IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARGINAL FARMERS

Foreword
This second annual report by the Forum of Enterprises for Equitable Development (FEED) on the theme of Climate Change
and Marginal Farmers underscores our commitment as a knowledge organization dedicated to advocacy and strategic
leads for income enhancement of marginal farmers. From its inception , the FEED mandate has been clear and forthright :
we have consistently strived to forge a new narrative around the struggles and triumphs of the marginal farmers through
seminars, policy briefs, and research papers. Our mission is to create networks and collaborations among marginal farmers,
farmer organizations, and corporate entities to create meaningful and mutually advantageous value chains .
Marginal farmers, those with less than one hectare of land, constitute the largest segment of India’s agricultural sector.
According to the 10th Agriculture Census (2015-16 they account for 68.5% of all farmers in India, but own only about 24%
of the crop area. With a per capita holding of 0.38 hectares , the production surpluses at current levels of technology and
institutional support systems makes it difficult for them to sustain their families thereby leading to rising distress in Indian
agriculture.
This year’s theme, “Impact of Climate Change on Marginal Farmers,” delves into the multifaceted impacts of climate
change on this vital group, offering data-driven insights and practical recommendations for resilience-building. Our survey,
encompassing 6,615 respondents across 20 major states in India, provides a granular view of the situation. It shows that
40.9% of farmers have experienced droughts, while 32.6% have faced excessive rains, leading to significant crop losses.
These challenges necessitate immediate and sustained action.
The Government of India has met these challenges head-on by realigning its interventions from a production-centric
approach to farmers’ income-centric initiatives, with a focus on better and new technological solutions. This includes the
implementation of schemes like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY), Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), Soil
Health Card, Rainfed Area Development under National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), Pradhan Mantri Fasal
Bima Yojana (PMFBY), National Agriculture Market scheme (e-NAM), National Food Security Mission (NFSM), Rashtriya Krishi
Vikas Yojana (RKVY), and the National Mission on Agriculture Extension & Technology (NMAET). Additionally, farmers are
provided information through Kisan Call Centres (KCCs), Agri-Clinics and Agri-Business Centres (ACABC) of entrepreneurs,
Agri Fairs and exhibitions, and the Kisan SMS Portal.
Our findings reveal that while these government schemes have been initiated to support farmers, there remains a
significant gap in the dissemination and adoption of climate-resilient practices, particularly among marginal farmers. The
recommendations put forth in this report aim to bridge this gap by advocating for a paradigm shift in agricultural policy
and practice. This includes promoting sustainable and natural farming practices, improving financial inclusion, and
fostering partnerships for integrated solutions. On the other end of the spectrum, we cannot rule out -of -box solutions
like leveraging the land and solar resources and human power of marginal famers for non-conventional approaches to
farming, including biotechnology interventions , nanotechnology and plant-based proteins.
Climate change is no longer a mirage . It is here and now , and the unprecedented summer heat in the NCR this year is a
good validation of this. As such , an adaptation strategy is not an option , but a compulsion The report documents various
initiatives and government interventions designed to enhance climate resilience. It emphasizes the need for promoting
climate-resilient agricultural practices, diversifying livelihoods, and improving access to financial services and technical
advice.
Having served in the Rural Development , Agriculture , Horticulture , Co-operation and Food Processing departments in
the states of Uttarakhand and West Bengal , and as the Mission Director for MIDH ( then NHM ) as well as the RKSY ( earlier
the NMMI ) as well as the Managing Director of Nafed and NHB , I am aware of how our marginal and small farmers have
achieved economies of scale and scope by organizing themselves into co-operatives , FPOs, SHGs and FIGs. At the ground
level, coordination amongst all the land and livelihood related departments – agriculture, horticulture, forest, dairying,
animal husbandry, poultry, rural development , co-operation etal needs to be further enhanced . I have mentioned forests,
for after the allocation of land to those dwelling in the vicinity of forests, it is important that they harness the production
potential of the land under their plough .One institutional mechanism would be to have a state level Agriculture Budget
which would not only talk about resources to be deployed , but also outcomes that may be expected.
As the Chairperson of FEED, I take this opportunity to thank the Development Intelligence Unit for undertaking this initiative,
and I look forward to receiving your inputs : not just on the report that is now in your hands, but also other suggestions
on how marginal farmers can take greater control over their resources and livelihoods, and indeed transform their lives
through adoption of new technologies and newer institutional innovations .
Sanjeev Chopra
Chairperson, Forum of Enterprises for Equitable Development (FEED)
Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge that the Impact of Climate Change on Marginal

Farmers of India Survey is a joint publication of FEED and Development
Intelligence Unit (DIU).
At the onset, we would like to extend our sincere gratitude to Professor Alka
Singh, Professor Seema Bathla, Mr. P. V. S. Suryakumar and Ms Alka Parikh for
their invaluable contributions to this survey. Their extensive knowledge and
expertise in agriculture and climate change were instrumental in shaping the
research, especially in the design of the survey instrument and the analysis
of the primary data.
We are also particularly grateful to Shri Sanjeev Chopra, Chairperson of the

Forum of Enterprises for Equitable Development (FEED), for his writing the
Foreword for this survey. His support and encouragement proved significant
throughout the research journey.
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Suryamani Roul, Managing Trustee

at FEED, for giving shape to this report and for sharing with us his knowledge
and expertise on this topic. He has been the guiding light in this journey and
the entire team has benefited from his wisdom.
Finally, I would like to thank our teammates in DIU and Sambodhi Panels,
who worked tirelessly to produce this report, and the founder member of TRI
and Sambodhi, whose unwavering support mader this research possible.
Sandeep Ghosh
Director
Development Intelligence Unit
Table of
Contents
01 Introduction 12
02 Survey Methodology 14
03 Profile of Marginal Farmers 16
04 Impact of Climate Change on Marginal Farmers 19
05 Adaptation Strategies 26
06 Public and Private Sector Initiatives in Promoting CRA 41
07 Policy Implications Moving Forward 46
Annexure 52
List of
Figures
Figure 1: Engagement of farmers by cropping season (in %) 17
Figure 2: Distribution of farmers by cultivation of crops by season (in %) 17
Figure 3: Distribution of reported loss of crop due to each of extreme weather event (in %) 21
Figure 4: Membership in FPO / FPC / PG / PE / PACS (in %) 28
Figure 5: Nature of assistance received through the membership (in %) 28
Figure 6: Receipt of Kisan Samman Nidhi or money under other farmer welfare schemes sent directly to bank
29
account (in %)
Figure 7: Availability of Custom Hiring Centre within 10 km of residence (in %) 31
Figure 8: Availability of subsidised outlets for seeds and fertilizers within 10 km of residence (in %) 31
Figure 9: Availability of Cold Storage Facility within 10 km of residence (in %) 32
Figure 10: Membership in SHGs 32
Figure 11: Constraints faced while adopting any of the advisories (in %) 36
Figure 12: Nature of livelihood diversification being practiced 37

List of
Tables
Table 1: Distribution of achieved sample 14
Table 2: Distribution of achieved sample by Agro Climatic Zones 15
Table 3: Distribution of chief wage earner by landholding type 16
Table 4: Distribution of marginal farmers by number of cropping cycles they cultivate 18
Table 5: Top five crops grown in each agricultural season (in %) 18
Table 6: Distribution of marginal farmers whose villages had or had not been affected extreme weather
20
events in the past five years
Table 7: Distribution of the number of times marginal farmers had reported that their village had been
20
affected by extreme weather events in the past 5 years (in %)
Table 8: Proportion of farmers reporting loss of crop the last time an extreme weather event affected their
22
farm output
Table 9: Proportion of crop loss by season (in %) 22
Table 10: Average proportion of farmers reporting loss of crop at least once in the past 5 years for top 5 major
23
crops grown in each season
Table 11: Proportion of crop loss by season (in %) in last 5 years 24
Table 12: Median value of crop loss the last time an extreme weather event affected production 25
Table 13: Irrigation facility usage by marginal farmers (%) 30
Table 14: Source of advisory services on agricultural practice received by marginal farmers (in %) 31
Table 15: Type of agriculture-related information sought from advisory services (in %) 36
Table 16: Change in livelihood pattern by farmers affected or not affected by adverse climatic events in the
37
last five years (in %)
Table 17: Degree of impact of climate change in changing livelihood pattern (in %) 37
Table 18: Distribution of impact of climate change on change in livelihood pattern (in %) 38
Table 19: Distribution of adoption of different CRA practices (in %) 39
Table 20. Top five reasons for adoption of CRA practices by marginal farmers 40
Table 21: Challenges faced in the adoption of climate resilient farming (in %) 40
State Of Marginal Farmers of India - 2024
Theme - Impact of Climate Change on Marginal Farmers
List of
Abbreviations
ACABC Agri Clinics and Agriculture Business Centres
AIF Agri Infra Fund
ATMA Agricultural Technology Management Agency
AIF Agriculture Infrastructure Fund
AIR All India Radio
A&N Andaman and Nicobar Islands
AI Artificial Intelligence
BBSSL Bhartiya Beej Sahkari Samiti Limited
CSS Central Sector Scheme
CSO Civil Society Organisation
CC Climate Change
CRA Climate-resilient agriculture
CLF Cluster Level Federations
CInI Collectives for Integrated Livelihoods
CSC Common Service Centre
COP Conference of the Parties
CGTMSE Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises
CHC Custom Hiring Centre
CHC Custom Hiring Centre
DTT Digital terrestrial television
DBT Direct Benefit Transfer
DSR Direct Seeded Rice
8
DTH Direct To Home
DD Doordarshan
FPC Farmer Producer Company
FPO Farmer Producer Organisation
(KUY)-MOVCDNER Krishi Unnati Yojana - Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region
GIS Geographical Information System
GACSA Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture
GoI Government of India
GKMS Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva
GHG Greenhouse gas
GDP Gross Domestic Product
Ha Hectare
IBISA Inclusive Blockchain Insurance using Space Assets
ITC India Tobacco Company
ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IMD Indian Meteorological Department
INR Indian Rupee
IPPP Innovative Poultry Productivity Project
ISS Interest Subvention Scheme
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
J&K Jammu and Kashmir
JLG Joint Liability Groups
KCC Kisan Credit Cards
KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra
KALIA Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income Augmentation
LIC Life Insurance Corporation
LGD Local Government Directory
MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
MGNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
MIS Market Intervention Scheme
MIS-PSS Market Intervention Scheme and Price Support Scheme
MFI Micro Finance Institution
MIF Micro Irrigation Fund
MoSPI Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation
9
MIDH Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
MIDH Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
MISS Modified Interest Subvention Scheme
MEL Monitoring, Evaluation, and Learning
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change
NAFCC National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change
NAFED National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd
NAM National Agriculture Market
NBM National Bamboo Mission
NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NBHM National Beekeeping & Honey Mission
NCT National Capital Territory
NDDB National Dairy Development Board
NeGPA National e- Governance Plan in Agriculture
NICRA National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture
NLM National Livestock Mission
NMSA National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
NMEO-OP National Mission on Edible Oil - Oil Palm
NRLM National Rural Livelihood Mission
NSS National Sample Survey
NSSO National Sample Survey Office
NRM Natural Resource Management
NWR Negotiable Warehouse Receipt
NBFC Non Banking Financial Company
NGO Non Government Organisation
PKVY Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana
PDMC Per Drop More Crop
PMFBY Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
PM-KMY Pradhan Mantri Kisan MaanDhan Yojana
PM-KISAN Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi
PMKSY Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana
PSS Price Support Scheme
PACS Primary Agriculture Credit Society
10
PE Producer Enterprise
PG Producer Group
RAD Rainfed Area Development
RKVY Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
RAWE Rural Agricultural Work Experience
SATHI Seed Authentication, Traceability & Holistic Inventory
SHG Self Help Group
SAS Situation Analysis Survey
SFAC Small Farmers' Agribusiness Consortium
SHC Soil Health Card
SOP Specific Operating Procedures
SAPCC State Action Plan on Climate Change
SBDA State Bamboo Development Agency
SBM State Bamboo Missions
SMAM Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization
IPCC The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
TRIFED Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India
UT Union Territory
UAE United Arab Emirates
VISTAAR Virtually integrated Systems To Access Agricultural Resources
11
01
Introduction
Overview of the study
In India, a marginal farmer is someone with up to one hectare of agricultural land where they conduct
agricultural activities as a proprietor, sharecropper, or tenant. The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO),
Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) conducted a Situation Assessment Survey
(SAS) of Agricultural Households during the NSS 77th round (January 2019- December 2019) with reference to
the agricultural year July 2018-June 2019 in the rural areas of the country. As per the Survey, the percentage
distribution of agricultural households owning less than two hectares of land is 89.4%. According to the All
India Report on Agriculture Census 2015-16, while the highest share of cultivators is those of marginal farmers,
accounting for 65.4%, their total operational landholding constitutes only 24% of the total cultivable land. This
makes the average landholding size of marginal farmers only 0.38 hectares at the national level. This size has
remained almost the same for the last 40 years.
For decades, marginal farmers have struggled to thrive and, in some cases, survive due to the prevalent economic
landscape. They find themselves unable to pool in enough capital to be deemed creditworthy by banks for loans.
The problem of marginal farmers’ livelihood was and, to some extent, continues to be aggravated due to the lack of
adequate use of quality inputs, poor irrigation facilities, absence of timely advisory, poor extension services leading
to low yield, and crop failure, among others. But perhaps the biggest production risks are defined by unfavourable
weather conditions, including drought, flood, extended periods of high or low temperatures, etc. Weather events
that occur during the course of a cropping season can have a tremendous impact on crop survival, growth, and
productivity. At various points in their development (e.g. post-germination, reproduction, yield formation), all
crops have varying sensitivities to specific types of weather stresses. Viewed over time, observable trends in the
frequency and/or changes in the severity of these intra-seasonal weather events define the principal attributes
of climate change to which agriculture must adapt (e.g. rising maximum temperatures, shortening of the rainy
season, or increased frequency of droughts during the reproductive phase).
A report by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), called ‘Small Farms, Big Impacts:
Mainstreaming Climate Change for Resilience and Food Security’, observed that climate change (CC) threatens
the natural resource base across much of the developing world. It accelerates ecosystem degradation and
makes agriculture riskier. As a result, smallholder farmers, who are so critical to global food security, are facing
more extreme weather. Small-scale farmers are more immediately impacted by droughts, floods, and storms,
while also experiencing the gradual effects of climate change. These include water stress in crops and livestock,
coastal erosion from rising sea levels, and unpredictable pest infestations. With fewer assets to fall back on and
limited ability to recover from climate extremes, smallholder farmers and their families are rendered particularly
vulnerable. Exposure to such shocks can trap them in poverty and undermine their efforts to escape it, a trend
already being observed globally. Increasing the resilience of smallholder farmers is, therefore, a matter of
urgency.1
The Government of India is cognizant of the impact of climate change on agriculture and farmers’ lives with
climate change impact assessments being carried out using the crop simulation models by incorporating
the projected climates of 2050 and 2080. In the absence of the adoption of adaptation measures, it has been
estimated that rainfed rice yields in India may reduce by 20% by 2050 and 47% by 2080 scenarios, while irrigated
rice yields are projected to reduce by 3.5% in 2050 and 5% by 2080 scenarios. For wheat yield, the statistics
stand at a reduction by 19.3% by 2050 and 40% by 2080.
In such a context, solutions must optimise investments in the farm sector, intensify the gains from cultivable land,
bring the markets closer, and figure out alternate courses to make farming a profitable business. Opportunities to
expand and diversify the sources of income through off-farm activities such as aggregation, micro-processing, and
trading have immense potential to engage young people in gainful employment.
1
Small farms, big impacts: mainstreaming climate change for resilience and food security: IFAD, November 2014
12
In lieu of this, the Government of India has formulated schemes/plans to make agriculture more resilient to
climate change. The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) is one of the Missions within the
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It aims to evolve and implement strategies to make Indian
agriculture more resilient to the changing climate. The Union Government has already taken a slew of initiatives
to address the production and marketing side of the sector, along with a social security net for farmers, especially
smallholders. Under the former, we have seen the roll-out of the:
• Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF),
• Formation & Promotion of new 10,000 FPOs,
• Market Intervention Scheme and Price Support Scheme (MIS-PSS),
• Soil Health Card (SHC), and
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), etc.
For the latter, we have flagship schemes such as the:

• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN),
• Pradhan Mantri Kisan MaanDhan Yojana (PM-KMY),
• Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY), and
• Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS), etc.
In this report, we investigate the extent to which such initiatives have reached and benefited marginal farmers.
Survey Objectives
The entire survey was designed to address three clear objectives, viz.
1. Measure impact of climate change on marginal farmers, including exposure to extreme weather events,
impact on crop production, and quantum of loss;
2. Understand the availability and adoption of various climate resilient adaptation strategies that are part of
government schemes and programs, and community response through community-led institutions, and
constraints towards adoption; and
3. Document India’s climate action in the field of agriculture and livelihood preservation of marginal farmers
and provide policy recommendations for the way forward.
Survey Content
The survey findings are divided into four sections:

1. Profile of Marginal Farmers in India
2. Impact of Climate Change on Marginal Farmers
3. Adaptation strategies
4. Policy Implication
The first section deals with the characteristics of marginal farmers in India and their socio-economic status
and livelihood patterns. Then, we move on to the impact of climate change on the study audience, looking
13
specifically at their degree of exposure to natural calamities and the impact of such weather events on crop
production, productivity, and net loss in production.
In the third section, we discuss at length the adaptation strategies, viz. adaptation of climate resilient agriculture
and challenges therein, livelihood diversification, access to and utilisation of government schemes and benefits,
and challenges therein. We conclude with a detailed look at what initiatives Government on India has taken to
address Climate Resilient Agriculture, the role being played by the private sector, and the recommendations
for policy makers, including strategies for enhancing climate resilience among marginal farmers and policy
interventions required at local and national levels.
02
Survey
Methodology
A total of 6,615 marginal farmers were interviewed for this study, selected from a large pan-India panel of farmers
(all categories) maintained by Sambodhi Panels. The respondents were selected after determining their land
holding size through tele-calling.
To maintain some randomisation, the long list of farmer calling numbers was randomised and given to different
callers located across different states for cold calling. The sample was drawn from 21 states (see Table 1 below),
and the survey was telephonically administered. Each eligible farmer (with less than one ha of land) who was not
able to give time at the first contact was called thrice before replacement. The sample distribution across states
were roughly in proportion to their rural population (but smaller states had to be given a higher sample than their
proportion contribution to the rural population to ensure minimum sample size), as also the likely availability of
marginal farmers based on our experience from Round 1 of the survey conducted in 2023. In essence, this was a
purposive sampling with a focus to represent only marginal farmers cultivating up to 1 Ha of land.
Table 1: Distribution of achieved sample
State Zone Sample achieved
Chhattisgarh 410
Madhya Pradesh Central 417
Uttar Pradesh 646
Subtotal 1473
Bihar 525
Jharkhand 401
East
Odisha 395
West Bengal 399
Subtotal 1720
14
State Zone Sample achieved
Haryana 155
Himachal Pradesh North 196
Punjab 145
Subtotal 496
Assam 301
Nagaland 83
Northeast
Tripura 102
Mizoram 80
Subtotal 566
Andhra Pradesh 316
Karnataka 323
South
Tamil Nadu 313
Telangana 310
Subtotal 1262
Gujarat 304
Maharashtra West 402
Rajasthan 392
Subtotal 1098
Total 6,615
The erstwhile Planning Commission (now known as the NITI Aayog), as a result of the mid-term appraisal of
the planning targets of the Seventh Plan, had divided the country into fifteen broad agro-climatic zones based
on physiography, soils, geological formation, Climate, cropping patterns, and development of irrigation and
mineral resources for broad agricultural planning and developing future strategies. The achieved sample of this
survey can also be distributed as per the 15 Agro Climatic Zones of India. It may be stated that this is a rough
distribution and is meant to be indicative
Table 2: Distribution of achieved sample by Agro Climatic Zones
Western Himalaya 196
Eastern Himalaya 566
Lower Gangetic Plains 399
15
Middle Gangetic Plains 848
Upper Gangetic Plains 323
Trans Gangetic Plains 398
Eastern Plateau and Hills 1008
Central Plateau and Hills 474
Western Plateau and Hills 407
Southern Plateau and Hills 851
East Coast Plains and Hills 410
West Coast Plains and Hills 235
Gujarat Plains and Hills 304
Western Dry Region 196
Islands 0
Total sample 6615
03
Profile of
Marginal Farmers
Of the 6,615 marginal farmers interviewed, the majority were cultivating their own land, while around one in six
were share croppers (where a landowner allows a share cropper to use the land either for a fixed rent or in return for
a share of the crops produced on that land).
Table 3: Distribution of chief wage earner by landholding type
Landholding type Percent
Farmer owning and cultivating up to a maximum of 1 ha of land 83.1
Sharecropper who is cultivating up to a maximum of 1 ha of land but has taken it

16.9
on a fixed lease/rent or in exchange for a share of the produce
Base 6615
The gender distribution of the respondents was 78.5% male farmers and 21.5% female farmers. The median age of
the respondents was 42 years.
16
Only 14.4% of the responding farmers had received formal training on agricultural practices. The rest relied on
knowledge passed down through generations.
Profiling marginal farmers by their cropping practices looks at two different aspects of their farming:
• farmers’ engagement by cropping season, and
• the crops cultivated by season.
Figure 1: Engagement of farmers by cropping season (in %)

Base = 6,615 respondents
Little less than half the marginal farmers interviewed cultivated only in one season, which was overwhelmingly
during the Kharif season. In India, the season is popularly considered to start in June and end in October. Kharif
crops are usually sown at the beginning of the first rains during the advent of the south-west monsoon season,
and they are harvested at the end of the monsoon season, between October and November. Farmers farming only
during this season are mostly rainfall-dependent without adequate access to irrigation facilities. Or, they prefer to
cultivate their own land during the rains but work on someone else’s land as agricultural labour. Finally, some also
prefer to engage in other wage labour-based occupations outside this sector during their off-seasons.
A slightly higher percentage of farmers engaged in tilling their own land across two seasons, viz. Kharif, as well
as Rabi. Rabi crops are sown around mid-November, preferably after the monsoon rains are over, and harvesting
begins in April / May. The crops are grown either with rainwater that has percolated into the ground or using
irrigation.
The survey data shows that 95% of the farmers who practice farming across two seasons do so between Kharif and
Rabi, while less than 4% do so during Kharif and Zaid and around 1% during Rabi and Zaid. Zaid crops are summer-
season crops. They grow for a short time period between Rabi and Kharif crops, mainly from March to June.
Just about 7% of the marginal farmers practice farming on their own land across all three seasons, indicating nearly
year-round access to irrigation.
Figure 2: Distribution of farmers by cultivation of crops by season (in %)

17
Table 4: Distribution of marginal farmers by number of cropping cycles they cultivate
No. of seasons % of total Farmers
1 season
Kharif 91%
Rabi 9%
Zaid 0%
Proportion of all farmers 45%
2 seasons
Kharif & Rabi 95%
Kharif & Zaid 4%
Rabi & Zaid 1%
Proportion of all farmers 48%
3 seasons 7%
Total Farmers 6615
The following table looks at the top five crops grown in the country by marginal farmers within each agricultural
season.
Table 5: Top five crops grown in each agricultural season (in %)
Kharif - Top 5 Crops Proportion of farmers growing the crop
Paddy 68.9
Maize 15.7
Bajra 8.6
Cotton 5.3
Tur (Arhar) 4.9
Rabi - Top 5 Crops
Wheat 59.0
Rapeseed & mustard (toria) 15.6
Gram 11.7
18
Kharif - Top 5 Crops Proportion of farmers growing the crop
Potato 9.0
Maize 8.3
Zaid - Top 5 Crops
Moong 14.2
Urad 11.5
Paddy 9.4
Maize 9.4
Tur 6.2
Base = 6,615 respondents, of whom 6,052 farmers grew crops in Kharif, 3868 and 775 farmers grew crops in Rabi
and Zaid, respectively.
In India, marginal holding farmers primarily cultivate paddy (focused exclusively on the Kharif season), followed
by wheat (focused primarily on the Rabi season). This is followed by coarse cereals and pulses, which cut across
seasons. These findings are in line with the findings of the Agricultural Census 2015-16.
04
Impact of Climate Change on

Marginal Farmers
Some of the most important impacts of global climate change will be felt among subsistence or smallholder
farmers, predominantly in developing countries. Their vulnerability to climate change comes both from being
predominantly located in the tropics and from various socio-economic, demographic, and policy trends,
limiting their capacity to adapt to change2.
However, efforts to support marginal farmer adaptation are hindered by the lack of information on how they are
experiencing and responding to climate change. There is an ardent need to generate more information on how
different types of marginal farmers vary in their perceptions, experiences, and responses to climate change so
that governments can tailor adaptation programs to different smallholder farmer contexts.
Degree of Exposure to Climate Risks

In this section, we present the distribution of marginal farmers who claimed that their village had been affected
(or otherwise) by any of the mentioned extreme weather events related to climate change in the past five years.
2
The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture; John F. Morton, PNAS Research Article,
December 11, 2007.
19
Table 6: Distribution of marginal farmers whose villages had or had not been affected by extreme weather events in
the past five years
Type of extreme weather event In percentage
Early withdrawal/delayed arrival of monsoon 23.6
Floods 17.5
Cyclone 13.0
Droughts/much lower than normal amount of rainfall 40.9
Extreme heatwave 7.7
Rise in day temperature (above normal) 10.3
Prolonged summer/ increased number of hot days 11.5
Prolonged winter /increased number of cold days 12.3
Excessive rainy days/non-seasonal rains 32.6
Village was not affected by any of the above in the last five years 20.4
Total respondents 6615
The table above shows that in most cases, the damage appears to have been caused by rainfall-related events.
Around 41% of the respondents reported that the extreme weather events were related to drought conditions or
seasons with much lower-than-normal rainfall, while close to one in three had witnessed excessive or non-seasonal
rains. A little less than a quarter of the respondents also cited early withdrawal or late arrival of the monsoons, all
of which have adverse impacts on their cropping cycle. Excessive rainfall leading to floods was reported by over
17% of the survey participants. One in five respondents stated that they had not witnessed extreme weather events
which were detrimental to cultivation in the last five years.
Furthermore, rice, vegetables, and pulses are significantly affected by the uneven rainfall distribution. Paddy fields
in northern states can remain submerged for more than a week, destroying newly planted seedlings and forcing
farmers to wait for waters to recede so they can replant. On the other hand, scant rainfall can delay the planting of
rice, corn, cotton, soybeans, groundnuts, and pulses in states including Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and West Bengal.
Delays in planting after mid-July typically result in lower yields in much of India. For summer crops, delays in planting
lead to delays in harvesting, ultimately resulting in the late sowing of winter crops such as wheat, rapeseed, and
chickpeas. Cold weather is crucial for winter crops, but higher temperatures in recent years during the maturity
phase have resulted in yield losses.
Table 7: Distribution of the number of times marginal farmers had reported that their village had been affected by
extreme weather events in the past 5 years (in %)
Type of extreme weather event Once Twice 3 times 4 times or more
Early withdrawal/delayed arrival of monsoon 38.4 34.4 19.0 8.2
Floods 54.7 31.4 9.6 4.3
Cyclone 51.2 30.8 10.5 7.5
Droughts/much lower than normal amount of rainfall 38.5 37.7 19.6 4.2
20
Type of extreme weather event Once Twice 3 times 4 times or more
Extreme heatwave 50.7 33.9 11.7 3.7
Rise in day temperature (above normal) 51.5 35.7 10.2 2.6
Prolonged summer/increased number of hot days 41.7 30.8 16.2 11.3
Prolonged winter increased number of cold days 46.2 31.4 13.9 8.5
Excessive rainy days/non-seasonal rains 39.8 38.7 16.3 5.2
Base = 5263 farmers whose villages had been affected by extreme weather events in the last five years
Most farmers reported that their village had witnessed extreme weather events once or twice in the past five years.
The incidence rate tapers down considerably thereafter. Nevertheless, the fact that over one in three marginal
farmers had to cope with extreme weather events at least twice in a period of five years means their earning capacity
from agriculture has been seriously constrained. The extent of the damage and the resulting financial loss have
been described in detail in the following section.
Impact of Extreme Weather Event on Crop Output

First of all, as the data demonstrates, less than 10% of the farmers consistently reported no crop loss due to extreme
weather events. The figure is slightly higher for cyclones, perhaps because, apart from coastal states, this is not a
phenomenon that affects other parts of India to any significant degree. Farmers have seemingly adapted well to
extreme temperature events. Over 40% of them reported either no crop loss or only a small proportion of their
crops were affected by prolonged summer, an excessive number of hot days, higher than normal day temperatures,
or early/late monsoon patterns. The most significant impact has been due to excessive or non-seasonal rains,
prolonged winter conditions, droughts, and floods, with over 50% of farmers reporting that half or more of their
standing crops have been lost.
Figure 3: Distribution of reported loss of crop due to each of extreme weather event (in %)
Base = 5263 farmers whose villages had been affected by extreme weather events in last five years
21
Table 8: Proportion of farmers reporting loss of crop the last time an extreme weather event affected their farm output
Crop Name % of farmers reporting crop loss
Paddy 49.6
Cotton 47.5
Kharif Season Bajra 39.4
Maize 29.2
Tur (Arhar) 24.1
Wheat 45.0
Gram 44.1
Rabi Season Rabi Maize 41.4
Mustard (Toria/ Taramira) 31.7
Potato 19.3
Maize 43.6
Moong 29.7
Zaid Season Urad 23.0
Paddy 22.5
Tur (Arhar) 18.4
Base = 5263 farmers whose villages had been affected by extreme weather events in last 5 years
The above table shows the proportion of farmers reporting crop loss in the last extreme weather event faced by
them. Crop loss is being observed across all types of crops (rice, wheat, cotton, coarse cereals, as well as pulses)
across all seasons but the incidence of loss is relatively lower during Zaid, perhaps also because very few marginal
farmers have a Zaid crop to begin with. The alarming fact, however, is that in excess of half the farmers had reported
loss in staples. The quantum of loss due to the last extreme weather event caused by climate change, have been
discussed below.
Table 9: Proportion of crop loss by season (in %)
Lost more than

Lost a relatively small Lost about a Lost about half Lost all or nearly
half but not
portion of standing third of standing of standing all of standing
all of standing
crops crops crops crops
crops
Kharif
Paddy 23.1 26.0 27.1 16.1 7.7
Cotton 19.6 25.5 30.7 20.3 3.9
Bajra 7.7 23.2 27.5 30.4 11.1
22
Lost more than

Lost a relatively small Lost about a Lost about half Lost all or nearly
half but not
portion of standing third of standing of standing all of standing
all of standing
crops crops crops crops
crops
Maize 15.9 32.9 28.3 15.5 7.4
Rabi
Wheat 17.4 40.2 29.1 9.9 3.5
Gram 18.1 21.1 19.6 22.6 18.6
Rabi Maize 19.6 35.3 30.8 12.0 2.3
Mustard 28.3 23.6 20.9 14.1 13.1
NB: The above table contains analysis for only those crops that at least 100 farmers reported cultivating. No crops in
the Zaid season met this inclusion criteria.
If we consider Paddy and Wheat, the two major crops grown by marginal farmers during Kharif and Rabi seasons
respectively, we can see that 50% of the farmers had lost at least half their standing crop of Paddy during the last
extreme weather events, while 42% had lost at least half their standing wheat crop during the same period.
The data on crop loss proportions and severity from the latest extreme weather event reflects a recurring trend
among the farmers. The survey also asked the farmers about their average crop loss in the past 5 years along with
the quantum of crop loss and found very similar results as shown below.
Table 10: Average proportion of farmers reporting loss of crop at least once in the past 5 years for top 5 major crops
grown in each season
Cotton 64.6
Paddy 57.4
Kharif Season Bajra 51.0
Maize 44.7
Tur (Arhar) 31.2
Maize 55.5
Wheat 50.6
Rabi Season Gram 45.5
Mustard (Toria/ Taramira) 30.5
Potato 22.2
23
Maize 59.0
Moong 41.4
Zaid Season Urad 30.3
Paddy 20.3
Tur (Arhar) 10.2
Base = 5263 farmers whose villages had been affected by extremely weather events at least once in last 5 years.
The above table depicts that the crop loss faced during the last extreme weather event. This is more or less
consistent with the trend of crop loss in the past 5 years. The quantum of loss is given in the following table.
Table 11: Proportion of crop loss by season (in %) in last 5 years
Lost more than

Lost a relatively Lost about a Lost about half Lost all or nearly
half but not
small portion of third of standing of standing all of standing
all of standing
standing crops in last crops in last 5 crops in last 5 crops in last 5
crops in last 5
5 years years years years
years
Kharif
Paddy 19.0 28.9 29.0 16.1 7.0
Maize 12.0 38.3 29.3 15.5 4.9
Bajra 12.3 22.0 29.9 25.8 10.1
Cotton 5.3 39.4 30.3 20.7 4.3
Rabi
Wheat 18.2 34.7 27.5 13.6 6.0
Gram 8.8 28.3 20.5 22.4 20.0
Mustard 27.7 25.0 23.4 13.0 10.9
Rabi Maize 12.9 36.0 37.1 10.7 3.4
NB: The above table contains analysis for only those crops where at least 100 farmers had reported cultivating the
same. There were no crops in Zaid season which met this inclusion criteria.
Compared to the crop loss reported in the last extreme weather event, the cumulative trend over the past 5 years
shows that a higher proportion of farmers are losing at least one-third to half of their crops due to these events.
The study demonstrates that 50% of paddy farmers and over 40% of wheat farmers losing more than half of their
crops is a consistent trend over the past 5 years. For all other crops, losing more than 50% of their crops had been
reported by 45-65% of the farmers. These are alarming numbers and perhaps signifies the need for universalisation
of crop insurance cover among this constituency.
An attempt was made to calculate the monetary value of crop loss based on reported volume and current market
rates across different states. The results are given below.
24
Table 12: Median value of crop loss the last time an extreme weather event affected production
Loss (in INR) Loss (in INR) Loss (in INR)
Kharif Rabi Zaid
Paddy 8400 Wheat 9200 Maize 1475
Maize 6000 Gram 5000 Moong 3000
Bajra 2200 Mustard & Rapeseed 10000 Paddy 1680
Cotton 27200 Maize 3850 Urad 1488
Tur (Arhar) 12100 Potato 2000 Tur (Arhar) 1280
Base = 4,823 respondents who reported value of crop lost when the last calamity occurred
Let us look at two specific crops, Paddy and Wheat since these are sown by the majority of marginal farmers,
albeit at different seasons. The median value of loss for Paddy during the Kharif cycle was INR 8,400 during the last
incidence of crop loss owing to extreme weather events. Similarly, the median value of loss for Wheat during the
Rabi season was INR 9,200.
Data from the Situation Assessment Survey (SAS) of Agricultural Households in the rural areas of the country
conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI)
during the 77th round (January 2019- December 2019) with reference to the agricultural year July 2018- June 2019,
estimates the following:
Average monthly income from net Average annual income from net
Size class of land possessed (ha.)
receipts from crop production (INR) receipts from crop production
0.01 – 0.40 977 11724
0.40 – 1.00 2683 32196
Now, the first round survey conducted by Development Intelligence Unit in 2023 titled ‘Annual Survey of State of
Marginal Farmers in India’ had estimated that the average land holding size of marginal farmers in India was 0.38
ha. If we take this to be falling under the first category (.01 to .40 ha), then one can say that the proportion of loss in
income for the 50% marginal farmers who only grew the Paddy crop during Kharif was to the tune of 72% {(Rs.8400
÷ Rs.11724) x 100} (for farmers with holding below 0.4 Ha.). If we take the land holding to be between 0.40 – 1.00 ha,
then the proportion of loss of Paddy crop stands at 26% {(Rs.8400 ÷ Rs.32196) x 100}. If the farmer was growing only
Wheat during the Rabi season, then the extent of loss would be 78% (for .01 - 0.40 ha average land holding category)
and 28% (for 0.40 – 1.00 ha land holding category respectively). This is, of course, with the assumption that average
net loss of production of either crop is similar across both land holding sizes.
25
05
Adaptation
Strategies
Tripathi and Mishra, in their article ‘Knowledge and passive adaptation to climate change: An example from
Indian farmers’3 observes that climate change is no longer a distant problem. They argue that the world has
been experiencing changes in climatic variables, such as rising temperature, variable rainfall, frequent droughts,
hurricanes, and typhoons, and have almost failed to reach a global consensus on the mitigation of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions. Additionally, they note that a slow mitigation response will not reduce the adverse effects
of GHGs that are already in the atmosphere but would significantly reduce the rate of growth in global warming.
Therefore, along with fast mitigation responses, what is also required is adaptation to climate change.
Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustments or changes in the system to minimize the negative impact
and optimize the positive impacts of climate change (CC). While it is understood that adaptation could be at
different levels of government, adaptation at the local level is the most critical issue, as local actors are the ones
who realise the severity of climate change. Adaptation is a two-step process. First, one has to perceive climate
change and associated risks; then, steps need to be taken to minimise the adverse effects of climate change.
Perception should be more or less correct, otherwise steps taken based on wrong perception could have an
adverse effect.
Adaptation strategies to CC is a major challenge, especially in a developing country like India, where a vast
majority of farmers are marginal and smallholder farmers, less connected, and have significantly lower adaptive
capacity. As a result, one cannot expect autonomous adaptation. Hence, the only way out is a planned or policy-
driven and incentivised adaptation strategy.
Impact of Access to Support Systems for Marginal Farmer Government

Services
Agriculture is a state subject. However, there is an emerging scenario of collective and coordinated action at all
levels, i.e. Sarkar (Government, both Central and respective States), Samaj (Civil Society), and Bazaar (Markets)
in implementing a comprehensive range of schemes, programmes and initiatives for the welfare of farmers in
the country. These schemes encompass the entire spectrum of agriculture, including:
• credit,
• insurance,
• income support,
• infrastructure,
• crops,
• horticulture,
• seeds,
• mechanisation,
3
Knowledge and passive adaptation to climate change: An example from Indian farmers; Amarnath Tripathi and
Ashok K. Mishra; 24 November 2016; www.elsevier.com
26
• marketing,
• organic and natural farming,
• farmer collectives,
• irrigation,
• extension,
• procurement at minimum support prices, and
• digital agriculture, etc
For instance, under Sarkar, the central and state governments implement several agricultural and rural development
schemes and programmes through various ministries and departments. Many of these are related to climate
change adaptations directly or indirectly, focusing on regenerative and sustainable agriculture and natural farming,
among others. The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare implements 27 different Central Sector Schemes
and Centrally-sponsored Schemes (details available in Annexure) for promoting farmers’ welfare and raising their
income. Direct policy intervention by the Government of India and state governments in combating the impact of
climate change on agriculture includes the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and the State Action
Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC). They have been discussed in detail under Chapter 6. Under Samaj, there are
community-level responses through various initiatives like FPOs/FPCs/PGs/PEs/PACS and SHGs, which harness the
power of the collective to improve the bargaining power of farmers, including marginal farmers, for greater access
to services and markets. Finally, under Bazaar, we are witnessing an enhanced presence of the private sector in
promoting climate-smart agriculture. A few examples include ITC promoting Climate Smart Villages, or agricultural
micro-insurer IBISA and Collectives for Integrated Livelihoods (CInI), a nodal agency of the Tata Trusts reaching
out to thousands of small and marginal farmers with its digital weather index-based insurance, or EM3, a leading
Custom Hiring company, creating a pan India network of farm service centres – “Samadhan Kendras” established
under the Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM).
The following section explores some of the key interventions and whether they have been utilised by the marginal
farmers to build resilience to possible climatic shocks and secure their livelihood.
Membership in FPO/FPC/PG/PE/PACS
The idea behind Farmer Producer Organizations is to empower farmers as the primary producers of agricultural
goods by enabling them to come together in groups. To facilitate this process, the Small Farmers’ Agribusiness
Consortium (SFAC) was mandated by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture,
Government of India, to support the state governments in forming Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs). The role
of the FPOs is to act as an aggregator for member farmers, helping them manage everything from inputs to outputs,
thereby enhancing the economy of scale and the member farmers’ bargaining power. In the case of unsold lots,
logistics arrangements are to be made by FPO/FPC. A Farmer Producer Company (FPC) can be formed by any ten
or more primary producers, or by two of more producer institutions or by a contribution of both. An FPC is a hybrid
between cooperative societies and private limited companies. Its primary objective is to ensure better income for
the producers through an organisation of their own. Small producers do not have the volume individually (both
inputs and produce) to get the benefit of economies of scale. Besides, in agricultural marketing, there is a long chain
of intermediaries who, very often, work non-transparently, leading to a situation where the producer receives only a
small part of the value that the penultimate consumer pays. However, through aggregation, the primary producers
can avail themselves of the benefit of economies of scale. They will also have better bargaining power vis-a-vis the
bulk buyers of produce and bulk suppliers of inputs.
A producer group (PG) may be formed with at least member size of 20 producers having common interest of
producing similar products and services with the opportunity of collectivization, aggregation, value addition and
marketing of produces. Producers’ Enterprises (PEs) can be defined as registered, formal organisations of farmers,
including co-operatives and FPCs. The primary objective of these organisations is to ensure better economic returns
to the farmer producers by helping them take up business activities. These enterprises function as commercial
organisations and being economically sustainable is crucial for their success.
Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS), being a registered cooperative society, has been providing credit
and other services to its members. It has been observed that PACS is generally meeting the credit requirements of
its members. Some of the PACS are also assisting farmers in marketing their produce, access to subsidies and
agriculture inputs. PACS provide both backward and forward linkages to its members, thereby acting as a PO, in
order to promote efficient crop production practices for its members on the one hand and opportunities for better
price realisation of their produce on the other.
This section will explore two aspects: marginal farmer membership in FPO/FPC/PE/PACS and the benefits members
derive from such membership.
27
Figure 4: Membership in FPO / FPC / PG / PE / PACS (in %)

Base = 6,615 respondents who undertook this survey
It is clear that the majority of the marginal farmers (nearly 69%) are members of at least one of these organisations.
Whether being economically compromised by the vagaries of nature leads farmers to seek security in numbers and
the support and safety such associations offer is speculative at best and needs further research.
Figure 5: Nature of assistance received through the membership (in %)

Base = 4558 respondents who are members of an FPO/FPC/PG/PE/PACS
A little over half of the marginal farmers who were members had availed of subsidised agriculture inputs through
their associations, while over a third had availed of marketing support. Around 30% of the members had availed of
crop insurance through their associations.
It is to be noted that while all FPO/FPC/PG/PE/PACS act as facilitating organisations for marginal farmers to access
financial assistance provided through government grants or bank assistance reach them through Direct Benefit
Transfer. In such cases, the organisation is not the direct lenders. However, in some cases they do lend to their
members from their own kitty but that proportion is much lower.
Receipt of DBT for PM Kisan Samman Nidhi or under other Farmer Welfare Schemes
The PM Kisan Samman Nidhi is a Central Sector scheme with 100% funding from the Government of India and has
been operational since December 2018. Under the scheme, income support of INR 6,000 per year in three equal
instalments is provided to all land-holding farmer families, which consists of the husband, wife, and minor child in
28
the context of the scheme. State Government and UT administration identify the farmer families which are eligible
for support as per scheme guidelines. The funds are directly transferred to the bank accounts of the beneficiaries.
There are other schemes, such as Krishi Unnati Yojana (KUY)-MOVCDNER and the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojna,
where Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) takes place directly into the farmers’ accounts.
Figure 6: Receipt of Kisan Samman Nidhi or money under other farmer welfare schemes sent directly to
bank account (in %)
Close to 83% of the marginal farmers surveyed had received some form of government grants or subsidies
(primarily Kisan Samman Nidhi) directly to their bank accounts. According to the agriculture census of 2016
the total number of agricultural household in India irrespective of holding size is 14.64 Cr. According to the PIB
in 2023-23 current official coverage of PM Kisan Samman Nidhi stands at 10.71 Cr, which is 73.15% of the total
farmers. In this context, since our sample consisted of only marginal farmers, and the PM Kisan was geared
towards small holder farmers, it was expected that the all India penetration will be higher. It is important to
mention here that there are parallel schemes being implemented by the state government which have similar
scope. For instance, the KALIA scheme (Krushak Assistance for Livelihood and Income Augmentation) has been
launched by the Odisha Government to accelerate Agricultural Prosperity and reduce poverty in the State.
Small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural households, vulnerable agricultural households, landless
agricultural labourers, and share croppers (actual cultivators) are eligible under different components of the
scheme. A total of 50 lakh families will be covered under the scheme. Financial assistance of INR 25,000 per
farm family over five seasons is provided to small and marginal farmers so that they can purchase inputs like
seeds, fertilisers, and pesticides and use assistance towards labour and other investments. Another state
government initiative is the Bhavantar Bhugtan Yojana (price difference payment scheme), a programme by
the Government of Madhya Pradesh in which the government compensates farmers for the difference between
the official Minimum Support Price (MSP) and the rate at which they sell their crops, or the Model Price,
whichever is higher.4
Penetration of Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) is a pivotal government initiative aimed at providing
comprehensive crop insurance to farmers across India. Launched in 2016, the scheme seeks to mitigate the
financial risks associated with crop failures due to natural calamities, pests, and diseases. By ensuring a stable
4
https://mpkrishi.mp.gov.in/hindisite_New/bhavantar_new.aspx
29
income flow and safeguarding the livelihoods of millions of farmers, PMFBY plays a crucial role in promoting
agricultural resilience and economic stability. 35% of the surveyed marginal farmers were enrolled for this
scheme.
Irrigation System and Water Usage
Places that have sparse or seasonal rainfall could not sustain agriculture without irrigation. In areas that have
irregular precipitation, irrigation improves crop growth and quality. By allowing farmers to grow crops on a
consistent schedule, irrigation also creates more reliable food supplies5.
Table 13: Irrigation facility usage by marginal farmers (%)
Those impacted by climate Those not impacted by

change climate change
Yes, own tubewell/borewell 29.9 48.6
Yes, use water from public canal 28.5 38.6
Yes, use drip irrigation/sprinkler irrigation 10.0 10.1
Yes, purchase water from other’s irrigation system 24.2 11.8
Well/pond 23.5 27.4
Spring water 7.1 10.1
None 13.4 11.7
Base 5263 1352
First of all, a little over 10% of the interviewed marginal farmers do not use irrigation water at all - they depend
primarily on monsoon rains. Among those who do, we see a stark difference between usage patterns among
those who said they were impacted by climate change and those who were not.
The survey data reveals that those farmers not impacted by climate change have far greater access to
conventional irrigation sources, viz. tube-wells/borewells, water from public canals, and even wells and ponds,
than those who were impacted by climate change. This leads us to conclude that those with greater access
to affordable irrigation have somehow remained more insulated from the ill effects of severe weather events
than those with lower levels of access. This is also reinforced by the fact that more the double the proportion
of farmers from the latter category had to buy irrigation water (which is a huge financial burden for small and
marginal farmers) than those who had greater access to more traditional forms of irrigation.
One in ten marginal farmers reported using sprinkler or drip irrigation, which is a positive testament to the
Government of India’s support of micro irrigation (MI), especially through the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana (PMKSY), which has included MI as an integral component of the scheme.
Access to Custom Hiring Centres for Farm Mechanisation and Labour-saving

Technologies
Custom Hiring Centres, or CHCs, are units comprising a set of farm machinery, implements, and equipment
meant for custom hiring by farmers. Though certain implements and equipment are crop-specific, traction
units like tractors, power tillers, etc., and self-propelled machinery like combine harvesters, etc., are used
5
National Geographic Society: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/irrigation/
30
in common. The utilisation of farm machinery and equipment reduces the unit cost of production through
enhanced input use efficiency and judicious use.
The survey also explored whether marginal farmers had access to a Custom Hiring Centre within 10 km of their
place of residence.
Figure 7: Availability of Custom Hiring Centre within 10 km of residence (in %)

Two out of three marginal farmers interviewed had confirmed that there was no CHC within 10 km of their
village, demonstrating the difficulties faced by marginal farmers in availing benefits from CHC. But the more
important question is whether or not marginal farmers hire agricultural equipment from these Centres for their
farming activities. This question was asked only to those farmers who had reported that there was a CHC within
10 km of their residence and knew what it was.
Among those marginal farmers with access to a CHC within a reasonable distance of 10 km, the survey found
that only 14.4% had ever hired agricultural equipment from the CHC. If we assume that marginal farmers would
primarily own traditional farming equipment, this could indicate that most marginal farmers do not feel the
need to switch to modern farming, given that their holding sizes are very small.
Access to Outlets Selling Subsidised Seeds and Fertilisers
Figure 8: Availability of subsidised outlets for seeds and fertilizers within 10 km of residence (in %)
Base = 6615
31
Nearly half of the marginal farmers interviewed had confirmed that there were outlets within 10 km of their
village from which they could procure subsidised seeds and fertilisers. The survey also explored whether such
farmers could procure such products at subsidised rates for their farming activities.
Once again, the survey revealed that 21.9% of the marginal farmers who had access to subsidised seed and
fertiliser outlets within 10 km of their residence had ever bought subsidised seed and/or fertiliser from these
subsidised outlets. This low utilisation rate can be because most marginal farmers grow either rice or wheat and
practice preserving a part of their produce every year so that they can use it to seed their fields the following
cycle.
NSS 77th Round estimates that 22.1% of all farmers who grow paddy use their own seeds from home stock and
15.7% of those growing what during Rabi use seeds procured from subsidised outlets. For marginal farmers,
these numbers are likely to be much higher. At the same time, paddy seeds and wheat seeds bought by farmers
from subsidised outlets were 5.4% and 4.6%, respectively. Regarding fertilisers, NSS 77th Round had estimated
that only 8% of all farmers procured fertilisers from subsidised centres. Since the total number of farmers in
India is dominated by smallholders, the current survey figures compare quite favourably with the NSS data
for seeds and fertilisers combined. It is worthwhile to mention here that Agritech companies like DeHaat,
Gramophone, BigHaat, Agrimand, BharatAgri, Agrostar, NaPanta, Est Global, Krishiyog, etc. who, among other
advisory services, deal with the distribution of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. In addition, one of the three
mega State Cooperative set up by the government that deals with seed distribution is Bhartiya Beej Sahkari
Samiti Limited (BBSSL).
Access to Cold Storage Facility
Figure 9: Availability of Cold Storage Facility within 10 km of residence (in %)
Base = 6615
As per available secondary information, there are 8,186 cold storage units with a capacity of 374.25 Lakh MT
available in the country for storing perishable horticulture produce like fruits and vegetables. India ranks second
in fruit and vegetable production in the world. Since these are perishable, their magnitude of loss is estimated
at 35% to 40% in India. The rates at which fruits and vegetables perish are influenced primarily by product
temperature and relative humidity in the vicinity, which can be controlled by using cold storage technologies.
The current cost of grid-powered micro cold stores is very high and not affordable for marginal farmers. Hence,
state intervention is warranted.
69% of marginal farmers interviewed confirmed that there was no cold storage facility within 10 km of their
village. Among the percentage who do and know its purpose, how many end up using a cold facility to store
their produce?
The survey revealed that 15% of the marginal farmers who had access to a cold storage facility within 10 km of
their residence and knew what it was had never used the same. One explanation for the low numbers could be
that the majority of marginal farmers were growing Paddy (during Kharif) and Wheat (during Rabi) and selling
locally (because their production from their small landholdings was not large enough to hoard and sell in bulk
to organised procurement agents. Marginal farmers, whoever grew fruits or vegetables, did not do so in large
32
quantities (not among their top five crops per season), and hence their need for cold storage was limited.
Membership in SHG
SHGs are voluntary associations of the economically poor, usually drawn from the same socio-economic
background and who resolve to come together for a common purpose of solving their issues and problems
through self-help and community action. They are small groups of people, mainly women, who live in rural
areas and come together to save money and provide loans to each other. They decide on savings and loan
activities together, including the purpose, amount, interest rate, and repayment schedule. The group also
discusses and takes action on various social issues such as health, nutrition, and domestic violence.
Initially, NABARD, along with impanelled NGOs, designed and developed the promotional ecosystem, including
the SHGs-Bank linkage program. In 1990, the RBI recognised SHGs as an alternate credit flow model.
Today, there are over 80.7 lakh SHGs registered under the National Rural Livelihood Mission6. A Self-Help Group
(SHG) is the primary building block of the NRLM institutional design. It serves the purpose of providing women
members space for self-help, mutual cooperation, and collective action for social and economic development.
It promotes savings, builds own funds, and becomes the local financial institution to provide a range of financial
services including providing credit for debt-swapping and livelihoods.7
Figure 10: Membership in SHGs
Base = 6615
Despite the SHG movement having reached a mature stage in the country with over 80 lakh active SHGs under
NRLM, 60% of the marginal farmer households could confirm that no member of their family was a member of
an SHG.
Access to Credit
Nearly 27% of all the marginal farmers who participated in this survey (6,615) confirmed that someone in their
household had accessed bank loans in the past. 23% had taken a loan from an SHG (it may be recalled that 40%
had at least one member affiliated with an SHG). 5.7% had accessed credit through an MFI and 13% through
FPO/FPC/PG/PACS membership or from a cooperative society. As high as 51% did not access loans from any of
these sources, probably indicating an over-dependence on more informal sources of credit.
Agriculture-related Technical Advice/Information/Extension Services
Agriculture forms the backbone of our economy as it acts as a source of livelihood for a large section of our
population (share of Gross Value Added of agriculture and allied sectors in total economy at current prices for
6
DAY-NRLM website; https://nrlm.gov.in/shgOuterReports.do?methodName=showShgreport
7
https://aajeevika.gov.in/work-structure/community-institutional
33
2022-23 was 18.3%)8. Indian farmers have a deep knowledge of agricultural practices and techniques given
by their ancestors. However, these days, many improved practices and techniques of agriculture are gaining
popularity, especially in an age of adverse climatic effects on traditional production processes. However, a
major problem arises when it comes to the dissemination of these technologies. The root cause behind this
is a lack of awareness, training, and education, resulting in the exploitation of farmers at various levels. As
a response strategy, Common Service Centres offer a very unique platform where farmers can avail advisory
services by video conferencing with qualified Agriculture Scientists of the Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK). The
farmers simply need to visit the nearby CSC and register themselves for the consultation.9
The sole purpose of the Agriculture Tele-Consultation service is to provide quick and best advisory services to
the farmers in their regional language. CSCs have been opened across India where farmers can get the benefit
of this service. Farmers visiting CSCs can get advisory services on various agricultural aspects such as new and
improved practices of farming, soil health, cultivation practices of various agricultural and horticultural crops,
fertilisers and their optimum doses, control of insects, pests and diseases of crops, irrigation and fertigation.
Apart from these, advisory on livestock production and management is also available to farmers.
Kisan SMS Portal for farmers enables all Central and State government organisations in agriculture and allied
sectors (including State Agriculture Universities, Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Agromet Forecasts Units of India
Meteorological Department, ICAR Institutes, Organization in Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries, etc.) to
give information/services/advisories to farmers by SMS in their language, preference of agricultural practices
and locations.
The project conceptualised, designed, and developed in-house within the Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation has widened the outreach of scientists, experts and government officers posted down to the
block level to disseminate information, give advisories and provide advisories to farmers through their mobile
telephones. These messages are specific to farmers’ specific needs and relevance at a particular point in time
and generate a heavy inflow of calls in the Kisan Call Centres, where people call up to get supplementary
information. USSD (Unstructured Supplementary Service Data), IVRS (Interactive Voice Response System)
and Pull SMS are value added services which have enabled farmers and other stakeholders not only to receive
broadcast messages but also to get web-based services on their mobile without having internet. Semi-literate
and illiterate farmers have also been targeted to be reached through voice messages.10
Through the survey, we found that close to 30% of the marginal farmers did not access any technical advice
or extensive service providing such advice. Of the 72% who did, the source of advisory services related to their
agriculture practice has been tabulated below.
Table 14: Source of advisory services on agricultural practice received by marginal farmers (in %)
Access to advisory services
Did not access to any technical advice/extension services 28.4
Have accessed advisory services 71.6
Total base 6615
Source of advisory services (among those who have accesses)
KVK (Krishi Vigyan Kendra) 15.0
Govt. extension agent/ATMA 18.4
TV/Radio/Newspaper 31.9
Progressive farmers, other farmers, elders 59.9
Input dealers 42.0
Agricultural university/college 3.7
8
https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1909213
9
http://cscagriadvisory.in/
10
https://mkisan.gov.in/Home/About
34
Access to advisory services
Private commercial agent (contract farming sponsors, companies, drilling contractors, etc.) 9.4
FPO/cooperative society 5.0
Private processor 5.1
Agri Clinics and Agriculture Business Centres (ACABC) 3.9
NGO 4.3
Kisan Call Centre 6.4
Smartphone app-based information 12.9
Total base 4736
Input dealers are the single most important source of advisory services for marginal farmers. Agri-input dealers
in the country are a prime source of farm information to the farming community in general, in addition to
supplying inputs and credit, even though most of these dealers do not have formal agricultural education.
The second most popular source is actually other farmers, especially older farmers who have a repertoire of
institutional memory. One in five got information from2q21 other progressive farmers in their locality. Almost
a quarter of the marginal farmers got their information on different agricultural practices from them. Almost a
similar proportion got their information from the electronic and print media.
Providing access to broadcasting services in rural areas in India has been an ongoing challenge. However, the
Indian government has taken various initiatives to improve connectivity and ensure that broadcasting services
reach remote and underserved regions. Here are some of the key measures that have been undertaken:
• Prasar Bharati is India’s public broadcasting agency, operating Doordarshan (DD) television channels and All
India Radio (AIR) radio stations. The organisation has been working to expand its network and increase the
coverage of DD and AIR signals in rural areas.
• The Indian government launched the Digital India campaign, which aimed to digitise cable TV services across
the country. This move has led to increased digital cable TV services penetration in rural areas, providing
access to a broader range of channels.
• DTH services have gained popularity in both urban and rural areas due to their accessibility and the variety
of channels they offer. Various private DTH service providers have expanded their reach to rural regions,
bringing television content directly to homes via satellite signals.
• Community radio stations have been set up in rural areas to provide localised content and information
tailored to the specific needs of the local population. These stations play a crucial role in disseminating
information and connecting communities in remote regions.
• The government has been gradually introducing DTT services in select areas to improve TV broadcasting
quality and expand the reach of digital TV services to rural communities.
• The Bharat Net project aims to provide broadband connectivity to all gram panchayats (village-level local
government bodies) in India. This initiative will significantly bridge the digital divide and facilitate access to
online broadcasting services in rural areas.
Most marginal farmers access advisory services when the need arises (47%) or seasonally (31%). Only around
15% did so on a monthly basis or more frequently.
35
Table 15: Type of agriculture-related information sought from advisory services (in %)
Improved seed variety 53.6
Fertilizer application 46.5
Disease management 45.3
Water management 30.8
Planting method 29.2
Time of sowing 28.5
Pest management 27.9
Farm machinery 19.4
Soil management 19.1
Weather forecast 16.0
Market prices 14.0
Crop insurance 12.8
Credit and loan 8.2
Non-crop information needs (Harvesting/marketing/grading/storage) 4.2
Base = 4736 respondents who utilize agriculture-related advisory services.

Over one in five marginal farmers who use agriculture-related advisory services did not face any constraints
in adopting or acting upon the advice. Others have had to face various types of problems, including financial
restrictions preventing them from carrying out what they have learnt, the non-availability of inputs/physical
resources in their area, or just a lack of follow-up technical inputs. Just about one in four had found advisories
of poor relevance and usefulne
Figure 11: Constraints faced while adopting any of the advisories (in %)
Base = 4736 respondents who utilized agriculture related advisory services
36
Impact of Climate Change on Income Diversification
All the survey participants were asked whether they have had to supplement or change their current livelihood
and whether this change had anything to do with adverse climatic events affecting agriculture. The survey
results appear to be quite conclusive.
Table 16: Change in livelihood pattern by farmers affected or not affected by adverse climatic events in the last five
years (in %)
Village affected by adverse Village not affected by

climatic events adverse climatic events
People who changed their livelihood pattern 83 61
People who did not change their livelihood pattern 17 39
Base 5263 respondents 1352 respondents
It is quite clear that a higher proportion of farmers residing in villages that have witnessed adverse climatic
events to the extent that their farming output has been compromised have had to diversify or change their
current farm-dependent livelihood as compared to those residing in locations not adversely impacted by
climate change.
Statistically, this difference is significant at a 99% level of confidence (The value of z is 17.7256. The value of p is
< .00001. The result is significant at p < .01).
Table 17: Degree of impact of climate change in changing livelihood pattern (in %)
To a great extent 40.5
To some extent 45.7
To a limited extent 12.8
No impact 1.1
Base = 4379 respondents affected by climate change and made changes in livelihood pattern
In excess of 86% of the farmers who have had to make adjustments in their occupations had attributed this
change to climate impact. Even though this is self-attribution only, nevertheless, this can be considered as a
clear testimonial towards how climate change has impacted marginal farmers in India.
Figure 12: Nature of livelihood diversification being practiced
37
Most of the income diversification had to do with increased engagement in other part-time occupations,
increased dependency on animal husbandry, i.e. earning through livestock produce, including sale of milk,
eggs, and sometimes meat, or as one in three stated, temporal or distress migration for wage labour earnings.
The issue that needs further investigation is that whether or not such livelihood diversification is happening
anyway because of shrinking farm incomes (as concluded by the first-round survey conducted by Development
Intelligence Unit in 2023 titled ‘Annual Survey of State of Marginal Farmers in India’) or whether it is a direct
outcome of erratic weather conditions rendering agriculture farmers a risky proposition. The following table
elaborates.
Table 18: Distribution of impact of climate change on change in livelihood pattern (in %)
To what extent is climate change impact responsible for this change
To a great extent To some extent To a limited extent No impact
Undertaken crop diversification 32.6 53.7 12.5 1.2
Increased engagement in other part

30.4 54.5 14.3 0.8
time occupation
Had to depend more on animal

32.5 49.3 17.5 0.8
husbandry/livestock produce
Respondent and other family

members sought out more work 47.5 37.2 13.8 1.5
under MGNREGS
Temporal migration for wage labour

53.9 37.6 7.5 1.1
and other opportunities
Base = 4,379 respondents who were affected by climate change and made changes in livelihood pattern
All the cited response strategies had been a direct result of losses due to inclement weather conditions negatively
impacting crop production. However, temporal migration in search of alternate livelihood opportunities, and
seeking more person-days of work under MGNREGS as a preferred response stratagem to climate change was
reported by the majority.
Adaptation of Practices of Climate-resilient Agriculture

One of the critical challenges for a country’s food security is climate change and its impact in the form of extreme
weather events. The predicted 1-2.5 degrees Celsius temperature rise by 2030 is likely to show serious effects
on crop yields. High temperatures may reduce crop duration, permit changes in photosynthesis, escalate crop
respiration rates and influence pest population.11
The impact of climate change is directly or indirectly related to crop, water, and soil as it influences the water
availability, changes the intensity and frequencies of drought, effects microbial population, soil organic matter
reduction, yield reduction, depletion of soil fertility as driven by soil erosion, etc. The Economic Survey of 2017-
18 cautioned that “climate change might be reducing annual agriculture income in the range of 15 per cent to
18 per cent and up to 20 per cent to 25 per cent for unirrigated areas”12. This creates food shortages, nutrient
deficiencies in humans due to inadequate intake of healthy food makes humans vulnerable to health issues.
11
Ch Srinivasarao; Climate resilient agriculture systems: The way ahead; Down To Earth; 04 February 2021
12
Chapter 6 – ‘Climate, Climate Change, and Agriculture’; Economic Survey 2017-18, Vol 1
38
Climate-resilient agriculture (CRA) is an approach that includes sustainably using existing natural resources
through crop and livestock production systems to achieve long-term higher productivity and farm incomes
under climate variabilities. This practice reduces hunger and poverty in the face of climate change for
forthcoming generations. CRA practices can alter the current situation and sustain agricultural production from
the local to the global level, especially in a sustainable manner. Improved access and utilisation of technology,
transparent trade regimes, increased use of resources conservation technologies, an increased adaptation of
crops and livestock to climatic stress are the outcomes from climate-resilient practices.
Pratap Singh Birthal, in his research titled ‘Climate Change and Risk Management in Indian Agriculture’13,
observes that farmers are not passive to climate risks. Based on their exposure to climate anomalies in the past,
attitudes towards risk and access to information and finances, they use several traditional as well as modern risk
management measures. The traditional measures include the use of stress-tolerant crops, changes in planting
dates and input applications, including irrigation and fertilisers, and soil and water conservation techniques.
The modern measures are crop insurance and hedging. Based on their risk functions, these measures can be
classified as risk-mitigating, risk-transferring, and risk-coping. The evidence shows that farmers benefit from the
adoption of all types of risk management strategies, but more so from their joint adoption. Crop diversification
is observed to enhance farm productivity and lower risk exposure. Irrigation plays a dual role in raising crop
yield and reducing its sensitivity to heat stress and droughts. Crop insurance also improves farm productivity
and reduces downside risk exposure, but perhaps not as much as irrigation does.
Challenges and Barriers to Adaptation of Climate-resilient Agriculture Practices
This section looks at the adoption of various climate resilient farming practices adopted by marginal farmers
impacted by climate change, reasons for adoption of different practices, and challenges faced in adopting
climate resilient agriculture.
First, 31.2% of all respondents who had reported being affected by extreme weather events in the last five years
had not adopted any CRA practices. 68.8% marginal farmers who did report to have adopted one or more CRA
practices. The distribution of different practices adopted has been tabulated below.
Table 19: Distribution of adoption of different CRA practices (in %)
Changes in sowing time 28.2
Changes in sowing method (broadcasting/tractor operated/bullock drawn) 70.6
Changes in crop duration 37.2
Adopting water management strategies 40.5
Adopting disease management strategies 35.8
Crop diversification 14.6
Energy management 1.3
Base = 3,620 respondents who reported being affected by climate change and have adopted some CRA practice
70% of the marginal farmers have changed their sowing methods, while over one in three have made changes
in crop duration, adopted disease management strategies, and close to 30% had made changes in sowing time.
Two out of five have adopted water management strategies.
13
Climate Change and Risk Management in Indian Agriculture; Pratap Singh Birthal, NABARD Research and Policy Series No.
4/2022
39
The top five reasons why marginal farmers had resorted to adopting above practices are as follows:
Table 20. Top five reasons for adoption of CRA practices by marginal farmers
1. Reduced use of fertilizers and pesticides 54.8%
2. Enhance water availability/reduced water loss 50.9%
3. Mitigate soil pollution/ maintain soil fertility/minimize soil erosion 39.2%
4. Stabilise productivity 36.2%
5. Reduced labour use 27.9%
Base = 3,620 respondents who reported being affected by climate change and have adopted some CRA practice
First of all, 13.4% of all those who had adopted any CRA practice had reported to have not faced any constraints
or challenges while doing so. As for the majority who did face problems, the biggest challenges that marginal
farmers face when adopting climate resilient agricultural practices had to do with high up-front cost, limited
knowledge about options, small land holdings and lack of physical resources.
Table 21: Challenges faced in the adoption of climate resilient farming (in %)
High up-front cost 52.2
Limited knowledge 50.4
Small land holding 41.6
Lack of physical resources 37.5
Lack of credit facility 23.9
Access to extension and training 21.8
Market barriers 15.0
Social and cultural barriers 13.6
Total Base 3136
40
06
Public and Private Sector Initiatives

in Promoting CRA
India’s commitments at COP
India’s pledge of Panchamrit (five-fold strategy) to fight climate change, announced during the 26th Conference of
the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow, Scotland, has captured the world’s attention. The country’s new commitments
include reaching 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy capacity by 2030; producing 50 per cent of energy requirements
via renewable energy sources by 2030; a reduction of 1 billion tonnes of carbon by 2030; reducing the carbon
emission intensity of the GDP by 45 per cent by 2030; and most importantly, achieving the target of net-zero
emissions by 2070.14
While Indian agriculture is adversely impacted by the vicissitudes of climate change, the sector is also a
significant contributor (14 per cent) to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. India’s approach has been a balancing
act between growth and sustainability in its climate change policies, and it is leading the developing nations to
place agriculture in the ongoing negotiations. The National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture, as part of the
National Action Plan on Climate Change for more than a decade now, has focused on making Indian agriculture
sustainable, considering likely risks arising from climate variability.
The 28th Conference of the Parties (COP 28) began with the promising adoption of the UAE Declaration on
Sustainable Agriculture, Resilient Food Systems, and Climate Action. In addition to this, for the first time at a
COP, an entire day was dedicated to Food Systems. Endorsed by 134 countries, the UAE Declaration marked a
significant step in integrating agriculture into climate discussions. Yet, the broader context of COP 28 revealed
some policy deficiencies. A critical issue was the exclusion of food systems from the Global Stocktake Draft, a key
component of the Paris Agreement for assessing global climate mitigation progress. This omission is alarming,
considering the agriculture sector's substantial emissions and vulnerability to climate impacts. The sector's
dual role as both a contributor to and a mitigator of climate change underscores the need for its inclusion in
comprehensive climate assessments and policies.
India's decision not to sign the Global Methane Pledge or the UAE Declaration at COP 28 underscores the
challenge of balancing environmental commitments with economic needs, particularly in countries with large
agricultural sectors like India, where addressing methane emissions is complex due to the impact on farmers'
livelihoods. This reflects a broader dilemma for the Global South between immediate economic concerns and
long-term environmental goals.15
India's Leadership in Promoting Climate-Smart Agriculture at the G20

Building on the momentum of India's G20 presidency, the government is prioritizing Climate-Smart Agriculture
(CSA) as a critical strategy for achieving sustainable food security and climate resilience.16 Recognising the
vulnerability of marginal farmers to climate change (IPCC, 2022)17, this policy aims to empower them through a
multifaceted approach, informed by global best practices.
India's G20 leadership role provides a unique platform to champion the cause of marginal farmers impacted by
14
Indian agriculture: The route post-COP 26 - Strategies and pathways that can make Indian agriculture resilient and
sustainable in a changing climate; By Arabinda K Padhee, Anthony Whitbread; Published: Tuesday 18 January 2022
15
Zoomed Out | COP 28 — Why linking food systems and climate change is crucial in today's context; By Ambika
Hiranandani December 15, 2023.
16
A Short History of the Evolution of the Climate Smart Agriculture Approach and Its Links to Climate Change and Sustainable
Agriculture Debates | SpringerLink
17
https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6syr/pdf/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf
41
climate change. As outlined in the Think20 Policy Brief by Neog et al. (2023)18, the government will actively engage
with G20 partners to strengthen multi-stakeholder collaboration for CSA development and implementation.
This policy echoes the recommendations of the brief, focusing on:
• Strengthening existing platforms like the Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA)
developed by the FAO to facilitate knowledge sharing and collaboration19.
• Enhancing data collection and analysis to tailor CSA interventions for specific contexts and optimize
their impact on marginal farmers' livelihoods.
• Prioritizing capacity building to equip marginal farmers with the knowledge and skills necessary to
adopt CSA practices effectively20.
• Implementing robust MEL processes to ensure continuous improvement and track the effectiveness of
CSA interventions in empowering marginal farmers21.
By spearheading these initiatives, India aims to not only ensure its own food security but also contribute to
a global agricultural transformation that prioritizes climate resilience and empowers the most vulnerable
farmers.
Government of India’s Response to Climate Resilience in Agriculture
The state can play a significant role in making agriculture resilient to climate change by, one, designing context-
specific policies and programmes and ensuring their effective implementation through better coordination
across different administrative levels for the smooth flow of information, knowledge and resources to the
farmers; and, two, the convergence of different programmes operated by different ministries and departments
for efficient and sustainable use of financial and human resources.
The Government of India (GoI) has been implementing the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), which assures employment of 100 days to a household. Although the scheme is not
meant to address climate risks, it contributes toward enhancing the resilience of agriculture. More importantly,
60% of the permissible spending under MGNREGA was related to Natural Resource Management (Mission
Water Conservation blocks have to maintain at least 65% of the MGNREGS expenditure on NRM-related works).
Furthermore, participation in MGNREGA has eased financial constraints on the adoption of direct risk-coping
measures. The GoI also implemented a National Food Security Act, 2013, which provides affordable access to
food for the poor. Like MGNREGA, the subsidised provision of food is also hypothesised to motivate farmers to
adopt risk management strategies.
The central and state governments implement several agricultural and rural development programmes
through various ministries and departments. Many of these are related to climate change adaptations directly
or indirectly. The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare implements 27 different Central Sector Schemes
and centrally-sponsored Schemes (details available in Annexure) for promoting farmers’ welfare and raising
their income. However, some may argue that there is a lack of synergy among these. A typical example is
the work under the MGNREGA scheme, which is implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development. About
two-thirds of its works are related to agriculture and natural resource management. Some of these include
water conservation and water harvesting, drought proofing, afforestation, irrigation works, restoration of
traditional water bodies, land development, flood control and construction of rural roads. All these activities
are closely linked to the adaptation options for climate change. Hence, there is a huge scope for harnessing the
complementarities of different schemes.
The GoI has launched several initiatives to combat climate change and promote sustainability. Direct policy
interventions by the GoI and state governments at combating the impact of climate change on agriculture
include the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and the State Action Plan on Climate Change
(SAPCC). Released on 30th June 2008, the NPACC serves as the national framework, outlining eight key
missions. Its core missions are solar energy, energy efficiency, sustainable agriculture, water conservation,
and the Himalayan ecosystem. These missions target crucial areas like ramping up solar power generation,
enhancing energy efficiency across sectors, and promoting sustainable urban development. Importantly, the
18
Kangkanika Neog et al., “Identifying Pathways for Scaling up Climate-Smart Agriculture,” T20 Policy Brief, July 2023
19
https://www.fao.org/gacsa/about/en/
20
Kangkanika Neog et. al., “Climate adaptive water management practices in climate-smart agriculture and their impact:
Learnings from Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh” (CEEW, report manuscript in preparation, May 30 2023)
21
sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/22113FAOai8145e.pdf
42
NAPCC recognises the need for sustainable development, striving for economic growth that goes hand-in-hand
with environmental protection. To complement this national approach, individual states formulate their own
State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs). These plans delve deeper, addressing the specific climate
vulnerabilities of each state, be it water scarcity or rising sea levels. SAPCCs prioritise adaptation and mitigation
strategies tailoured to local needs, such as promoting drought-resistant crops or developing early warning
systems for coastal regions. This bottom-up approach ensures focused action at the state level. By combining
the national framework of the NAPCC with the state-specific strategies of the SAPCCs, the governments strive
for a comprehensive and effective strategy to tackle climate change and build a more resilient and sustainable
future for all its citizens.
Building upon the national framework established by NAPCC and the state-specific strategies outlined in SAPCCs,
India has taken a multi-pronged approach to empower farmers in combating climate change. National Action
Plans provide a crucial top-down vision, but the real impact is felt at the ground level. This is where Agricultural
Contingency Plans come into play. Formulated at the district level, these plans translate broad goals into
actionable steps for farmers. Considering the unique vulnerabilities of each region, they outline strategies to
deal with specific threats like droughts, floods, or heat waves. This localised approach empowers farmers with
immediate solutions, such as alternative planting schedules during erratic rainfall or using drought-resistant
crop varieties to minimise losses.
Further bolstering this fight against climate change is the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture
(NICRA) programme, established in 2011. NICRA acts as a bridge between research and on-ground application.
By focusing on strategic research for climate-resilient technologies like drought-resistant seeds and efficient
irrigation methods, NICRA equips farmers with the tools they need for long-term adaptation. Through field
demonstrations and targeted training programmes on climate-smart practices, NICRA empowers even the
most vulnerable – marginal farmers. These farmers gain the knowledge and tools to adapt their agricultural
practices based on weather conditions, improve resource management, and ultimately become more resilient
to the vagaries of a changing climate. This not only secures their livelihoods but also contributes significantly to
India's overall food security in the face of climate challenges.
The National Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC), established in 2015 by the Indian government,
has been instrumental in helping the country adapt to the challenges of climate change. It provides financial
support for state and union territory-level projects that directly address climate change vulnerabilities. It helps
in supporting projects aimed at enhancing drought resistance, promoting water conservation techniques,
and developing climate-resilient crop varieties. It helps in building rainwater harvesting structures, improving
irrigation efficiency, and addressing the challenges of floods and rising sea levels in coastal areas. NAFCC-funded
projects also aim to strengthen early warning systems of natural calamities, improve preparedness for extreme
weather events, and support resilient infrastructure development.
States are starting to understand the urgency, too. Programmes such as the Odisha Integrated Irrigation Project
for Climate Resilient Agriculture, Maharashtra’s Project on Climate Resilient Agriculture, and Bihar's Climate
Resilient Agriculture Programme have been promoting climate-resilient technologies like direct seeded rice
(DSR), drum seeder, micro-irrigation, and nutrient support tools to improve production.
Marginal farmers reliant on agriculture for their income often face reduced harvests and financial insecurity
due to erratic weather patterns and unpredictable rainfall brought on by climate change. As observed in this
survey, those affected by the vagaries of uncertain climatic conditions have changed or supplemented their
livelihood pattern. In a DIU publication titled “Annual Survey of State of Marginal Farmers in India”, released in
2023 (the first in the series of annual publications focused on marginal farmers), it was ascertained that 68% of
the marginal farmers were engaged in non-farm activities to supplement their income from crop cultivation. In
the current survey, it was found that close to 72% of farmers who reported being affected by climate change to
some extent or to a great extent had to depend on animal husbandry more for a stable source of income.
The GoI has implemented several key programmes specifically designed to help marginal farmers diversify
their income streams and build resilience in the face of climate challenges. One such initiative is the National
Livestock Mission (NLM), launched in 2014. Recognising the potential of livestock rearing to supplement income,
the NLM provides crucial support to farmers venturing into dairy, sheep, goat, and pig farming. This support
comes in multiple forms. Financial assistance with setting up livestock units, acquiring high-yielding breeds,
and accessing essential feed and veterinary services helps reduce initial investment costs and encourages
participation. Additionally, the NLM focuses on empowering farmers through skill development and training
programmes. The NLM recognises the importance of market access, and it actively facilitates connections
between farmers and potential buyers like dairy cooperatives and meat processing units. This ensures farmers
receive fair prices for their produce and reduces dependence on middlemen, further bolstering their financial
security.
Another programme targeting income diversification for marginal farmers is the Innovative Poultry Productivity
Project (IPPP), launched in 2017. This initiative specifically focuses on states with high poultry farming potential,
43
and it empowers farmers in several ways. Recognising that many marginal farmers have limited landholdings,
the IPPP promotes the establishment of small-scale, backyard poultry units. These initiatives, coupled with
others like the Blue Revolution (Neel Kranti Mission) which promotes integrated fish farming with livestock
operations, provide a multifaceted approach to empowering marginal farmers and fostering climate resilience
in the agricultural sector.
At the same time, one also needs to look at the safety nets that have been provided to all farmers in the form
of various social security schemes. The GoI launched the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) - or Prime
Minister's Crop Insurance Scheme in 2016 as a crucial safety net for India's farmers, particularly marginal
farmers facing the brunt of climate change. This comprehensive programme offers financial protection against
crop losses due to natural calamities like droughts, floods, hailstorms, pests, and diseases. By covering a
wide range of food, oilseed, and horticultural crops at subsidised premiums, PMFBY ensures even small and
marginal farmers can participate and avoid financial ruin from unforeseen events. Additionally, the scheme
prioritises quick claim settlements to minimise hardship and get farmers back on their feet. Easy enrolment
through banks, service centres, and CSCs makes PMFBY accessible across the country. The uptake of PMFBY
has been promising, as close to 35% of the marginal farmers surveyed were covered by it. The need of the hour
is to saturate coverage.
To further build resilience among marginal farmers and bring the focus on regenerative agriculture and natural
farming through soil management, the GoI launched the Soil Health Card (SHC) in 2015. This programme
empowers farmers by providing them with a detailed analysis of their soil's health every two years. This
analysis includes vital information like nutrient levels, organic matter content, and overall fertility. Armed with
this knowledge, marginal farmers can make informed decisions about fertiliser application, improving soil
health, and adopting sustainable practices. SHC not only helps optimise resource use and reduce costs but also
promotes practices that enhance soil's ability to retain moisture, a critical benefit in times of erratic rainfall.
While it is a great tool for supporting marginal farmers, as observed from the survey, only 17.1% of members
of SHGs have availed SHCs. Thus, there’s a need to increase awareness and accessibility of SHGs in order to
maximise the utility of the programme.
Complementing the focus on soil health, two other initiatives target organic farming and improved water
management. The Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), launched in 2016, specifically promotes organic
farming practices among marginal farmers. This programme provides financial assistance for organic
certification, training on organic methods, and support for establishing producer collectives for better market
access. By encouraging organic farming, PKVY helps reduce dependence on chemical fertilisers, which can
harm soil health in the long run. Additionally, organic practices often promote techniques like composting and
crop rotation, which further improve soil health and resilience in the face of climate change. Furthermore, the
Mission Organic Value Chain Development in North-eastern Region (MOVCDNER), launched in 2016, focuses
on developing a robust organic value chain specifically in the North Eastern states. This mission supports
infrastructure development for organic processing and marketing, creating a supportive ecosystem for organic
farmers in the region. Finally, the Per Drop More Crop programme emphasises efficient water management
practices. This initiative promotes techniques like micro-irrigation and drip irrigation, which allow farmers to
maximise water use efficiency.
As noted earlier in the report, the Government has been providing information regarding agriculture through
different mediums to create awareness for climate-resilient practices and provide knowledge support to
the most vulnerable sections of the farming community. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
in collaboration with the India Meteorological Department (IMD), is issuing Agromet advisories twice a week
(Tuesday and Friday) to around six crore farmers of the country through the Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva
program (GKMS).22 Broadly, the GKMS, launched in 2004, empowers farmers by providing them with localised,
district-level weather forecasts and agro-meteorological advisories. These advisories are tailored to specific
crops and climatic conditions, helping farmers make informed decisions about sowing, irrigation, pest control,
and harvesting practices. GKMS is disseminated through various channels, including SMS, radio broadcasts,
and mobile applications, ensuring that even marginal farmers with limited internet access can receive crucial
information. The impact of such services is noted in the report, as it shows that close to half of the surveyed
respondents access agriculture-related information in times of need. Close to one-third of these respondents
seek out information about sowing, irrigation, and pest control. While 16% of those seeking information depend
on these channels for weather related information.
Details of schemes being run by the Department of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare for welfare/increasing
incomes of farmers and the achievements made therein, scheme-wise, are attached in Annexure.
22
Shri Narendra Singh Tomar, Minister of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, response to Rajya Sabha unstarred question no. 981,
answered on 28/07/2023.
44
In short, one can conclude that the GoI already has a large number of relevant programmes and schemes in
place designed to protect farming communities from the vagaries of climate change. The need of the hour is to
improve the efficiency of delivery so that coverage among the marginal segment can be saturated.
Dawn of AgriTech: Private Sector Participation
Over the last few years, there have been enough deliberations at the industry and policy level to make the
food supply chain climate-resilient. However, to bring about the desired change, the policy prescriptions and
industry actions need to match the emerging entrepreneurial energy.
If one looks at the history of Indian agritech, while it first began in India about 15 years ago, climate-tech remained
peripheral to it for over a decade. It’s only in the recent past that climate-tech is becoming more nuclear and
integral to agritech, not only to entrepreneurs’ business models but also to the investors’ thesis. This is driven
by entrepreneurs’ realisation that climate-tech and agritech are not binary but essentially two sides of the same
coin. Resource optimisation and unit economics go hand in hand in value creation for unlocking VC-friendly
returns. Also, many customers and users of agritech, especially the large food companies like Unilever, Nestle,
Danone, Olam, etc. and retailers like Amazon and Walmart have made commitments publicly on making the
supply chains net-zero over the next two to three decades, so these companies have no option but to partner
with their supplier base to honour their commitments.23
The type of innovations the agri-climate space is witnessing may be summarised as given below.
Largely Digital: These innovations typically include capturing data about weather, soil and plant health from a
multitude of sources such as weather stations, satellites, drones, sensors, IoT devices, scanners, smartphones
etc. The evolution of hardware devices, along with growing data modelling capabilities, is at the core of such
innovations. The use cases of such digital solutions are essentially in climate risk mitigation, including farmer
advisory to reduce crop loss, estimate losses on account of flood/ drought, estimate soil nutrition and moisture
for optimising, etc. Examples of startups in this category include SatSure, CropIn, Leads Connect, RMSI, Bharat
Rohan, Frugal Labs, Borlaug Web Services, Agnext, Boomiitra, Stellapps etc.
Largely Physical: These solutions include a variety of physical interventions, including products, devices,
machines, and biologicals to drive climate resilience. The use of dehydrators, cold rooms, bulk coolers, CA
storages, silos for reducing post-harvest losses, etc., would fall into this category. Some examples in this
category would include likes or S4S Technologies, Promethean, Inficold, Ecozen, Rukart, EF Polymer, GreenPod,
Absolute, Bioprime, Sea6 Energy, Marut drones, Urdhvam, Distinct Horizon, Kheyti, Takachar, etc.
Supply Chain Innovations: These include tech-enabling supply chains for dis-intermediation to align supply
with the demand. The market linkage startups operating in the whole or parts of farmers-to-consumer value
chain, such as WayCool, DeHaat, FarMart, Samunnati, Falca, Bioveda, Innoterra, KisanKonnect, Maalexi, Mango
Dairies, Digigrain are some of the examples.
Though the primary activity for this segment of startups has been around building demand-driven tech-enabled
supply chains, in this process, these business models have contributed to shrinking food losses/waste, thus
improving the climate resilience of food supply chains. Likewise, factory-to-farm models focused on supplying
quality inputs to farmers, riding on prescriptive farmer advisory models, end up optimising the use of agri-
inputs, including chemical fertilisers, agrochemicals and water. Startups like Agrostar, BigHaat, Behtar Zindagi,
Unnati, Upaz, Freshokartz, and Hesa would fall into this category.
23
Time To Build Climate-Stack For Indian Agriculture; 10 Dec'23 By Hemendra Mathur; inc42.com
45
07
Policy Implications
Moving Forward
Key Highlights from the Survey
FPO/FPC/PACS/PG/PE/Coops Membership
Close to 69% of the marginal farmers surveyed were members of an FPO/FPC/PACS/PG/PE/Coops. A little over
half of the marginal farmers who were members had availed of subsidised agriculture inputs through their
associations, while over a third had availed of marketing support. Around 30% of the members had availed of
crop insurance through their associations.
SHG Membership
60% of the marginal farmer households surveyed did not have any household member who were part of any
SHG, thus depriving them from a significant source of credit.
Kissan Samman Nidhi and/or other Similar DBT Schemes
Close to 60% of the marginal farmers surveyed had received some form of government grants or subsidies
(primarily Kisan Samman Nidhi). It may be noted that the excluded population in not dominated by sharecroppers
(23%) who remain ineligible, but actual landowners (77%).
Irrigation Facilities
• 10% of marginal farmers have adopted micro irrigation like sprinkler or drip.
• Close to a quarter of those affected by climate change had reported having access to wells or ponds for
irrigation, but about a quarter more still has to buy water from other irrigation facilities.
• 45% of all surveyed marginal farmers grew crops in only one season, clearly indicating their limited or
no access to irrigation facilities. 91% of those farming in one season were Kharif (mostly rice) farmers,
indicating their over-dependence on the monsoon.
• 48% of all marginal farmers grew crops in two seasons, namely Kharif and Rabi.
Access to CHC:
• Only 9% of marginal farmers surveyed reported not knowing what a CHC is, which shows that there’s
awareness about CHCs, but access itself is very low, with only 34% of those aware of CHCs had reported not
having a CHC within ten km of their village.
• Again, only 14.4% of those with access to CHC within a reasonable distance had ever hired equipment from
the same.
46
Access and Utilisation of Subsidised Seeds and Fertilisers
• Close to half (48%) of surveyed marginal farmers had reported having access to outlets for subsidised seeds
and fertilisers within ten km of their residence.
• At the same time, utilisation was very low, with only 22% of those with access within a reasonable distance
having products from such outlets.
Access and Utilisation of Subsidised Seeds and Fertilisers
• Close to half (48%) of surveyed marginal farmers had reported having access to outlets for subsidised seeds
and fertilisers within 10 km of their residence.
• At the same time, utilisation was very low, with only 22% of those with access within a reasonable distance
of 10 km having products from such outlets.
Access and Utilisation of Cold Storage
• 69% of surveyed marginal farmers had reported that there were no cold storage facilities within ten km of
their residence (around 10% just did not know whether there was one or not).
• Among the 21% of marginal farmers who had access to cold storage within ten km of their residence, the
utilisation rate was just 15%.
Access to Credit
• The survey data shows that around 52% of households that had at least one member belonging to an
SHG have managed to get a loan from the SHG. However, 60% of marginal farmer households had no SHG
membership.
• Little over a quarter of the marginal farmers had taken bank loans in the past, but less than 15% had ever
accessed credit directly from any MFI or directly from a FPO/FPC/PACS/PG/PE/Coop.
• Over half the marginal farmers had never taken any loan from formal sources (as above), meaning they were
probably indebted to moneylenders paying exorbitant debt servicing charges, including loss of mortgaged
collateral.
Access to Agriculture-related Technical Advice and Extension Services
• 28.4% of the surveyed marginal farmers had never accessed any agriculture-related technical advice or
extension services.
• For marginal farmers who sought advice, major sources include their input dealers (in which case they
might not be getting unbiased advice), followed by advice from other farmers or elders, or other progressive
farmers from their village.
• Little less than a third sourced advice from print and electronic media.
Type of Information Sought by Marginal Farmers
• Among the marginal farmers who utilised agriculture-related technical advice, around half sought
information regarding improved seed variety. A similar proportion sought information on fertiliser
application and disease management.
47
• 30% of surveyed respondents sought information regarding water management, pest management,
time of sowing, and new and efficient planting methods.
• While only 12.8% of respondents looked into crop insurance, weather forecast services were accessed by
only 16% of respondents.
Constraints Faced while Adopting Agriculture Related Advisory
• 48.5% of respondents utilising agriculture related technical services reported that financial constraint was
the major constraint while adopting new techniques.
• Little over a third had reported non-availability of input or physical resources as the major constraint. A
similar number has issues with follow up on technical advice.
• Around one in four found the technical advice to be irrelevant or not useful.
Climate Resilient Agricultural Practices
• The survey observed that nearly one in three marginal farmers had not adopted any Climate Resilient
Agricultural practices (CRAs).
• Among those who did, 70% reported changing their sowing methods, while 40% adopted improved water
management practices. A similar number also changed their crop duration.
• Very few reported undertaking crop diversification of any kind.
Impact of Climate Change on Changing Livelihood Pattern
• 83% of the marginal farmers who reported to be impacted by climate-related extreme weather events
reported augmenting their income source.
• Comparatively, 61% of marginal farmers who did not face any extreme weather events had to change their
livelihood pattern.
• Over 40% of marginal farmers who have had to diversify their livelihood do so through part-time work,
another third had to depend on animal husbandry, and a further third resorted to distress migration for
work opportunities.
• 86% of marginal farmers who had been affected by extreme weather events and who had also reported
shifting from just farming to augment their incomes could attribute this change largely to climate change.
Key Recommendations
The Need for a Paradigm Shift Putting Water at the Centre
As observed by Dr. Ashok Gulati, distinguished Professor at ICRIER and a thought leader in the Indian agricultural
economics space, groundwater is turning into an increasingly finite resource. Thus, India needs to adopt a
two-pronged strategy with respect to water in agriculture. On the supply side, it must augment buffer stocking
of water during the monsoon season in its reservoirs, and recharge groundwater through check dams and
watersheds, etc. Next, it must work on the demand side to ensure more rational allocation and efficient use of
water across crops.24
24
How India can Minimise Climate Risk in Agriculture: Ashok Gulati; October 2023; https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/
columns/ashok-gulati-writes-how-india-can-minimise-climate-risk-in-agriculture-8984596/
48
This calls for not only institutional reforms in the Indian irrigation sector but also in the pricing of water and
power for irrigation. While almost half of India’s gross cropped area is irrigated today, we need to take it to at
least 75 per cent if we must cope with weather vagaries associated with climate change.
Dr. Gulati points out that if we must minimise this climate risk, we need a paradigm shift in our thinking. First
and foremost, we need to shift focus from land productivity to water productivity. For example, we need not
look at, say, so much tonne/hectare, but of kg of grain per cubic metre of irrigation water. Once we start looking
at productivity from a water angle, we can identify the inefficiencies in the allocation and use of water in
agriculture.
Mission Mode Approach on Education, Training, Orientation, and Extension Support

Within the framework of The National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), the range of interventions
can be expanded to encompass all agricultural activities, including horticulture and livestock. This expansion
would involve a greater allocation of resources for training, education, and the sensitisation of farmers. It would
also involve the development of customised packages of practices to be adopted in response to changing
climate scenarios and associated risks. A special focus on targeting marginal and women farmers in agriculture
production clusters would be a meaningful addition. These interventions and actions can be made using both
available and upcoming new digital technologies being developed by AgriTech companies as well as existing
government extension systems and private sector innovative solutions.
Planning and Action based on the Climate-Resilient Agriculture Index
Looking at the climate risks and associated implications, particularly on marginal farmers, planning, action,
and continuous evaluation of resilience across climatic zones is essential for developing and scaling suitable
location-need-context specific interventions and policies. Developing and implementing a comprehensive
approach to assess resilience across different agro-climatic zones and States through a Climate-resilient
Agriculture Index that encompasses environmental, technological, socio-economic, institutional, and
infrastructural dimensions would be beneficial. A reference is made to a recent study25 undertaken by
researchers from the Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) Bhopal and Solidaridad Network, who have
tried to find answers by developing an index for evaluating climate-smart agriculture (CSA) in India. Covering
five dimensions - governance, farm management practices, environment management, energy management,
and awareness and training, the study finds that the involvement of farmers in activities such as improved
seeds, integrated nutrient management practices, crop residue management practices, direct seeding of rice,
zero tillage farming, mulching, agroforestry enhances the ownership and strong commitment to undertaking
these resilient agriculture practices.
The recently constituted two high-level scientific panels by the Government of India to assemble an advanced
countrywide agricultural weather information system and introduce tech-enabled assessment of crop yields to
ward off the impacts of extreme weather linked to climate change is a much-appreciated step.
Promotion of Sustainable and Natural Farming Practices
Sustainable agriculture is farming in such a way as to protect the environment, aid and expand natural
resources, and make the best use of non-renewable resources. Many climate and weather risk management
strategies fit squarely into such sustainable agriculture practices: locally adapted cropping patterns using local
and natural resources and processes, based on local knowledge, skills, and innovations. Adopting climate-
resilient practices such as mulching, micro-irrigation, intercropping, and crop diversification helps optimise
the input supply and mitigate climate and market risks like price volatility. These need to be promoted in a big
way by government programmes and policies26.
The strategies that need universalisation, including among marginal farmers, need to include changes in
cropping patterns and cropping systems, multiple/mixed cropping, intercropping systems with legume
components, ecological farming practices (including those tapping into indigenous knowledge) which can
maximise local resource use, e.g. building soil biological productivity, non-Pesticidal Management, Organic
25
Down to Earth; February 22, 2024: HT 29, 2024
26
https://www.actionaidindia.org/publications/climate-change-and-indian-agriculture/
49
Soil Management, Community Seed Banks, soil moisture management, etc. Strategies would also include
locally adopted crop varieties, short cycle crops, Participatory plant breeding, etc., and developing suitable
farming systems that integrate agriculture, horticulture, and livestock.
Investing in Natural Resource Management
Soil health, ITS fertility, and watersheds need to be recognised as critical natural resources for adaptation, and
the Government should invest in reviving them with appropriate incentives. To this effect, the strategies that
need universalisation include enrichment and increase of soil organic matter and soil conservation through
agroecological practices and revival of traditional water harvesting structures by convergence between
MNREGA funds and funds available with the Water Resources department. Utility and usage of Soil Health Cards
by marginal farmers is a very critical aspect to take forward.
Promote Farmer-led Initiatives and Collectives
Organised communities have proven to be more effective in planning and managing their resources and
livelihoods, lobbying for policy changes and securing entitlements. This includes forming and expanding
membership in community-led structures like FPOs, FPCs, PACS, PEs, Cooperative societies, Women SHGs,
Water Users Committees, etc.
Strategies would include establishing institutional systems for each locality, which can plan, mobilise resources,
organise production, and take up post-harvest management and marketing activities. It is understood that
producer collectives like those mentioned above can improve the collective bargaining power of farmers and
help internalise market activities.
At the same time, marginal farmers need a different set of crop varieties for which seed will have to be produced.
Decentralised seed production (and stocked in community seed banks) involving local communities will help to
produce locally adapted seeds for the main and contingency crops.
Diversify Food Production and Distribution to Increase Food and Livelihood Security
Sustainable agriculture does not imply a compromise on food security. Data from the National Centre for
Organic Farming (NCOF), ICRISAT and CMSA has proven that crop productivity can be maintained with organic/
ecological farming. But this can be done only if the food basket of marginal farmers diversifies from just wheat
and rice and a few pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables. One way of doing it is by expanding the Public Distribution
System to include millets and, other coarse cereals, dryland fruits, and uncultivated greens, all of which also
increase nutrition security.
Beyond PDS and mid-day meal schemes, the food security system needs to improve livelihood security by
sustaining food production in villages and by improving income generation opportunities for small farmers
(going beyond agriculture labour and foraying into animal husbandry activities like micro-dairy, as also 100
days of wage employment under MGNREGA). Such a system must ensure that marginal farming households
have food and means of sustaining themselves and their livestock during lean periods of the year and during
droughts and other climate failures.
Once again, the strategies could include incentivising suitable cropping patterns to promote proper
diversification, procuring coarse grains, pulses, and other locally grown food through the PDS to set up
local grain storage and distribution systems, and identifying and generating suitable off-farm and non-farm
employment opportunities to ensure food and income.
Improve Financial Inclusion and Access to Rural Credit for Agriculture Production
Strategies would include revamping agriculture subsidies by providing direct subsidies to farmers for the
production, use and maintenance of their own local ecological inputs (manure, organic fertiliser, composting,
seedbanks and generation) rather than the current practice of subsidising external inputs. Side by side, integrate
50
MGNREGA with sustainable agriculture so that each marginal farmer with job cards has the potential to get 100
days of wages. At the same time, we need to look beyond price support to farmers and explore tools like Direct
Income Support. Formal credit systems (banks, NBFC, MFI) must be accessible and practical for obtaining and
repaying credit by marginal farmers. Money lending and the concentration of inputs and output purchases in
the hands of local moneylenders must be stopped and regulated.
Finally, the Government and Civil Society need to put in all efforts to universalise the coverage of the Pradhan
Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana27 so that marginal farmers are shielded from crop loss owing to climate risk. At the
same time, agriculture credit and insurance systems must be made climate-responsive and more sensitive to
the needs of small farmers.
Building Partnerships to Develop Integrated Solutions
Partnerships between various governmental, private, and non-governmental agencies at the district level
must be created to implement CRA programmes. An alliance of public sector research organisations, extension
agencies, departments dealing with rural livelihoods and farmers’ groups and CSOs at the national level should
be formed and engage on sustainable agriculture/organic/natural/ecological farming. The Gyan Chaupals
and Village Resource Centres, with satellite connectivity, should disseminate value-added weather data from
the Government’s Agromet Service to marginal farmers through mobile telephony, giving them information
on rainfall and weather in real-time. Big data and analytics can transform agricultural practices by providing
insights into weather patterns, soil health, and crop performance. Training students to harness these tools can
significantly improve agricultural outcomes.
All these factors are expected to drive actions to empower and enable our small-scale farmers to effectively
manage and maintain soil quality, enhance crop production, optimise water and energy usage, and apply
knowledge in accordance with evolving weather conditions.
27
https://pmfby.gov.in/
51
Annexure
Brief of major schemes implemented by the Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare28
Name of the
S No. Purpose
Scheme
I. Central Sector Schemes
1 Pradhan Mantri PM-KISAN is a central sector scheme launched on 24th February 2019 to supplement
Kisan Samman financial needs of land holding farmers, subject to exclusions. Under the scheme,
Nidhi (PM-KISAN) financial benefit of Rs. 6000/- per year is transferred in three equal four-monthly
installments into the bank accounts of farmers’ families across the country, through
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) mode.
Till now, Rs.2.81 lakh crores have been transferred through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
to more than 11 crores beneficiaries (Farmers) through various instalments.
2 Pradhan Mantri Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maandhan Yojna (PMKMY) is a central sector scheme launched on
Kisan MaanDhan 12th September 2019 to provide security to the most vulnerable farmer families. PM-KMY
Yojana (PM-KMY) is contributory scheme, small and marginal farmers (SMFs), subject to exclusion criteria,
can opt to become member of the scheme by paying monthly subscription to the Pension
Fund. Similar, amount will be contributed by the Central Government.
The applicants between the age group of 18 to 40 years will have to contribute between
Rs. 55 to Rs. 200 per month till they attain the age of 60. PMKMY takes care of the farmers
during their old age and provides Rs. 3,000 monthly pensions to the enrolled farmers
once they attain 60 years of age, subject to exclusion criteria.
Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) is pension fund manager and registration of beneficiaries
is done through CSC and State Govts.
So far 23.38 lakh farmers have enrolled under the scheme.
3 Pradhan Mantri PMFBY was launched in 2016 in order to provide a simple and affordable crop insurance
Fasal Bima Yojana product to ensure comprehensive risk cover for crops to farmers against all non-
(PMFBY) preventable natural risks from pre-sowing to post-harvest and to provide adequate claim
amount. The scheme is demand driven and available for all farmers A total of 5549.40
lakh farmer applications were insured under the scheme since 2016-17 and Rs 150589.10
crore has been paid as claim.
4 Modified Interest The Interest Subvention Scheme (ISS) provides concessional short term agri-loans to
Subvention the farmers practicing crop husbandry and other allied activities like animal husbandry,
Scheme (MISS) dairy, and fisheries. ISS is available to farmers availing short term crop loans up to
Rs.3.00 lakh at an interest rate of 7% per annum for one year. Additional 3% subvention
is also given to the farmers for prompt and timely repayment of loans thus reducing the
effective rate of interest to 4% per annum. The benefit of ISS is also available for post-
harvest loans against Negotiable Warehouse Receipts (NWRs) on crop loans for a further
period of six months post-harvest to small and marginal farmers having Kisan Credit
Cards (KCCs), on occurrence of natural calamities and severe natural calamities. As on
05-01-2024, 465.42 lakh new KCC applications have been sanctioned with a sanctioned
credit limit of Rs. 5,69,974 crore as part of the drive.
28
Posted On: 02 FEB 2024 6:48PM by PIB Delhi; This information was given by the Union Minister of Agriculture and Farmers’
Welfare, Shri Arjun Munda in a written reply in Rajya Sabha as on date.
52
5 Agriculture In order to address the existing infrastructure gaps and mobilize investment in agriculture
Infrastructure infrastructure, Agri Infra Fund was launched under Aatmanirbhar Bharat Package. AIF
Fund (AIF) was introduced with a vision to transform the agriculture infrastructure landscape of
the country. The Agriculture Infrastructure Fund is a medium - long term debt financing
facility for investment in viable projects for post- harvest management infrastructure and
community farming assets through interest subvention and credit guarantee support.
The Fund of Rs. 1 lakh crore under the scheme will be disbursed from FY 2020-21 to
FY2025-26 and the support under the scheme will be provided for the duration of FY2020-
21 to FY2032-33.
Under the scheme, Rs. 1 Lakh Crore will be provided by banks and financial institutions
as loans with interest subvention of 3% per annum and credit guarantee coverage under
CGTMSE for loans up to Rs. 2 Crores. Further, each entity is eligible to get the benefit of
the scheme for up to 25 projects located in different LGD codes.
Eligible beneficiaries include Farmers, Agri-entrepreneurs, Start-ups, Primary
Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS), Marketing Cooperative Societies, Farmer Producers
Organizations(FPOs), Self Help Group (SHG), Joint Liability Groups (JLG), Multipurpose
Cooperative Societies, Central/State agency or Local Body sponsored Public Private
Partnership Projects, State Agencies, Agricultural Produce Market Committees (Mandis),
National & State Federations of Cooperatives, Federations of FPOs (Farmer Produce
Organizations) and Federations of Self Help Groups (SHGs).
As on 31-12-2023, Rs.33.209 Crores have been sanctioned for 44,912 projects under
AIF, out of this total sanctioned amount, Rs 25,504 Crores is covered under scheme
benefits. These sanctioned projects have mobilized an investment of Rs 56.471 Crores
in agriculture sector.
6 Formation & The Government of India launched the Central Sector Scheme (CSS) for “Formation
Promotion of new and Promotion of 10,000 Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs)” in the year 2020. The
10,000 FPOs scheme has a total budgetary outlay of Rs.6865 crores. Formation & promotion of FPOs
are to be done through Implementing Agencies (IAs), which further engage Cluster Based
Business Organizations (CBBOs) to form & provide professional handholding support to
FPOs for a period of 5 years.
FPOs get financial assistance up to Rs 18.00 lakh per FPO for a period of 03 years. In
addition to this, provision has been made for matching equity grant up to Rs. 2,000
per farmer member of FPO with a limit of Rs. 15.00 lakh per FPO and a credit guarantee
facility up to Rs. 2 crore of project loan per FPO from eligible lending institution to ensure
institutional credit accessibility to FPOs. Suitable provisions have been made for training
and skill development of FPOs.
Further, FPOs are onboarded on National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) platform which
facilitates online trading of their agricultural commodities through transparent price
discovery method to enable FPOs to realize better remunerative prices for their produce.
As on 31.12.2023, total 7,774 FPOs were registered under the scheme in the country.
53
7 National Keeping in view the importance of beekeeping, a new Central Sector Scheme entitled
beekeeping and National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM) was launched in 2020 under Atma
Honey Mission Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyan for its implementation in the field for overall promotion and
(NBHM) development of scientific beekeeping & to achieve the goal of “Sweet Revolution”. Some
of the achievements include;
Honeybees/ beekeeping have been approved as 5th Input for Agriculture.
4 World Class State of the Art Honey Testing Labs and 35 Mini Honey Testing Labs have
been sanctioned under National Beekeeping & Honey Mission (NBHM) for testing of
honey.
Madhukranti portal has been launched for online registration of Beekeepers/ Honey
Societies/ Firms/ Companies.
Till date 23 lakhs bee colonies registered on Portal.
100 Honey FPOs targeted under 10,000 FPOs scheme in the country. 88 FPOs have been
registered by NAFED, NDDB & TRIFED.
25 States/UTs have been covered under NBHM under MM-I, II & III.
160 Projects sanctioned under MM- I, II & III of Rs. 202.00 crores.
8 Market Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare implements the Price Support Scheme (PSS)
Intervention for procurement of pulses, oilseeds and copra. Market Intervention Scheme (MIS) for
Scheme and Price procurement of agricultural and horticultural commodities which are perishable in
support Scheme nature and are not covered under the Price Support Scheme (PSS). The objective of
(MIS-PSS) intervention is to protect the growers of these commodities from making distress sale
in the event of a bumper crop during the peak arrival period when the prices tend to fall
below economic levels and cost of production.
9 Namo Drone Didi The Government has recently approved a Central Sector Scheme for providing drones
to the Women Self Help Group (SHGs) for the period from 2024-25 to 2025-26 with an
outlay of Rs. 1261 Crores. The scheme aims to provide drones to 15000 selected Women
Self Help Group (SHGs) for providing rental services to farmers for agriculture purpose
(application of fertilizers and pesticides). Under this Scheme, Central Financial Assistance
@ 80% of the cost of drone and accessories/ancillary charges up to a maximum of Rs. 8.0
Lakhs will be provided to the women SHGs for purchase of drones. The Cluster Level
Federations (CLFs) of SHGs may raise the balance amount (total cost of procurement
minus subsidy) as loan under National Agriculture Infra Financing Facility (AIF). Interest
subvention @ 3% on the AIF loan will be provided to the CLFs. The scheme will also
provide sustainable business and livelihood support to SHGs and they would be able to
earn additional income of at least of Rs. 1.0 lakh per annum.
II Centrally Sponsored Schemes
10 Rastriya Krishi The scheme focuses on creation of pre & post-harvest infrastructure in agriculture and
Vikas Yojana - allied sectors that help in supply of quality inputs, market facilities, etc. to farmers. It
Detailed Project provides flexibility and autonomy to states to implement projects as per the local
Report based farmers’ needs and priorities from a bouquet of activities in agriculture and allied sectors.
schemes (RKVY- The scheme aims to fill the resources gap of agriculture and allied sectors by providing
DPR) financial support to states for undertaking various activities to increase in overall growth
of agriculture and allied sectors and farmers’ income.
Under RKVY Agri-startup Programme, since 2019-20, 1524 Start-ups have been selected
and Rs. Rs. 106.25 crore released as grants-in-aid for funding the Start-ups.
54
11 Soil Health Card Soil health card provides information to farmers on nutrient status of their soil along with
(SHC) recommendation on appropriate dosage of nutrients to be applied for improving soil
health and its fertility. The indicators are typically based on farmers' practical experience
and knowledge of local natural resources. The card lists soil health indicators that can
be assessed without the aid of technical or laboratory equipment. The Scheme rolls out
a decentralized system of soil testing which will help in developing a nationwide soil
fertility map on a GIS platform that can easily be integrated with the real time decision
support systems being developed. In order to develop the soil fertility map, Government
of India has decided to conduct 5 Crore Soil Samples across the country during year
2023-24 to 2025-26.
12 Rainfed Area RAD is being implemented since 2014-15. RAD adopts an area-based approach in cluster
Development mode for promoting Integrated Farming System (IFS) which focuses on multi-cropping,
(RAD) rotational cropping, inter-cropping, mixed cropping practices with allied activities like
horticulture, livestock, fishery, apiculture etc. to enable farmers not only in maximizing
the farm returns for sustaining livelihood, but also to mitigate the impacts of drought,
flood or other extremes weather events. An amount of Rs. 1673.58 crores has been
released and an area of 7.13 lakh hectare has been covered under RAD programme from
the year 2014-15 to till date.
13 Per Drop More In order to increase water use efficiency at the farm level through Micro
Crop (PDMC) Irrigation technologies i.e. drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, Per Drop More
Crop (PDMC) scheme was launched during 2015-16. The Micro Irrigation helps
in water saving as well as reduced fertilizer usage through fertigation, labour
expenses, other input costs and overall income enhancement of farmers.
It also supports micro level water harvesting, storage, management etc. activities as
Other Interventions (OI) to supplement source creation for Micro Irrigation. OI activities
allowed on need basis up to 40% of the total allocation for North East States, Himalayan
States, Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh and up to 20% for other States.
An area of 78 lakh hectare has been covered under Micro irrigation through the PDMC
scheme from 2015-16 to 2022-23.
14 Micro Irrigation A Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF) of initial corpus Rs 5000 crore has been created with
Fund (MIF) NABARD with major objective to facilitate the States in mobilizing the resources for
expanding coverage of Micro Irrigation. Under the funding arrangement, NABARD lends
to the States/UTs at 3% lower interest rate than the corresponding cost of fund mobilized
by NABARD from the market. The interest subvention on the loan under MIF is borne
by Centre under PDMC. Projects with loans under MIF worth Rs 4710.96 crore have
been approved so far. Loans amounting Rs.2812.24 crore has been disbursed to States
of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The Ministry
provides interest subvention on the loan availed by the States which is met from PDMC
Scheme. As per the Budget 2021-22, the corpus of the fund is to be doubled to Rs.10000
crores. MIF is now merged with PDMC.
15 Paramparagat Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) aims to increase soil fertility and thereby helps in
Krishi Vikas Yojana production of healthy food through organic practices without the use of agro-chemicals.
(PKVY) The scheme is implemented in a cluster mode with unit cluster size of 20 hectares. A
group shall comprise minimum 20 farmers (maybe more if individual holdings are less).
Farmers in a group can avail benefit of maximum of 2 ha as per provision of PKVY. 25 such
clusters are converted into one large cluster of about 500 ha area to facilitate marketing
of organic produce. The scheme provides for an assistance of Rs. 31,500 per ha to states,
out of which i.e., Rs. 15,000 is given as incentives to a farmer directly through DBT.
55
16 Sub-Mission Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM) is being implemented w.e.f April,
on Agriculture 2014 which aims at catalyzing an accelerated but inclusive growth of agricultural
Mechanization mechanization in India with the objectives of Increasing the reach of farm mechanization
(SMAM) to small and marginal farmers and to the regions where availability of farm power is low,
promoting ‘Custom Hiring Centres’ to offset the adverse economies of scale arising
due to small landholding and high cost of individual ownership, creating hubs for hi-
tech& high value farm equipment, creating awareness among stakeholders through
demonstration and capacity building activities and Ensuring performance testing and
certification at designated testing centers located all over the country. Till date Rs.
6748.78 Crore have been released to State Governments, distributed more than 15,75,719
agricultural machinery & equipment’s including Tractors, Power Tillers, Self-Propelled
Machineries and Plant Protection Equipment and established 23472 number of Custom
Hiring Centres, 504 number of Hi-Tech Hubs and 20597 nos. of Farm Machinery Banks.
Promotion of Drone Technology under SMAM

Looking into the unique advantages of Drone technologies in agriculture, a Standard
Crop Specific Operating Procedures (SOPs) released the for use of drones in pesticide and
nutrient application in public domain on 20.04.2023, which provides concise instructions
for effective and safe operations of drones.
From within the funds of SMAM, so far, an amount of Rs.138.82 crores have been
released towards Kisan drone promotion, which include purchase of 317 Drones for their
demonstration in 79070 hectares of land and supply of 461 drones to the farmers on
subsidy and also supply of 1595 drones to the CHCs for providing drone services to the
farmers on rental basis.
17 Crop Residue Crop Residue Management was implemented from 2018-19 in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Management Pradesh and NCT of Delhi. Its objectives include protecting environment from air
pollution and preventing loss of nutrients and soil micro-organisms caused by burning
of crop residue through promoting in-situ management of crop residue. In this regard,
it proposes to set up Farm Machinery Banks for custom hiring of in-situ crop residue
management machinery. It also aims to creating awareness among stakeholders through
demonstration, capacity building activities and differentiated information, education
and communication strategies for effective utilization and management of crop residue.
Rs. 3333.17 crore has been released under the scheme since inception and distributed
more than 2,95,845 CRM machinery. CRM is now merged with SMAM.
18 Agro-forestry Agro-forestry was conceived on the recommendation of the National Agro-forestry Policy
2014 to promote plantation on farmlands. The restructured agro-forestry under RKVY
is aimed to provide Quality Planting Materials (QPM) and the certification in order to
promote planting of trees on farm land for improving the livelihood of farmers.
19 National Food The Mission aims at increasing production of rice, wheat, pulses, coarse cereals (Maize
Security Mission and Barley) and Nutri-Cereals through area expansion and productivity enhancement
(NFSM) in a sustainable manner in the identified districts of 28 States and 2 UTs (i.e., J&K and
Ladakh). Other objectives include restoring Soil fertility and productivity at the individual
farm level, enhancing farm level economy to restore confidence amongst the farmers
and post harvest value addition at farm gate.
Since the declaration of the International Year of Millets (IYM) 2023 by the UNGA in 2021,
Government has taken a proactive multi stakeholder engagement approach to achieve
the aim of IYM 2023 and taking Indian millets globally. 25 seed-hubs have been established
to ensure availability of quality seed of latest improved varieties of Nutri cereals in the
country. Millet missions have been launched across 13 states including Odisha, Tamil
Nadu, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. More than 500 start-ups
and 350 FPOs have been established and are operational in the millet ecosystem as of now.
56
20 Sub-Mission on SMSP covers the entire gamut of seed production chain, from production of nucleus
Seed and Planting seed to supply of certified seeds to the farmers, to provide support for creation of
Material (SMSP) infrastructure conducive for development of the seed sector, support to the public seed
producing organisations for improving their capacity and quality of seed production,
create dedicated seed bank to meet unforeseen circumstances of natural calamities, etc.
For effective monitoring, efficiency and transparency covering Seed chain from Nucleus-
Breeder-Foundation-Certified Seed, first phase of Seed Authentication, Traceability &
Holistic Inventory (SATHI) portal was launched on 19th April, 2023. SMSP is now merged
with NFSM.
21 National Mission A new Centrally Sponsored Scheme namely, National Mission on Edible Oil (NMEO)-Oil
on Edible Oils Palm (NMEO-OP) has been launched by Government of India in 2021 in order to promote
(NMEO)-Oil Palm oil palm cultivation for making the country Aatamnirbhar in edible oils with special focus
on North-Eastern States and A&N Islands. The Mission will bring additional area of 6.5
lakh ha under Oil Palm plantation with 3.28 lakh ha in north-eastern states and 3.22 in
rest of India in next 5 years from 2021-22 to 2025-26.
22 Mission for Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), a Centrally Sponsored
Integrated Scheme was launched during 2014-15 for holistic growth of the horticulture sector
Development covering fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops, mushrooms, spices, flowers, aromatic
of Horticulture plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and Bamboo. Major components include plantation
(MIDH) infrastructure development, establishment of new orchards and gardens for fruits,
vegetables, spices and flowers, rejuvenation of unproductive, old, and senile orchards,
protected cultivation, promotion of organic farming, pollination support through bee
keeping, horticulture mechanization, post-harvest management (PHM) and marketing
infrastructure etc.
Under MIDH since 2014-15 to 2023-24 (as on 31.10.2023) an additional area of 12.95
lakh ha. of identified horticulture crops has been covered, 872 nurseries established for
production of quality planting material, 1.41 lakh ha. of old and senile orchards has been
rejuvenated, 52069 ha. been covered under organic practices and 3.07 lakh ha. has been
covered under Protected Cultivation.
23 National Bamboo The Scheme is implemented in 23 States and 1 UT (J&K) through the State Bamboo
Mission (NBM) Missions (SBM)/ State Bamboo Development Agency (SBDA). NBM mainly focuses on
the development of complete value chain of the bamboo sector. It is envisaged to link
growers with consumers with a cluster approach mode.
Under NBM, 367 Bamboo Nurseries established, 212 bamboo Nurseries Accredited by the
State Level Accreditation Committees, 46000 ha bamboo plantations established in non-
forest Government & private lands, 81 units for bamboo primary processing established,
416 units established for value addition and product development, and capacity building
for 15000 persons including farmers, artisans and entrepreneurs. NBM is now merged
with MIDH.
24 Integrated ISAM supports state governments in governing the agricultural produce marketing
Scheme for through creation and improvement of market structures, capacity building and
Agriculture generating access to market information. During 2017-18, National Agriculture Market
Marketing (ISAM) Scheme popularly known as e-NAM scheme has also been made part of the same. National
Agriculture Market (e-NAM) is a pan-India electronic trading portal which networks the
existing APMC mandis to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities.
1389 mandis of 23 States and 04 UTs have been integrated to e- NAM platform and more
than 1.76 Crore Farmers & 2.5 Lakh traders have been registered on e-NAM portal.
57
25 Mission Organic The MOVCDNER aims at development of commodity specific, concentrated, certified
Value Chain organic production clusters in value chain mode to link growers with consumers and to
Development for support the development of entire value chain starting from inputs, seeds, certification,
North Eastern to the creation of facilities for collection, aggregation, processing, marketing and brand
Region building initiative in Northeast Region (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura). Since 2015-16 (as on 06.12.2023), Rs 1035.17
crore has been released, 379 FPO/FPCs created covering 189039 farmers and 172966 ha
area.
26 Sub-Mission The scheme aims at making the extension system farmer driven and farmer accountable
on Agriculture by disseminating technology to farmers through new institutional arrangements viz.
Extension (SMAE) Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) at district level to operationalize
extension reforms in a participatory mode. Digital initiatives taken up in agricultural
extension include;
VISTAAR - Virtually integrated Systems To Access Agricultural Resources being developed
as a DPI for Agriculture Extension
Apurva AI- Capturing farmer innovations- Acts as a peer-to-peer learning Platform
and provide content for advisory retrieval through VISTAAR Bot and also for impact
Assessment of schemes (AIF completed)
Wadhwani- Krishi 24X7 for Realtime News monitoring, Tamil language and image-based
cotton pest identification to be plugged in with FLEW/farmer profile mapping
Kisan Call Centre - Integration with VISTAAR and other IT applications and with Kisan
Sarathi (ICAR) for direct contact with Agri experts
RAWE- Integration of Agri students for behavioral interaction through VISTAAR Bot and
Feedback system
IMD- Weather forecast integrated through DAMU along with advisory delivery through
VISTAAR
NRLM- Decentralised Extension Mechanism (Krishi Sakhi, Pashu Sakhi, Matsya Sakhi etc.)
- Capacity building on Digital Extension -VISTAAR
27 Digital Agriculture The scheme aims to improve the existing National e- Governance Plan in Agriculture
(NeGPA) by developing a digital public infrastructure for agriculture that will be built
as an open source, open standard and interoperable public good to enable inclusive,
farmer-centric solutions through relevant information services for crop planning and
health, improved access to farm inputs, credit and insurance, help for crop estimation,
market intelligence, and support for the growth of Agri Techs industry and start-ups.
AgriStack architecture has the following foundational layers: -
• Core registries
• Base databases
• Farmers Database: Farmers ID linked with land records
• Geo-referencing of plots
• Crop Survey, Crop planning and
• Soil Mapping, Soil Fertility
• Unified Farmers Service Interface for state, Pvt. Players
• Data Exchange
58
The Forum of Enterprises for Equitable Development (FEED) is dedicated to enhancing the
livelihoods of marginal farmers through advocacy, research, and collaboration with various
stakeholders. It strives to ensure that these farmers have access to new opportunities and
resources that can lead to sustainable development.
FEED is committed to improving the economic wellbeing of marginal farmers in India. It aims
to transform agricultural practices, enhance local markets, and develop human capital. FEED's
strategy includes engaging with professional agencies to improve farm production systems
and transition from subsistence to commercial farming. By leveraging public investments and
technology, FEED seeks to create institutional aggregations and modern value chains.
FEED advocates for marginal farmers by connecting them with the private sector and
promoting their interests through seminars, policy briefs, and research papers. It emphasizes
the importance of data-driven decision-making and partnerships to support the resilience and
growth of these farmers. FEED's goal is to foster a business-oriented approach to small-scale
farming, encouraging dialogue and forming program coalitions that can change the narrative
for marginal farmers.
The Development Intelligence Unit (DIU) brings data and expert analysis to the intersection of
opportunity and deprivation in rural India. The DIU supports stakeholders who navigate the
increasingly opaque, complex and uncertain world of data to analyse social and economic
developments, forecast trends and better understand development programmes and practices.
Doing so provides actional insight to improve the efficacy and effectiveness of development
initiatives.
The DIU platform is a clearing-house of rural information presented in a user-friendly format,

addressing the needs of diverse stakeholders in public, private and civil society. It brings rural
India into focus and furthers the field of rural analytics for understanding, positioning and
informing stakeholders and decision makers. DIU specialises in evidence-based insights that
will create an impact for governments and non-profits. It has expertise to develop data-driven
solutions to public policy challenges based on robust evidence, expert insights and data analysis.
It is providing data, research and tools to amplify issues in order to help rural India gain a voice,
spark deeper conversation and help shape the future of India.

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARGINAL FARMERS

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IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARGINAL FARMERS

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Foreword

I would like to acknowledge that the Impact of Climate Change on Marginal

We are also particularly grateful to Shri Sanjeev Chopra, Chairperson of the

We extend our heartfelt gratitude to Mr. Suryamani Roul, Managing Trustee

03 Profile of Marginal Farmers 16

04 Impact of Climate Change on Marginal Farmers 19

06 Public and Private Sector Initiatives in Promoting CRA 41

07 Policy Implications Moving Forward 46

Figure 2: Distribution of farmers by cultivation of crops by season (in %) 17

Figure 4: Membership in FPO / FPC / PG / PE / PACS (in %) 28

Figure 5: Nature of assistance received through the membership (in %) 28

Figure 7: Availability of Custom Hiring Centre within 10 km of residence (in %) 31

Figure 9: Availability of Cold Storage Facility within 10 km of residence (in %) 32

Figure 10: Membership in SHGs 32

Figure 12: Nature of livelihood diversification being practiced 37

Table 2: Distribution of achieved sample by Agro Climatic Zones 15

Table 3: Distribution of chief wage earner by landholding type 16

Table 4: Distribution of marginal farmers by number of cropping cycles they cultivate 18

Table 5: Top five crops grown in each agricultural season (in %) 18

Table 9: Proportion of crop loss by season (in %) 22

Table 11: Proportion of crop loss by season (in %) in last 5 years 24

Table 13: Irrigation facility usage by marginal farmers (%) 30

Table 19: Distribution of adoption of different CRA practices (in %) 39

ACABC Agri Clinics and Agriculture Business Centres

AIF Agri Infra Fund

ATMA Agricultural Technology Management Agency

AIF Agriculture Infrastructure Fund

AIR All India Radio

A&N Andaman and Nicobar Islands

BBSSL Bhartiya Beej Sahkari Samiti Limited

CSS Central Sector Scheme

CSO Civil Society Organisation

CRA Climate-resilient agriculture

CLF Cluster Level Federations

CInI Collectives for Integrated Livelihoods

CSC Common Service Centre

COP Conference of the Parties

CHC Custom Hiring Centre

CHC Custom Hiring Centre

DTT Digital terrestrial television

DBT Direct Benefit Transfer

DSR Direct Seeded Rice

DTH Direct To Home

FPC Farmer Producer Company

FPO Farmer Producer Organisation

GIS Geographical Information System

GACSA Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture

GoI Government of India

GKMS Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva

GHG Greenhouse gas

GDP Gross Domestic Product

IBISA Inclusive Blockchain Insurance using Space Assets

ITC India Tobacco Company

ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research

IMD Indian Meteorological Department

INR Indian Rupee

IPPP Innovative Poultry Productivity Project

ISS Interest Subvention Scheme

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

J&K Jammu and Kashmir