CHRISTOPH NIEMAND

The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death

Biblical intertextuality in the sub-text of Joanne K. Rowling’s
Harry Potter novels

Abstract (Deutsch) – Kirchliche Reaktionen auf den Harry-Potter-Hype umfassten

anfänglich zwar auch Stimmen, die einen Einbruch neuheidnischer Magie und
gnostischer Weltanschauung in die Seelen von Millionen junger Menschen befürch-
teten. Viele, die die Bücher selbst gelesen hatten, urteilten aber anders und erkann-
ten, dass Harrys Geschichte nicht nur humanistische Werte transportiert, sondern
durchaus auch als Allegorie auf zentrale Inhalte christlicher Religion gelesen werden
kann. Der vorliegende Beitrag eines Neutestamentlers, der unerwartet und nach-
haltig Leser der Romane Rowlings wurde, treibt die theologische Potter-Forschung
weiter, indem er die intertextuellen Bezugnahmen auf biblische Texte und Motive
analysiert. Nach Überlegungen zur Funktion von Intertextualität in Jugendliteratur
weist er auf, dass das Arrangement des Grundkonflikts zutiefst in den Rahmen
biblischer Protologie (Genesis 3) und Eschatologie (1 Kor 15) eingeschrieben ist.
Da auch die Auflösung unmittelbar auf biblische Soteriologie referiert, zeigt sich:
In Harrys Geschichte wird um die Plausibilität grundlegender Strukturen biblischer
Religion gerungen und insofern verbindet sie sich mit der Aufgabe von Theologie.

Abstract (Français) – Au début du succès d’Harry Potter, parmi les réactions ecclé-
siastiques, certaines voix ont manifesté leur crainte d’une irruption de la magie
néo-païenne et des conceptions gnostiques dans les âmes de millions de jeunes.
Mais beaucoup de ceux qui avaient réellement lu les livres sur Harry Potter avaient
un autre jugement: ils reconnaissaient que l’histoire de Harry non seulement
véhicule des valeurs humanistes, mais aussi qu’elle peut être lue comme une allé-
gorie des énoncés centraux de la religion chrétienne. L’auteur de cet article est un
exégète du Nouveau Testament, qui, devenu, à sa propre surprise, un fidèle lecteur
des romans de Rowlings, contribue à la recherche théologique sur Harry Potter en
analysant les références intertextuelles à des textes et motifs bibliques. Après une
réflexion sur la fonction de l’intertextualité dans la littérature des jeunes, il montre,
que l’intrigue principale est très étroitement liée à la protologie (Genèse 3) et l’es-
chatologie biblique (1 Cor 15). Par ailleurs, la fin de l’histoire faisant directement
référence à la sotériologie biblique, on peut percevoir que, dans l’histoire de Harry,

ET-Studies 3/1 (2012), 111-131. doi: 11.2143/ETS.3.1.2179616

© 2012 by ET-Studies. All rights reserved.

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 112 CHRISTOPH NIEMAND

on défend la plausibilité des structures fondamentales de la religion biblique. À ce

titre, son analyse rejoint le travail théologique.

1. Testimonial

In my life as a reader of high literature and light fiction I have occasionally been
impressed by a book which is considered “low brow” or popular writing; but
I had never experienced anything comparable to when I first read J.K. Rowling’s
“Harry Potter” heptateuch: this story cast a spell over me, a complete fantasy
genre virgin.
My wife had bought the first volume some years ago – “for later, when Paul
is old enough” – and read it herself: “There is something in there, maybe
especially for you theologians.” Since all the media hype instinctively repelled
me, and I had enough other stuff to read anyway, I did not react at first – until
one memorable night in early summer 2009, when there was a shortage of
bedtime stories for my son. We agreed to give Harry Potter (which had mean-
while slipped back on to the bookshelf) a chance, to try and see if Paul could
stand hearing it already, and if I could stand reading it at all.
My son nodded off toward the end of the second chapter but I could not
stop reading, and lying in bed beside my sleeping son, I read on alone until after
midnight and, within a few days, to the end of the book. Subsequently I bought
and read the second volume and then the third with its seemingly endless finale,
suspense and amazement spiralling upwards together in harmony. By the end
of volume four I was neither able nor willing to resist the maelstrom. Here at
the latest the hitherto four annual (and somehow self-contained) stories emerge
into the tantalizing progression of an ever intensifying monumental epos. The
singular plots, as well as countless details at first regarded as mere props and
decorations typical of the genre, ultimately reveal themselves as far-reaching
threads in a breath-taking overall composition. All in all, the series comes out
to be an allegoric universal epos and claims to deal with the eternal questions of
mankind: good and evil, freedom and destiny, love and violence, life and death.
And all of that appears in a fantasy genre and trivial literature with affinities to
sitcom and comics (WHOOSH, BANG …), has a happy ending … and did
not annoy me at all. On the contrary, it affected, captivated, and of course enter-
tained me like nothing I had read in a long time.
Fortunately, the final stage of the “Deathly Hallows” – which was somewhat
strenuous not only for me but eventually also for my family – coincided with
the first week of my summer holiday. The après lecture with its emotional sag
was as short-lived as my half-hearted and abortive attempts to return to long-
standing reading habits (a detective story, then a piece of belles lettres, detective

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 113

story, belles lettres …). A second, more deliberate reading followed. During the
third I began to highlight passages, take notes and record observations. Mean-
while, I have to concede six completed tours before I definitively restrained
myself from turning back to the very first chapter of the very first volume: The
Boy Who Lived …
My methods of reading Harry Potter had become rather similar to my profes-
sional working with the Bible: quick readings from a fresh perspective alternat-
ing with patient analytical research. Back references and threads picked up again
want to be retraced and looked up in the preceding or following volumes. The
rich semantic inventory and the varied repertoires in syntax and style – reaching
from the deliciously dry understatements of McGonagall and Dumbledore to
Hagrid’s broad slang and Ron’s youth language – bid for a closer look. Allusions
to mythic names, figures and places prove to be highly sophisticated when re-
read with appropriate expertise. In crucial scenes the direct speech of various
characters is meaningfully ambiguous, presenting the reader with an invitation
to follow up on a potential second meaning.
So much for my personal myth: a biblical scholar (and literary critic at heart!)
became an “untimely born” (cf. 1 Cor 15:8) but all the more devoted reader of
a children’s story. And “I worked harder than all of them” (15:10) to tell the
world what this story truly is.

2. Theological Harry Potter?

When the first five volumes had been published, Drexler/Wandinger (2004,
13-23) mapped various types of theological assessment in reaction to the success
of the Harry Potter novels. They detected:
o claim or denial of a potential danger to religion,
o attestation of narrative skill for deconstructing the modern mania of tech-
nological feasibility (a theologically relevant phenomenon),
o explanation of the story’s success referring to the resistant need for com-
monly shared myths as social sense-makers (a theologically relevant phe-
nomenon),
o attestation of power to interest readers in central (and theologically rele-
vant) questions of conditio humana,
o attestation of a potential role as praeparatio evangelica.
Drexler/Wandinger (2004, 25-28) have themselves located a range of “traces of
implicit theology” in Rowling’s novels: the story’s sub-text is built on values and
patterns of experience and behaviour which can, theologically, be explicitly iden-
tified as formative elements of the Christian religion. Baumgart (2006, 96-97),

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 114 CHRISTOPH NIEMAND

on the other hand, considers the impact of Christianity on Harry Potter to be

far less: “The ‘Harry Potter’-volumes contain no theology and do not follow
theological roads … A theologian may not hastily and unfairly (s)muggle in
mythology or religion, let alone the Bible …. But for a theologian, the volumes
are not without analogies to it. Fundamental questions, the driving forces of
religion, arise in them”.
“The power of Love overcomes the force of death”: this was the motto for
Nuechterlein (no year) to analyse the ideological sub-text of the Harry Potter
narration. While waiting for the last volume he correctly anticipated the design
of the complete plot and formulated it with the help of the mimetic theory of
René Girard / Raymund Schwager. After the completion of the series Wandinger
convincingly showed the very same lineup as being the decisive clue (Cf.
Wandinger/Drexler 2008; Wandinger 2009; Wandinger 2010): the reign of
violence isn’t to be broken by some “more of the same” violence, thus mimick-
ing and accepting its evil logic. It can be overridden only by a really contrasting
act. Harry, when accepting that “I must die. It must end” (VII34 556),1 deliv-
ers himself defencelessly into the murderous hands of Voldemort, refusing that
(any more) others die on behalf of him. But doing so he veers off from being
Voldemort’s victim and sovereignly gives himself as a sacrifice, thus resolving
an otherwise intractable situation: the Voldemort-in-him falls off definitively.
The spiral of violence falters. Reconciliation gets a chance. (Cf. VII36
581.589.597 acting out a subtle reconciliation with the Malfoy family.) Harry
is figura Christi. And sure enough: he will not kill Voldemort. Voldemort,
non-repentent and incapable of understanding anything other than violence,
destroys himself as his own killing curse rebounds upon himself when it col-
lides with Harry’s disarming spell.
In agreement with these findings, here is what I intend to do in this essay:
after a general reflection on the intertextuality of this novel series (3), I shall work
out two special intertextual constellations (4 and 5) which have, as far as I know,
not yet been addressed and which relate to prominent biblical texts and motifs.
Finally, I shall try and ascertain the relationship of Rowling’s novels to Christian
religion and to Christian theology more precisely than has been done hitherto (6).

1
I refer to the volume numbers as shown in the table of references. As the paginations in
hardcover and paperback editions as well as in UK and US editions differ, I give chapter numbers
in subscript, followed by the page number.

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 115

3. Biblical Intertextuality in Harry Potter?

An all-embracing analysis of intertextuality in the Potter saga is yet to be accom-

plished. It would require an interdisciplinary effort in order to cover the various
fields of reference: ancient Classical and Nordic mythologies, standards of the
fantasy genre, the current treatment of socio-political phenomena in (British)
mass media, and certainly the Bible and Christian theological traditions.
Karg/Mende (2010, 170-176) have recently adapted widespread intertextual
models to account for the specific challenges of the Potter novels: according to
them it is not only about identifying specific references and allusions to texts (or
text systems: patterns of language and thought), or whether these are intentional
on the part of the author. More specifically, the question is what role intertex-
tual references play in constructing the meaning of a text in the reader’s mind.
In the case of the Potter series, intertextuality is subject to special conditions:
quotations and allusions that necessarily must be detected by all readers who
want to follow the story would be counter-productive. Stories that require a high
(say bourgeois or snobbish) level of education will not find masses of young
readers. Notwithstanding this, the Potter novels are “highly intertextual works”
a “collecting basin of literary history … from ancient times to the present day
… Roland Barthes’ term, ‘chamber of echoes’, describes Rowling’s books very
well” (Karg/Mende 2010, 172). Nevertheless, it is unlikely that many of the
young readers would be able to identify the bulk of references to text systems
which are stored in cultural memories that are not theirs. So, a sufficient under-
standing of events and the gratifying experience of keeping track of the complex
proceedings of a thrilling story must be possible without even noticing these
references. Intertextuality, therefore, presents the offer and proposal of a second
level of meaning; an offer that those who know and recognise the texts referred
to will accept with relish as a surplus of meaning in addition to understanding
and enjoying the mere story. And since the Potter novels present an exceedingly
rich mix of genres (fantasy, magic, adventure, detective and school story, com-
ing-of-age novel), almost every single reader will realise references specifically
accessible to him- or herself: the Goth girl as well as the classical philologist, the
fantasy fan as well as the biblical scholar.
Now, it has to be stated that many of the various references to external texts
and text-systems simply help adorn the Potter text: they equip the narrated
world with a rich set of figures, characterizations and literary backdrops, all of
which contribute to advancing a spectacular progress of events. But beneath this
textual surface – on the level of an ideological sub-text, where (while reading the
text) the reader’s values and convictions are negotiated – there is another layer
of intertextuality in the Potter novels. This sub-textual intertextuality is more
than a mere means of embellishment. Rather, the basic ideological constellation

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 116 CHRISTOPH NIEMAND

of the story both in conflict and solution is built on intertextual references. And
it is exactly here where biblical intertextuality plays if not a monopolistic, then
surely a privileged role: Harry’s story retells biblical narratives and utilises bibli-
cal motifs. Yes, readers unaware of this can still interact with Harry’s story and
find it an entertaining or enriching reading experience; but those who do
recognise and enter the intertextual “echo game” get an extra benefit: profound
insights and further excitement! Even more, the perception of the biblical inter-
textuality helps provide an apposite theological assessment of the relationship
between Harry and Christian religion.
Harry is the hero of the story, but the underlying conflict starts with Tom
Riddle. This is why I will concentrate on his “Voldemort project”. In order to
work out its reference to biblical texts and motifs I will start at the end of the
story: the full scope of Riddle’s venture is revealed only as the story unfolds,
particularly in the concluding two volumes. Like so many aspects of Rowling’s
work, its biblical intertextuality becomes evident in retrospect.

4. The “Voldemort project” and 1 Corinthians 15

a. An epitaph
In the grand sequence of events, Harry and Hermione’s visit to the graveyard
of Godric’s Hollow (VII16 265-269) is an auxiliary scene, decelerating the narra-
tive pace before the impending apex of excitement. Regarding the emotional
involvement of the readers, however, it constitutes a climax. And it is just here
that the first and only quotations of the Bible in the whole series appear: on
Christmas Eve, to the sound of carols sung inside the church, the two discover
the snow-clad tomb of Harry’s parents, who were murdered by Voldemort,
sacrificing their lives to save their one-year-old son. He is shaken to the core as
he reads their names, James and Lily Potter, and their dates of birth and death.
Underneath there is an epitaph: The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death.
And here the narrative actually halts and contemplates this verbatim quotation
of 1 Cor 15:26.
“Harry read the words slowly, as though he would have only one chance to
take in their meaning, and he read the last of them aloud. ‘The last enemy that
shall be destroyed is death’ … A horrible thought came to him, and with it a
kind of panic. ‘Isn’t that a Death Eater2 idea? Why is that there?’ ‘It doesn’t
mean defeating death in the way the Death Eaters mean it, Harry,’ said

2
The Death Eaters are the army of terror that Voldemort has assembled to enforce his totali-
tarian regime.

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 117

Hermione, her voice gentle. ‘It means … you know … living beyond death.
Living after death.’ But they were not living, thought Harry: they were gone.
The empty words could not disguise the fact that his parents’ mouldering
remains lay beneath snow and stone, indifferent, unknowing. And tears came
before he could stop them ….” (VII16 269).
For the sake of brevity, I shall refrain from quoting the following half page.
Notwithstanding some single verdicts in the chatrooms, this scene is by no
means to be called soppy, if only because Harry, before the knowing readers’
eyes, instinctively (mis)reads the quote against its grain.

b. St. Paul’s promise …

Some members of the first Christian community in Corinth did not attach
much importance to the eschatological drama of the death and resurrection of
Jesus, which according to the apostle constitutes the core of Christian identity.
For them, Christ was the divine figure of the “ideal” human being, the visible
image (eikon) of the invisible God. In a process of spiritual unification with him,
they intended to surmount their earthly physicality and submerge into Christ,
the celestial ideal of mankind. The hope for a resurrection of the dead – as
human beings in a holistic sense, including bodily existence – was not only alien,
but also repulsive to them: “There is no resurrection of the dead” (1 Cor 15:12).
Paul replies: If the dead will not be resurrected, then Christ has not been resur-
rected (15:13) and hence the gospel would be a mere (self)deception (15:14ff).
“But in fact Christ has been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who
have fallen asleep” (15:20). And if death-bound children of Adam affiliate them-
selves to the risen Christ they may hope for future life even if they fall prey to
death (15:20-22). But resurrection, Paul adds, occurs in a certain rank order
(tagma): First is the already risen Christ. Then, at his coming, those who belong
to him (15:23). And then the “complete legion” (telos) of all human beings
(15:24a).
Gielen (2005, 318-322) has shown convincingly that Paul is using military
terminology. This is why tagma (15:23) should not be read as “order” in a
general sense, but as (military) “rank order” or “lineup”. And telos (15:24a)
should not be rendered simply as “end”, but is terminus technicus for a “whole
legion, main body of troops”. The idea is: Christ is the pioneer, the first to break
through death’s lines. Those belonging to him are the raiding patrol that keeps
open the breach. At the Revelation of Christ, they will be the first to be resur-
rected; the first to hail the victory over death that will be complete only when
the “whole legion” of all human beings has followed.
It is in this context that Paul formulates the words Harry finds on his parents’
tombstone. He takes it from a bold intertextual reading of two psalms. Ps 110

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 118 CHRISTOPH NIEMAND

is an oracle for the king whom God appoints to share His own throne and
promises to “make his enemies his footstool” (110:1). Ps 8 praises God’s benevo-
lence to man(kind), for he “has made him but little less than God” (8:5) and
“has put all things under his feet” (8:6). Now, in Ancient Judaism both psalms
were read as regarding the Messiah, and Paul by using their common metaphor
states that God would complete his work of salvation by resurrecting the whole
of humankind when Christ has annulled (katargese 1 Cor 15:24c) any rule,
authority and power opposed to God and hostile to humans.3
Christ’s dominion (15:25a) will be complete only when “all enemies are put
under his feet” (15:25b) and Paul immediately makes clear what he means by
“all enemies”: the last (eschatos) enemy to be nullified is death, who was already
the first and ever since the worst enemy of humankind.

c. … a Death Eater Idea?

So much for Paul and back to Harry: craving for a word from his parents he
meant to read the epitaph as their message to him. But taking in the meaning
– the last enemy that shall be destroyed is death – the phrase sounds shockingly
like a “Death Eater idea” to him. Hermione explains: “It means … you know
… living beyond death. Living after death”. She speaks with “her voice gentle”,
not (as in many other instances) a know-it-all. However, to Harry, shaken as he
is, the hope she speaks of remains “empty words”.
It is exactly his misreading of the phrase that reveals what Tom Riddle goes
for and what I call the “Voldemort project”. He aspires to absolute rule of the
entire world. On his way to this goal other humans can be nothing to him but
subject slaves or rivals to be eliminated. His instruments are intimidation, fraud
and brute force. He tortures. He murders. But it is not enough for him to sub-
ject and dominate the human world: he wants to be immortal, for “there is
nothing worse than death” (V36 718).
In his desire to become an absolute self – independent of anything or anybody
and uncommitted to anything or anybody – death is the final and decisive hur-
dle, for death brings about the blunt contradiction of what an absolute self
would be. So he tries to make himself immune to death by killing any potential
opponent. (As a matter of fact he had tried to kill Harry, because he believed
that the ominous prophecy – “the one with the power to vanquish the Dark
Lord”, V37 741 – referred to him.) But he goes even further, further than any

3
The Verb katargeo is often rendered as “to destroy”. This is not false, but the semantic range
is dominated by the idea of ineffectiveness and nullity rather than violence and physical annihi-
lation. So it can be more aptly translated as “invalidate”, “annul” or “nullify”. The tone has shifted
from military combat to that of exercise of political authority.

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 119

human has ever gone before (IV33 708): he actually ventures to make himself
immortal by creating “horcruxes”. A horcrux is an object in which a wizard has
hidden a fragment of his soul. He cannot die as long as the horcrux exists,
because part of his soul will still be alive. Splitting one’s own soul, though,
requires the act of intentionally murdering another person and Riddle creates
seven horcruxes, thus mutilating his own soul beyond repair (VI23 585-589): in
an insane project of murdering others, he wants to overpower his own death.
After having wiped out all human rivals, death itself should be the last enemy he
eliminates.
So, what Voldemort is ultimately up to, the story reveals by a perverted read-
ing of 1 Cor 15:26. One cannot help asking: what about the original meaning?
Will it – in some sense – be good for Harry and “those who belong to him”?

d. Names
Once we have recognised the perverted reading of 1 Cor 15:26 as a means to
unmask the “Voldemort project”, further intertextual features detect themselves,
e.g. the names Death Eaters and Voldemort.
Since the Death Eaters’ first appearance, readers may have been wondering
about the reference of this strange appellation (IV9 159). Now we may associate
by hindsight: the Death Eaters’ name is a monstrous perversion of 1 Cor 15:54,
where Paul at the final climax of his chapter on resurrection exclaims: “Death
is swallowed up in victory!”4 – Death that hitherto devours all human beings
like a savage beast will, according to St. Paul, be itself swallowed up in the victory
of life when Christ is revealed and the dead are resurrected. But Voldemort
names his followers, who spread terror and death, Death Eaters because he him-
self means to swallow up his last opponent in triumph: he will devour the life-
eating death.
With this intertextual disclosure in mind, it is auspicious to explore the
meanings of “Vol-de-mort”, the programmatic name Tom Riddle has coined for
himself imitating Old Norman or French style. “…-de-mort” obviously means
“… of death”. In discussing the first syllable we should bear in mind that sym-
bolic names are often capable of multiple allusions. In this case we can also
expect an ironic tone as the programmatic intent of the intimidating name and
the final outcome of the project ultimately will turn out to be diametrically
opposed.

4
In the original 1 Cor 15:54 (cf. already Isa 25:8) we find the verb katapíno. This is a com-
posite (píno drink plus kata down) and basically refers to acts of hard drinking (something like to
“knock back”) but is used also for all acts of wildly, aggressively swallowing any kind of material,
especially denoting the devouring of prey by predators. This is the very idea behind St. Paul’s text!

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 120 CHRISTOPH NIEMAND

o Voldemort can be derived from the French verb voler (1) to fly: “flight of
death”, “flies like death”, “brings death in flight” (or “flies away from
death”).
o It might be derived also from French voler (2) to steal, to prey, also: to
fool: “the one stealing (himself) from death”, “the one fooling death”, “the
one preying upon death”, but also “the one trying to steal himself from
but all the more falling prey to death”.
o Another etymology presumes an allusion to the English noun vole (1),
meaning the zoological species of burrowing animals, including the
lemmings: “vole of death, lemming of death”: Burrowing his way through
to death, he is driving masses of people into death’s jaws, whereto he him-
self finally shall fall.
o The nowadays hardly used English noun vole (2) supplies another interest-
ing variation. It is a loanword derived from French voler (2) and means the
winning of all the tricks in one hand of a card game. “To go the vole”
means to assume full risk because one believes he can win everything. In
his hubris, Voldemort goes the “vole on death”: he plans to take away all
of death’s trumps and finally have death itself in his pocket.

e. Crux horribilis
A most abysmal reference to 1 Cor 15 is constituted by the murderous horcruxes
Voldemort creates in his pursuit of immortality. For St. Paul (cf. 15:3 and often)
the cross of Jesus means a paradox: one dies in order to make many live. Christ,
likewise victim to violence as freely opting for non-violence himself, gave his life
for many. And Voldemort’s horcruxes, crosses of horror, are the perversion of this
mysterium: one takes many lives to win eternal life for oneself! Harry spends most
of vol. 7 trying to destroy these evil artefacts by magic, but in the end will have
to rebut Voldemort’s logic of horror in his own life and limb, and by doing so
will demonstrate the truth of St. Paul’s logic of the cross (VII36 591 etc.).

5. The “Voldemort project” and Genesis 3

Seeing that the objective (or causa finalis) of the “Voldemort project” is built on
alienated echoes of 1 Cor 15, one cannot help asking whether its origin (or causa
efficiens) also has biblical references. As a matter of fact, Tom Riddle’s aspiration
is … sin, sin par excellence; “original sin”. So it is not by chance that his char-
acterisation includes numerous references to textual motifs and subtextual struc-
tures in the biblical tale of the primordial Fall of Man. The intertextuality of

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 121

Voldemort’s project is twofold: the eschatological stratum of 1 Cor 15 finds a

counter-balance in a protological stratum echoing Genesis 3.5

a. The serpent
In the Bible it is the snake that brings about the temptation of humankind and,
sure enough, in Voldemort’s characterisation the serpent motif is dominant: he
is a descendant and heir of Salazar Slytherin, founder of the homonymous Hog-
warts house. Slytherin’s heraldic symbol is a serpent and his name is obviously
allusive: “Slithering” is the way serpents move. The snake of Gen 3:1 is said to
be more “sly” than all other beasts. Like his ancestor, Voldemort speaks Parsel-
tongue, the language of snakes. A snake, Nagini, is Voldemort’s pet, the only
being to which he seems emotionally attached. Finally, Voldemort’s mutilation
of soul affects his body: the once handsome boy looks more and more beastly
and snakelike.

b. Promise of immortality
The primordial snake promises immortality to Adam and Eve –“You surely will
not die,” Gen 3:4 – thus alluring them to revolt against creatural contingency,
relatedness and sociality: they try and act as if they could become absolute
beings. But this turns out to be an insane arrogance and inevitably brings about
death.
In order to understand the perspicuous logic behind Gen 3 we are to dif-
ferentiate mortality (i.e. the certainty of dying at some future time) from what
I call “mortability” (i.e. the eventuality of not being). Only the latter is per se
immanent to creatural existence because created beings do not exist on behalf
of their own necessity but on behalf of a reason external to themselves. “Mort-
ability”, therefore, doesn’t mean the necessity of dying, albeit the possibility! So
humankind, before its fall nether sin, was “mortable” but not at all mortal. (God
didn’t create humans with the intent to reduce them again to non-existence – if
this were the case why should he have created them in the first place? – but
wanted them to be enduring vessels of his benevolence, cf. Wis 2:23f) Mortality,
according to the mythic tale of Gen 3, is immanent to the vain act of rejecting
one’s being as a relative and related existence. The absurd attempt of becoming
an absolute being denudes humans of their raison d’être and places an unfailing

5
I will put forward the crucial features of Gen 3 according to the way they are alluded to in
the Potter novels. Even if recent exegesis might stress some different aspects of the biblical tale,
it is the following classical (say “hamartiological”) reading that the “Voldemort project” evokes.

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sting of death into their life. Or, as St. Paul puts it in Rom 6:23: the wages of
sin is death.
Tom Riddle’s pursuit of immortality restages the primordial sin of Gen 3.
Voldemort has renounced his own humanity by deluding himself that he might
become an absolute being. But this project is impossible and will surely kill him
in the end.

c. Knowledge of good and evil

Adam and Eve perform their sin eating the fruit of the “tree of knowledge of
good and evil” (Gen 3:5-6). Thus they claim absolute autonomy of prospect
and conduct for themselves. Voldemort does likewise. He takes it upon himself
to determine what is good or evil in terms of usefulness for his ascent to power.
This is evident from the first volume, when Quirrell (echoing Nietzsche!) as a
spokesman possessed by Voldemort utters what he has learnt from his master:
“There is no good and evil, there is only power, and those too weak to seek it”
(I17 313).

d. Being like God

The snake promises that “absolute” Adam and Eve would be like gods (3:5 cf.
3:22) and Voldemort attempts to make himself a god. It comes with the Potter
story having no “real” god as a narrative figure that the featuring of a would-be-
god can be done only in an implicit way, but it is nonetheless evident: Volde-
mort makes the name he has taken for himself a taboo. His followers shyly
address him as “Dark Lord” and a timorous or indifferent public and even
opponents use expressions like He-who-must-not-be-named or You-know-who.
These can’t be but echoes of traditional taboos in religious language: the name
of God (according to Jewish tradition) is not to be pronounced and the name of
Satan is unspeakable.
The oscillation between divine and satanic taboo is also significant: the idea
of Satan as a dark or mocking duplicate of God is a widespread motif and it is
realised in characterising the would-be-god Voldemort by elements that will
remind readers of the Satan figure: high and cold voice, cruel laughter, evil
sarcasm, lust to inflict pain and despair.

e. The punishment of solitude

In the biblical narrative the would-be-gods Adam and Eve suffer an immediate
loss of social and relational competence, which comes as a punishment commensu-
rate to their aspiration of becoming absolute beings: ashamed of their nakedness

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 123

(Gen 3:7) they hide themselves from the one they can no longer approach with
confidence, but whom they anticipate as an enemy to be feared (3:8-10). They
develop a habit of lying and blaming others for their own deeds (3:11-13). – all
of this becomes true also for Voldemort, whose total lack of empathic and com-
municative faculties becomes clear as early as the occasion of Dumbledore’s first
encounter with the then eleven-year-old boy (VI13 315-329): anticipating enmity,
he feels threatened by anybody approaching him and refuses well-meant support.
“He wished to be different, separate, notorious … highly self-sufficient, secretive
… has never had a friend, nor … has ever wanted one” (328s). He doesn’t trust
anybody and enjoys seeing others punished for deeds he himself committed (II17
334s; VI17 429.435; VI20 519).

f. The whence of evil

Why is Tom Riddle so abysmally evil and what is evil’s ultimate origin? The whole
Potter saga invokes these questions, but it does not impose answers, neither by
virtue of the narrator’s nor any character’s voice. It prefers to suggestively leave
these questions open for the readers’ own thoughts, merely providing them a
little sign-posting along the way. This is done by narrating some crucial scenes
from Riddle’s prehistory and boyhood which Harry is monitoring in the “pen-
sieve”. (This is a magic device making it possible to revisit one’s own or anoth-
er’s memories and thoughts.) These scenes strongly invite the reader to cogitate
on the questions formulated above. And for those readers who are building up
some “theory of evil” the narrative itself activates a scenario of options retracing
lines of thinking embossed not least by Gen 3.
(i) The narrative activates, but disallows the idea of a (gnostic) dualistic
cosmology: It does not present Voldemort as being part, a proponent or embod-
iment of a mythical “dark side” conceived as a given primordial fact. Rather, the
“dark side” emerges from the bad deeds of humans, and Voldemort’s bad deeds
render it strong. The existence of a “dark side” is not the implication of any
cosmic duality of good and evil, but is the consequence of human actions,
defaults and choices. Voldemort is a human being, not the personification of
some primordial evil!
(ii) Likewise, the narrative activates, but disallows the idea of an individual
predestination to good or evil. It runs this option through, interestingly enough
on Harry’s side, who shows “strange likenesses” (II17 340; II18 356) to Volde-
mort: when (in vol. 2) people discover that Harry, like Slytherin and Volde-
mort, speaks Parsel they wonder if he could be the “heir of Slytherin” and Harry
himself is deeply unsettled. He – who could have been sorted for the house of
Slytherin in the first place – fears that there might be a destiny for evil in him

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inevitably prevailing (I7 133; II9 167f; II18 356-358). Dumbledore’s remarkable
answer in the great final dialogue comforts him, but it is also good for the other
side. “It is our choices, Harry, that show what we truly are, far more than our
abilities” (II18 358). Tom Riddle is not evil a priori. He became evil.
(iii) With these positions disallowed, the questions remain all the more press-
ing and the narrative suggests an assured point of departure for the readers’
afterthoughts. It is the elaborate parallelism of Tom’s and Harry’s boyhoods: two
orphans growing up devoid of affection, attention or support. Tom becomes
inclined to hurt and subdue others. Harry develops in a completely different
way. The very moment he meets people who care about him, he begins to trust
and makes friends, he becomes capable of empathy, commitment and devotion.
Why? An initial answer imposes itself: Harry has experienced love in the very
first year of his life. In the face of his parents’ horrendous killing he witnessed
their self-giving love. Even if he was too young then to understand – love
remains within him; it protects him and will qualify him for love.
The great “power of love” passages are evidently echoing motifs from both
biblical “songs of songs of love”: Canticles (cf. 8:6 “love is strong as death”) and
1 Corinthians 13. Dumbledore professes that love is “more wonderful and more
terrible than death, than human intelligence, than the forces of nature” (V37
743). Voldemort is ignorant of it, but Harry has experienced and absorbed it.
Harry’s ability to love is “uncommon skill and power”, and it renders him “pure
of heart”. It gives him the “incomparable power of a soul that is untarnished
and whole” (VI23 601-604; cf. VI20 526). – In the final encounter with Harry,
Voldemort will taunt one last time: “Is it love again? … Dumbledore’s favour-
ite solution, love, which he claimed conquered death …?” (VII36 592). – This
passage liaises with vol. 1, where, after their first encounter, Harry asked why
Voldemort couldn’t have touched him. Dumbledore replied: “Your mother died
to save you… love as powerful as your mother’s for you leaves its own mark.
Not a scar, no visible sign … to have been loved so deeply … will give us some
protection forever” (I17 321).
Now, one might ask: isn’t it also true of Tom that he is the son of a loving
woman? Merope (!) Gaunt, the neglected and ugly daughter of the “pure-blood“
but completely run-down Slytherin dynasty, falls in love with the genteel, rich
and handsome muggle Tom Riddle (senior). She wins him by magic, infusing
him a love potion and elopes with him. It is only when she finally realises that
her husband would never freely love her that she expands into real love. She
releases him – and stays behind: pregnant and lost, deprived of any more strength
to live. She sells off the only object of value she had taken from her family for
a trifling sum – just enough to pay for the orphanage: a place for her to give
birth and die, and a place for her son to live (VI10 253-256; VI13 309-311.315s).

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Merope was no Lily! But still – should the tragedy of her love not have left
some benign traces in Tom’s life? Was there no alternative of becoming abso-
lutely impermeable to any goodness, friendship and humanity? Reading the pas-
sages of Voldemort’s prehistory leaves readers with afterthoughts like these. But
it is again Dumbledore’s wisdom that prevents the reader from seeing biogra-
phies as predetermined by the effects of early conditioning: one cannot prognos-
ticate nor retrace the ways of human lives in virtue of their childhood experi-
ences. All of that would be “guesswork” (VI10 255). In the end Tom Riddle, the
boy who became evil, is a riddle, because disposition and conditioning are not
to be exchanged for freedom and responsibility. He is as much a mystery as any
other human being. There is a mysterium iniquitatis and a mysterium amoris!

g. “Enmity has been put …”

Tom and Harry are in many ways opposed “brothers”. Their vitae could have
been respectively different, even reverse, but as a matter of fact both went their
ways as they did. Once more one thinks of the Genesis tale, according to which
enmity has been put between the serpent and the woman, between the serpent’s
offspring and the woman’s offspring (3:15). The Tom-Riddle-and-Harry-Pot-
ter-saga tells the story of enmity which has been put between the one who
turned out to be the “heir” of the Slytherin snake and the one who turned out
to be a congenial “descendant” of a loving woman.

6. Ascertainments in retrospect

a. An adequate reading?
I do hope I have provided sufficing evidence that the arrangement of the basic
conflict in the Potter novels can be fully apprehended only when realising its
biblical intertextuality. Previous research has already shown that this conflict’s
resolution – Harry’s act of self-giving and what it yields – is pursuing biblical
soteriology. Notwithstanding this, I anticipate the critical question: is a reading
of the Potter novels in this line an adequate reading or, rather, does it represent
a pitiable attempt at usurping alien success?
Many will say: only the author herself could authentically name the meaning
and message she has committed to her text, be it secular humanist, anti-Chris-
tian, post-Christian, esoteric, heathen, Christian … or however else it may be
classified. I dissent: literary criticism that is confident of its conceptual formula-
tions will not look for this kind of arbiter and doesn’t even need an interview
with Joanne Rowling (done by, if anybody, Rita Skeeter). This is because a

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narrative text is precisely not the transport container for some extra-textual mean-
ing, which would be the real message Ms. Rowling wanted to get across. Rather,
a narrative text is the playing field of a dialogue taking place within the text
itself.
There is something attendant within the text that we might call its authorial
entity (or implied author). This is the total of all intentions turned into text,
of all decisions of plot, of all literary devices used and all moral convictions
proffered. There is also a reading entity (or implied reader), which is the readers
as anticipated in the text, the total of expected, suggested or discouraged read-
ing-reactions: identifications (or not) with the characters, consent (or not) with
their deeds and values, and thoughts provoked après lecture on the morals of
the story. Now, literary analysis conceives of a narrative text as the score of a
pre-arranged dialogue in the medium of a narration presented by the authorial
and followed by the reading entity. The actual readers, then, escort the implied
one: their readings scatter in a spread around the reading of their intra-textual
archetype.
I am well aware that in an interview Ms. Rowling admitted she has drafted
the plot “struggling with religious belief” and that “my struggle really is to keep
believing” (Rowling 2007). This may somehow corroborate my analysis but,
still, is ultimately immaterial to our question. It is always the Potter text that
decides on the adequacy of its readings, not Ms. Rowling!
What follows? One obviously can read and enjoy Harry’s story without real-
ising the stratum of its biblical intertextuality. One can of course interpret the
oscillating “echo games” in the Potter novels as alluding to various topics in
humanism, psychology, or philosophy. But by no means is one to disallow
Christian readers from identifying the echoes that render Harry’s story so very
familiar to them: infallibly it reminds them of a set of other stories that have
shaped their beliefs and hopes. When identifying these echoes they do not sim-
ply interpret the text in one of many more or less probable ways. They read as
they quite naturally read and they do as they are meant to do. In Christian
readers Harry’s story activates and invokes the impressions of another longstand-
ing reading: that of the Bible – speaking of freedom and sin, of death and
redemption, of violence and sacrifice, of putting ourselves into the place of God
and of Jesus giving himself for our sake.

b. Harry and Christian theology

The negotiations taking place in the ideological sub-text of the Potter series
come close to what can be established as the overall project and task of Christian
theology, especially of what in Catholic theology normally is entrusted to the
discipline of fundamental theology.

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(Fundamental) theology intends to evince the Christian creed as reasonably

communicable and believable with respect to the universal forum of human
reason and wisdom. – Let it be understood: it is not that theology could con-
vincingly demonstrate that in the life, death, and (if possible!) resurrection of
Jesus an almighty and loving God would actually be operating human salvation;
that on behalf of Jesus’ disarming pureness of heart our enmeshment into vio-
lence and evil could break off; that his holy bravery could seriously empower
justice and fairness with us; that not even by our death could his vivifying
friendship be worn down. All of that cannot possibly be proved in an unequivo-
cal way – it is a matter of hope, belief, and venture! But theology claims to try
and make evident a profound plausibility in the pattern formed by the core
convictions of Christian experience. It argues that the fields of discourse and the
ways of performance of Christian identity are readily accessible to intelligence and
understanding. Theology tries to establish reasoned credentials for this special
way of living and thinking. Thus, theology is both afterthought and “pre-
thought” of faith: explicatio evangelii and praeparatio evangelica.
Now, reading the Potter novels quite naturally results in … finding oneself
involved in theology! Not only will many readers instinctively realise that Harry
is a sort of Jesus figure, but, following Harry’s intriguing story, accompanying
him as he works through from misunderstanding to understanding, from scan-
dal to trust, in the end they might find themselves qualified in ideas that render
understandable some central themes of the Christian religion. To be sure: the
Potter tale is narration, not argument. But narration is a powerful media of
understanding, which happens as readers consent to the proceedings and out-
come of the story. And as Harry’s story clearly allegorises Christian religion it
is on behalf of its narrative reasonability and reasonableness that it can be paral-
leled to theology. Actually, it works out the “narratability” of some core ele-
ments of the Christian faith, and one should concede that within a comprehen-
sive rationality check the parameter “narratability proved” is a requested one.
It is a whole set of features that is worked through in Harry’s story thus map-
ping much of the architecture of the Christian creed.
o Anthropology: evil is not a primordial fact but the price of human freedom.
Wherever the possibility of evil becomes actualized, human freedom is
provoked all the more; presented with the challenge of taking sides.
o Hamartiology: sin is the act of rejecting one’s creatural condition usurping
absoluteness. Sin happens as the confidence of gratuitously being called to
and sustained in existence is outrivaled by the logic of distrust. Sin sets off
a spiral of fear and violence.
o Grace: human beings need benevolence preceding them, benignity escorting
them, and in the end they always need help. But all of that abundantly is

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in their own hands (“Help will always be given at Hogwarts to those who
ask for it”: II 14 284; II 17 343; VII 24 390).
o Vicarious Christology: the deeds and fates of one extraordinary and repre-
sentative person (“the chosen one” VI3 51s; “leader and symbol, saviour
and guide” VII37 596) deeply impact on the deeds and fates of a multitude
of persons.
o Sacrificial soteriology: evil and violence can only be outranged by someone
delivering him- or herself freely into the hands of the evil violent one. Only
the bold sacrifice of a loving person changes the world.
o Charity: human beings are capable of solidarity, empathy and compassion.
They help each other even at a cost to themselves.
o Ecclesiology: faith, hope and love cannot be performed by single individu-
als but are ventured, shared, and testified to in a community.
What about eschatology, then? Is the Potter saga – beyond invoking a perverted
eschatology – also processing the promises of 1 Cor 15 in their original meaning?

c. Harry and Eschatology

Within the agenda of literary analysis the question has to be posed in this way:
is the authorial entity intriguing its reading counterpart in a way that will stimu-
late in many of its actual readers the hope of a “real” resurrection of those Harry
has lost: his parents; Sirius and Dumbledore; Dobby and Fred, Lupin and
Tonks; let us not forget Snape, and last of all, Colin (“tiny in death” VII34 556)?
(i) One thing has to be made very clear at the outset: Harry – who in several
ways is a figura Christi – definitely doesn’t double Jesus’ eschatological course:
he is neither dying nor resurrected.
The first few sentences of the chapter “King’s Cross” (VII35 565) may give
the unpleasant feeling of a resurrection scene following which could be nothing
but abysmally trashy! But reading on, what becomes apparent step by step is …
that it was once more the narrative device misleading the readers ending in their
subsequent pleasure: Harry’s dream – during a state of faint, a kind of near-
death experience – is sorting out the last entangled threads of the story. One last
time Dumbledore – not his ghost, to be sure, but Dumbledore remembered and
understood at last! – is pulling out all the stops. This is a foretaste of resurrection
that may happen already now: understanding!
(ii) Secondly we have to note that Harry never avows the hope for resurrec-
tion. Rather, the position he learns from Dumbledore is to accept creatural
mortality – his own and that of the deceased.

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This begins already in the first volume, after the destruction of the life-
lengthening philosophers’ stone, when a serene Dumbledore said to Harry:
“After all, to the well-organised mind, death is but the next great adventure”
(I17 320). In his “Mount of Olives” scene Harry nearly breaks down in agony
(VII34 554-560), but lastly he conforms to having to die and sets forth on the
way to his sacrifice. As he survives and Voldemort ultimately fails, Harry unex-
pectedly finds himself in possession of all three “Deathly Hallows”: Elder
Wand, Resurrection Stone, and Invisibility Cloak. According to the legend,
this would make him “master of Death”, death’s conqueror and vanquisher
(VII21 333). But as “no magic can raise the dead, and that’s that,” (VII22 346)
Harry renounces these futile remedies against death, thus becoming all the
more “the true master of death, because the true master does not seek to run
away from Death. He accepts that he must die, and understands that there are
far, far worse things in the living world than dying” (VII35 577). Harry keeps
only his treasured Invisibility Cloak that has hidden him and his friends in so
many menaces. But when time has come, like the cloak’s legendary creator, he
will pass it on to his son (VII36 599) and welcome death “as an old friend”.
Together with him, as “equals,” “gladly” he will “depart this life” (VII21 332).
– The allusion to 1 Cor 15:26 is evident, but again it is against the grain!
Death: not the last enemy, but an old friend; not nullified, but welcomed; not
subjected, but equal!
(iii) For the readers this position – let’s call it sagacity and let’s remember that
it comes close to some prominent texts in the sapiential books of the Bible –
exhibits a powerful proposal. But there is also a fine sideline in it. I call it the
“Patronus” line that invokes the Christian belief of communio sanctorum: even
though the deceased never return to our world or our lives, our love for the
loved ones doesn’t have to fade away. In loving remembrance the living and the
dead remain close to each other.
Harry could never have mustered the courage for his sacrifice, had he not
been – as Bonhoeffer put it – “by gracious powers so wonderfully sheltered”. As
Dumbledore’s legacy he had received the Stone of Resurrection. This magic
artefact had induced many wizards to insane experiments; even Dumbledore
used it in a misguided way. Not so with Harry. He employs the stone to awaken
the loving memory of his parents, and of Sirius and Lupin. They come and
encourage him. Not as human beings of flesh and blood, much less as ghosts,
but as “memory made nearly solid”. These strong memories accompany him,
they are an undetachable part of himself staying with him till the very end:
“Harry looked at his mother. ‘Stay close to me,’ he said quietly. And he set off”
(VII34 560s).

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(iv) Let it be clear: the hope for a Resurrection of the Dead is not the
proposal the narrating voice would frankly conjure up for its readers. On one
occasion Hermione has discreetly hinted at it, but beyond this it does not
appear. So resurrection somehow remains a blank space. A pity? I don’t think
so. Blank spaces are part of any narrative communication; they are entrusted to
the readers. Many of them will be overflowing with thoughts when re-reading
the epitaph of Harry’s parents.

d. Harry and God

At the end of this theological appraisal of the Potter novels one might ask: There
is no God in Harry’s story; how come that it can be a praeparatio evangelica?
There are several ways stories can invite their readers to believe in God. The
first: God is a (likeable) figure of the narration. But this normally turns out to
be blasphemous: no “figures of God” are to be made by humans. The second:
the (likeable) hero is a believer, an exemplum fidei. But such stories very often
turn out to be awkward or trashy. The Potter novels adhere to a third way, the
allegoric one: there are stories capable of powerfully suggesting faith in God,
even though (or should I say: because) God and faith remain extra-textual to
them. The parables of Jesus, just to mention, are such stories. In order to pro-
voke effects of disclosure in the field of the hearer’s most intimate convictions
they tell a story entirely playing in a different field. They are “god-less” and
mundane, but somehow they manage to provoke people to think of God and
change their habits. Could this be true also for Harry’s story? Surely he is not
an exemplum fidei but for quite a number of readers he could very well be an
allegoria fidei. And this is quite something these days.

Literature

I (1997) Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, London 2000 (pb).
II (1998) Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, London 2000 (pb).
III (1999) Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, London 2000 (pb).
IV (2000) Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, London 2000 (pb).
V (2003) Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, London 2003 (hb).
VI (2005) Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, London 2006 (pb).
VII (2007) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, London 2007 (hb).

BAUMGART, N. C., 2006. Die Bibel ein(sch)muggeln? Die Suche nach mythologischen,
religiösen und theologischen Spuren in den Harry Potter-Romanen. In Harry
Potter – Ein Literatur- und Medienereignis im Blickpunkt interdisziplinärer Forschung,
ed. C. Garbe; M. Philipp, Münster, 73-100.

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 THE LAST ENEMY THAT SHALL BE DESTROYED IS DEATH 131

DREXLER, C. / WANDINGER, N., 2004. Leben, Tod und Zauberstab. Auf theologischer
Spurensuche in Harry Potter, Münster.
GIELEN, M., 2005. Der erste Brief an die Korinther, Vol. 3, Gütersloh.
KARG, I. / MENDE, I., 2010. Kulturphänomen Harry Potter. Multiadressiertheit und Inter-
nationalität eines nationalen Literatur- und Medienevents. Göttingen.
NUECHTERLEIN, P., (no year). Harry Potter and the Power of Love. Online: http://girard-
ianlectionary.net/potter/hpatpol-p.htm (viewed 07.04.2012).
ROWLING, J. K., 2007. Harry Potter: The final chapter. Author J. K. Rowling reveals her
secrets – and what you never knew about Harry Potter – in an exclusive interview with
NBC’s M. Vieira. Online: http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/20001720/ns/dateline_
nbc-harry_potter/page/4/ (viewed 07.04.2012).
WANDINGER, N., 2009. “Sacrifice” in ‘Harry Potter’ from a Girardian Perspective.
Online: http://www.uibk.ac.at/theol/leseraum/texte/819.html (viewed 07.04.2012).
WANDINGER, N., 2010. Sacrifice in the Harry Potter Series from a Girardian Perspec-
tive. In Contagion. Journal of Violence, Mimesis, and Culture 17, 27-52.
WANDINGER, N. / DREXLER C., 2008. Harry Potter and the Art of Theology Revisited.
In: Milltown Studies 61, 84-120; Online: http://www.uibk.ac.at/theol/leseraum/
texte/811.html (viewed 07.04.2012).

Author

Christoph Niemand, born 1959 in Linz a.d. Donau (Austria), Professor of New
Testament Studies, Katholisch-Theologische Privatuniversität Linz. Research fields:
Historical Jesus; Parables; Early Christology and Soteriology. Publications: Jesus und sein
Weg zum Kreuz. Ein historisch-rekonstruktives und theologisches Modellbild, Stuttgart
2007; Irritation oder Einverständnis? Jesu Gleichnis von den Arbeitern im Weinberg
(Mt 20,1-16), In Geistes-Gegenwart. Vom Lesen, Denken und Sagen des Glaubens, ed.
F. Gruber et al., Frankfurt/M. 2009, 93-113; “Annäherung an die Gesalt unseres
Herrn”. Zum zweiten Teil des “Jesus-Buches” von Joseph Ratzinger / Benedikt XVI.,
In Theologisch-praktische Quartalschrift 159(2011), 398-407.
Thanks to Sr. Sophia Krainer and Mr. Alan Bale for their help with the English version
of this essay.

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