Indian Schools of Philosophy :

The Sankhya school of philosophy

It is one of the six major schools of Indian philosophy. It is attributed to the sage
Kapila and is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems in India. Sankhya
is primarily concerned with the nature of existence, the evolution of the universe,
and the liberation of the self from suffering.
Key Principles of Sankhya:
1. Dualism: Sankhya philosophy posits a fundamental duality between Purusha
(consciousness or spirit) and Prakriti (matter or nature). Purusha is the
eternal, unchanging, and inactive aspect, while Prakriti is the material cause
of the universe and is characterized by constant activity and change.
2. Twenty-Four Principles: Sankhya enumerates twenty-four tattvas or
principles that constitute the universe. These include the five gross elements
 (earth, water, fire, air, and ether), the five subtle elements (sound, touch,
form, taste, and smell), the five sense organs, the five organs of action, the
mind, the intellect, the ego, and the mahat (cosmic intelligence).
3. Evolution of the Universe: Sankhya describes the process of evolution
through the interaction between Purusha and Prakriti. The evolution begins
with the interaction of the three gunas (qualities) inherent in Prakriti: sattva
(purity, illumination), rajas (activity, passion), and tamas (inertia, darkness).
These gunas combine in different proportions to give rise to the diversity of
the material world.
4. Liberation: The goal of Sankhya is to attain liberation (moksha) by realizing
the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti. By understanding that the self
(Purusha) is distinct from the body, mind, and senses (Prakriti), one can
overcome the bondage of the material world and achieve liberation from
suffering.
5. Practical Application: Sankhya philosophy also offers practical methods to
achieve liberation, including self-analysis, discrimination between the self
and the non-self, detachment from material desires, and the cultivation of
knowledge and wisdom.
It Is important to note that Sankhya philosophy has had a significant influence on
other Indian philosophical systems, such as Yoga and Vedanta. While Sankhya is
primarily a dualistic philosophy, it has been Integrated and synthesized with other
perspectives to form a more comprehensive understanding of the nature of reality
and the path to liberation.

The Yoga school of philosophy :

The Yoga school of philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hindu
philosophy, with roots dating back to ancient India. Yoga is derived from the Sanskrit
word “yuj,” which means to unite or join. The ultimate goal of the Yoga school is to
achieve union with the divine or the ultimate reality through spiritual practices.
The Yoga school Is primarily attributed to the sage Patanjali, who is believed to have
compiled the foundational text of Yoga philosophy called the “Yoga Sutras.” The
Yoga Sutras consist of aphorisms that outline the path of Yoga and provide guidance
on various aspects of spiritual development.
According to the Yoga school, the human condition is characterized by suffering and
ignorance, and the practice of Yoga offers a systematic approach to alleviate
suffering and attain liberation (moksha). The Yoga Sutras describe the Eight Limbs
of Yoga (Ashtanga), which serve as a comprehensive framework for spiritual growth
and self-realization. These limbs are:

1. Yama: Ethical principles and moral restraints, including non-violence,

truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and non-greed.
2. Niyama: Self-discipline and observances, such as cleanliness, contentment,
austerity, study, and surrender to a higher power.
 3. Asana: Physical postures or poses that promote strength, flexibility, and
balance. Asanas are commonly practiced in modern yoga classes.
4. Pranayama: Breath control and regulation to cultivate prana (life force
energy) and enhance mental focus and vitality.
5. Pratyahara: Withdrawal of the senses from external stimuli to cultivate inner
awareness and concentration.
6. Dharana: Concentration and one-pointedness of mind, focusing on a single
object or point of focus.
7. Dhyana: Meditation or sustained contemplation on a chosen object or the
nature of reality. It involves transcending the mind and experiencing a state
of pure consciousness.
8. Samadhi: The ultimate state of spiritual absorption or union, where the
practitioner merges with the object of meditation, leading to self-realization
and liberation.
Apart from these eight limbs, the Yoga school also emphasizes ethical conduct,
mindfulness, self-reflection, and self-discipline as integral aspects of the practice.
Yoga encompasses a wide range of techniques and practices, including physical
postures (asanas), breath control (pranayama), meditation, chanting, and ethical
guidelines for harmonious living.
In contemporary times, Yoga has gained popularity worldwide as a holistic approach
to physical health, mental well-being, and spiritual growth. While physical postures
are commonly practiced in modern Yoga classes, the broader philosophical and
spiritual dimensions of the Yoga school continue to be studied and taught by
scholars, practitioners, and spiritual teachers.

The Nyaya school of philosophy :

It is one of the six main schools of classical Indian philosophy, known as
“Darshanas.” Nyaya, which means “logic” or “reasoning,” focuses on the study of
logic, epistemology, and the methodology of acquiring knowledge. It was founded
by the sage Gautama (also known as Akshapada) around the 2nd century BCE.
The Nyaya philosophy aims to provide a rational and systematic approach to
understanding the world and acquiring valid knowledge. It recognizes four sources
of knowledge, which are known as “pramanas”:

1. Pratyaksha (perception): Pratyaksha refers to direct sensory perception. It is

considered a reliable source of knowledge, as it involves direct contact with
the external world through the senses.
2. Anumana (inference): Anumana is the process of drawing conclusions based
on reasoning and logical deduction. It involves establishing a cause-effect
relationship based on observations and general principles.
3. Upamana (comparison): Upamana is the process of acquiring knowledge
through comparison and analogy. It involves understanding something new
by comparing it to something known or familiar.
4. Shabda (verbal testimony): Shabda refers to the testimony or authoritative
statements of reliable sources, such as scriptures, experts, or trustworthy
individuals. It emphasizes the importance of learning from the words of
reliable authorities.
The Nyaya school also recognizes various categories or aspects of reality known as
“padrathas.” These padarthas include:
 1. Dravya (substance): Dravya refers to the ultimate reality or substance that
exists independently. It includes both physical substances and abstract
entities. Nyaya recognizes nine categories of substances, including earth,
water, fire, air, ether, time, space, self (soul), and mind.
2. Samanya (generality): Samanya refers to the universal or general
characteristics that are shared by multiple substances. It represents the
common features or qualities that define a class or category.
3. Vishesha (particularity): Vishesha refers to the particular or specific
characteristics that distinguish one substance from another. It highlights the
unique attributes or qualities of individual objects.
4. Samavaya (inherence): Samavaya represents the inseparable connection
between cause and effect. It suggests that certain relationships are necessary
and inherent.
Nyaya philosophy also includes discussions on logical reasoning, fallacies, and
debate techniques. It provides a framework for evaluating arguments,
distinguishing valid from invalid reasoning, and establishing logical coherence.
The Nyaya school has had a significant influence on Indian philosophy and
intellectual discourse. Its emphasis on logic, critical thinking, and epistemology has
contributed to the development of various branches of knowledge, including law,
linguistics, and debate. Nyaya continues to be studied and appreciated as a valuable
tool for understanding and analyzing the nature of reality and acquiring valid
knowledge.

Vaiseshika School of Philosophy:

It is one of the six main schools of classical Indian philosophy, also known as
“Darshanas.” It is primarily concerned with the study of metaphysics and the nature
of reality. The school of Vaiseshika was founded by the sage Kanada, who is believed
to have lived around the 2nd century BCE.
Vaiseshika philosophy proposes a systematic approach to understanding the
universe by analyzing its fundamental components. It postulates that all objects and
substances in the world are made up of minute, indivisible particles called
“paramanus.” These paramanus combine to form different types of matter,
including the five elements: earth, water, fire, air, and ether.
Vaiseshika philosophy also recognizes six categories or aspects of reality known as
“padarthas.” These padarthas are:
1. Dravya (substance): It refers to the ultimate reality or substance that exists
independently. Dravyas are the fundamental building blocks of the universe
and can be classified into nine categories, including earth, water, fire, air,
ether, time, space, self (soul), and mind.
2. Guna (quality): It refers to the attributes or qualities that exist in substances.
Vaiseshika recognizes 24 gunas, such as color, taste, smell, touch, and more.
3. Karma (action): Karma refers to the activity or motion of substances. It
suggests that substances can interact with each other through various
actions.
4. Samanya (generality): Samanya refers to the universal or general
characteristics that are shared by multiple substances. For example, the
concept of “humanity” represents the common characteristics shared by all
individual humans.
5. Vishesha (particularity): Vishesha refers to the particular or specific
characteristics that distinguish one substance from another. It highlights the
uniqueness of individual objects.
6. Samavaya (inherence): Samavaya represents the inseparable connection
between cause and effect, indicating that certain relationships are necessary
and unavoidable.
The Vaiseshika school also discusses the concept of knowledge and epistemology.
It recognizes two primary means of acquiring knowledge: perception (pratyaksha)
and inference (anumana). It further explores other sources of knowledge, such as
verbal testimony, comparison, and postulation.
Vaiseshika philosophy has had a significant influence on various aspects of Indian
thought, including other philosophical schools and scientific disciplines. While it is
not as widely studied or practiced today as some other Indian philosophies like
Vedanta or Yoga, its contributions to metaphysics, ontology, and the understanding
of reality remain significant.
The Mimamsa school of philosophy :
It is also known as Purva Mimamsa or simply Mimamsa, is one of the six main
schools of classical Indian philosophy. Mimamsa focuses on the interpretation and
analysis of the Vedas, the ancient sacred scriptures of Hinduism. It was founded by
the sage Jaimini around the 3rd or 4th century BCE.
The term "Mimamsa" means ”reflection,” “investigation,” or “examination.” The
school’s primary concern is to understand the nature, purpose, and interpretation
of the Vedic texts, particularly the ritualistic portions known as the Karma-kanda.
Mimamsa places great emphasis on the performance of rituals and their efficacy in
attaining desired outcomes and liberation (moksha).
Key concepts and principles of the Mimamsa school include:
1. Shruti and Smriti: Mimamsa recognizes two sources of knowledge—the
Shruti and the Smriti. Shruti refers to the revealed knowledge found in the
Vedas, which are considered eternal and authorless. Smriti refers to the
remembered knowledge encapsulated in texts like the Dharmasutras and
Dharmashastras, which provide guidelines for ethical conduct and social
order.
2. Karma: Mimamsa places significant importance on the performance of
rituals (karma) as prescribed in the Vedas. It views rituals as essential means
to fulfill desires, achieve worldly goals, and attain liberation. The Mimamsa
school meticulously analyzes the rituals, their procedures, and the specific
injunctions provided in the scriptures to ensure their correct performance.
3. Vidhi (injunction) and Artha (meaning): Mimamsa focuses on understanding
the meaning and purpose of the Vedic injunctions. It employs a rigorous
exegetical methodology to interpret the words and sentences of the texts,
aiming to ascertain the intended meanings and obligations conveyed by the
Vedas.
4. Apurva: Mimamsa introduces the concept of “apurva” to explain the efficacy
of rituals. Apurva refers to the unseen, imperceptible result or consequence
that is produced by the performance of a Vedic ritual. It is considered an
unseen force that operates to bring about the desired outcomes, even when
 the direct correlation between the ritual action and its results is not
apparent.
5. Swarga (heaven) and Moksha (liberation): Mimamsa upholds the concept of
Swarga as a desirable realm of existence achieved through ritualistic actions.
It also acknowledges the pursuit of Moksha, liberation from the cycle of birth
and death, as an ultimate goal. However, the Mimamsa school differs from
other philosophical systems in that it views Moksha as a result of the proper
performance of Vedic rituals rather than through knowledge or renunciation.
Mimamsa philosophy has had a significant impact on Hindu religious practices,
ritualistic traditions, and hermeneutics. Its detailed analysis of the Vedic texts and
its emphasis on ritual performance have shaped the understanding and practice of
Hinduism for centuries. While it is not as widely studied or influential today as some
other philosophical schools like Vedanta or Yoga, the Mimamsa school remains an
important part of Indian philosophical and religious history.

The Vedanta school of philosophy :

It is also known as Uttara Mimamsa, is one of the six main schools of classical Indian
philosophy. Vedanta is based on the philosophical interpretations and teachings
found in the Upanishads, which are considered the culmination of the Vedas. It
represents the philosophical system that explores the nature of reality (Brahman),
the individual self (Atman), and their relationship.
The term "Vedanta" is derived from two Sanskrit words: "Veda," which means
knowledge or wisdom, and "anta," which means the end or conclusion. Vedanta
signifies the culmination or the final teachings of the Vedas. It is associated with
prominent philosophical texts such as the Brahma Sutras (also known as the
Vedanta Sutras) attributed to Sage Vyasa/Badarayan, and commentaries by various
philosophers, most notably the Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankaracharya.
Key concepts and principles of the Vedanta school include:
1. Brahman: Vedanta posits Brahman as the ultimate reality, the supreme cosmic
principle. It is considered the absolute, formless, all-pervading, and eternal essence
that underlies and sustains the universe. Brahman is seen as the source of all
existence, consciousness, and bliss.
2. Atman: Atman refers to the individual self, the essence or consciousness that
resides within each living being. Vedanta teaches that Atman is not separate from
Brahman but is, in fact, identical to it. The realization of this non-dual identity is a
central aim of Vedanta.
3. Maya: Vedanta introduces the concept of Maya to explain the apparent diversity
and multiplicity of the world. Maya is the power or illusion that veils the true nature
of reality, leading to the perception of a separate and fragmented world. It is
considered the cause of ignorance and the source of bondage.
4. Jnana (knowledge): Vedanta emphasizes the importance of knowledge (Jnana) in
realizing the true nature of reality. It teaches that self-realization and liberation can
be attained through the direct knowledge and experience of the non-dual nature
of Brahman and Atman.
5. Bhakti (devotion) and Karma (action): While Vedanta emphasizes the path of
knowledge (Jnana), it also recognizes the paths of devotion (Bhakti) and selfless
action (Karma) as valid means to attain spiritual realization and liberation. These
paths are seen as complementary and can be practiced according to individual

temperament and inclination.

Vedanta philosophy encompasses different interpretations and schools of thought,
including Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Dvaita Vedanta. Each
school offers its unique perspective on the nature of reality, the relationship
between Brahman and the individual self, and the means to attain liberation.
The Vedanta school has had a profound influence on Hindu philosophy, spirituality,
and religious practices. Its teachings on non-duality, self-realization, and the nature
of ultimate reality continue to inspire seekers and have also influenced various
other philosophical traditions and religious movements worldwide.