strengthen the protocol (e.g., the London Amendment in 1990,
and the Kigali Amendment in 2016).
 Aims to gradually return the ozone layer to its pre-1980 levels.

As a result of the Montreal Protocol, significant progress has been made in reducing the
production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, leading to a slow recovery of the
ozone layer.

9. (b) What types of chemicals are proposed as long-term replacements for

CFCs? Explain.

The long-term replacements for CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances are chemicals that
do not contain chlorine or bromine, as these elements are responsible for ozone depletion. Some
of the alternatives include:

1. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs):
HFCs are a group of compounds that contain only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
They do not deplete ozone because they lack chlorine and bromine. Examples include
HFC-134a, commonly used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
2. Hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs):
HFOs are a newer generation of refrigerants that have low global warming potential
(GWP) compared to HFCs and are also non-ozone-depleting. They are being considered
as a more environmentally friendly alternative to HFCs in various applications.
3. Natural refrigerants (e.g., ammonia, CO₂, and hydrocarbons like propane):
These substances have been used for refrigeration and air conditioning for decades and
are considered ozone-friendly. CO₂, for example, has a very low GWP and does not
contribute to ozone depletion.

These alternatives are typically chosen not only for their low or zero ozone depletion potential
but also for their reduced global warming potential compared to older refrigerants like CFCs and
HCFCs.

10. (a) Explain in terms of the mechanism involved, what is meant by the
greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect refers to the process by which certain gases in Earth's atmosphere trap
heat and prevent it from escaping into space, leading to a warming of the Earth's surface. The
mechanism works as follows:

1. Solar radiation: The Sun emits energy in the form of short-wave radiation, which passes
through the Earth's atmosphere.
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2. Absorption of solar energy: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy,
which warms the land, oceans, and atmosphere.
3. Re-radiation of heat: The Earth then re-radiates this absorbed energy as long-wave
infrared radiation (heat).
4. Absorption by greenhouse gases: Greenhouse gases (such as CO₂, methane, water
vapor, and ozone) in the atmosphere absorb some of this infrared radiation and re-radiate
it back toward the Earth's surface. This process traps heat in the atmosphere and warms
the planet.
5. Resulting warming effect: This natural process is essential for maintaining temperatures
that support life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth's average temperature
would be about -18°C, rather than the current 15°C.

However, human activities (like burning fossil fuels) increase the concentration of greenhouse
gases, enhancing the natural greenhouse effect and leading to global warming.

10. (b) Explain what is meant by the enhancement of the greenhouse gases, that
could contribute to enhancing the greenhouse effect.

The enhancement of the greenhouse effect refers to the increase in the concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities, which leads to more heat being
trapped in the Earth's atmosphere, thus contributing to global warming.

Key contributors to the enhanced greenhouse effect include:

1. Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas):

The combustion of fossil fuels releases large amounts of CO₂ into the atmosphere,
significantly increasing its concentration.
2. Deforestation:
Trees absorb CO₂, so when forests are cleared, this reduces the planet's capacity to
absorb CO₂, thereby contributing to higher CO₂ levels in the atmosphere.
3. Agriculture:
Agricultural practices, particularly livestock farming, release methane (CH₄), a potent
greenhouse gas. The use of fertilizers also produces nitrous oxide (N₂O), another
powerful greenhouse gas.
4. Industrial processes:
Various industrial activities, such as the production of cement and chemicals, release
additional greenhouse gases, including CO₂ and fluorinated gases (e.g., HFCs, PFCs).

The increased concentration of these gases enhances the natural greenhouse effect, causing more
heat to be trapped in the atmosphere, which leads to an increase in Earth's average temperature,
contributing to climate change.