Haridwar University Roorkee

Academic Session: 2024-25

Principles of Electronics & Electricals

Engineering Laboratory
Lab Code: 24BEC181

Semester: First
Submitted to:
Prof. (Dr.) Aadesh Kumar Arya
Dean (Research) & HOD, First Year

Submitted By:
SRISTI RAY
B.Tech (CSE, DATA SCIENCE)
First Year, Batch: 2024-28
Group: E
 List of Experiments

1. Basic safety precautions. Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter,

ammeter, multi-meter, oscilloscope. Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors.
2. Study of V-I Characteristics of Diode.
3. Applications of Diode as rectifier.
4. Transistor applications as amplifier and switch
5. Study of Transistor Input/Output Characteristics in CE, CB, CC Configuration
6. Measurement of steady-state and transient response of R-L, R-C, and R-L.
7. Verification & Realization of De Morgan’s theorem
8. To study of Half adder & Full adder using gates
9. To verify Thevenin’s theorem.
10. To verify Norton’s theorem
 Index
S.No Name of Experiment Date Faculty’s Remarks
Signature
1

10
 Experiment -01
Aim

Basic safety precautions. Introduction and use of measuring instruments – voltmeter, ammeter, multi-meter,
oscilloscope. Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors.

Apparatus :-

Voltmeter, Ammeter , CRO, multimeter, power supply, function generator

Theory

Voltmeter-A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two points
in an electric circuit.

 It usually has a high resistance so that it takes negligible current from the circuit.
 The main principle of voltmeter is that it must be connected in parallel in which we want to
 measure the voltage .

Properties of ideal voltmeter

 Infinite impedance
 High Sensitivity
 High Accuracy
 No zero error
 No temperature dependence
 Fast response time
 Good resolution

Fig :-Voltmeter
Types of Voltmeter:-

1] Analog Voltmeter: This Voltmeter use moving pointer to indicate the voltage on a calibrated scale.

Fig :-Analog Voltmeter

2] Digital Voltmeter: This Voltmeter use digital display to display the voltage

in numerical form.

Fig :-Digital Voltmeter

How Voltmeter works: -

● Connection:- Connect the voltmeter in parallel with the part of the circuit where you want to measure
voltage, with the positive lead to the positive side and the negative lead to the negative side.

● High Resistance:- The voltmeter is designed to draw very little current from the circuit to avoid affecting
the voltage being measured.

Uses of Voltmeter:-

1. Measuring Circuit Voltage: Used to check the voltage across different parts of an electrical circuit.

2. Troubleshooting: Identifies voltage drops or faults in electrical systems.

3. Checking Outlet Voltage: Ensures wall outlets provide the correct voltage for appliances.

4. Testing Power Supply: Measures the voltage of power supplies for TVs, computers, and other
electronics. Ammeter: - Ammeter, instrument for measuring either direct (DC) or alternating.

Ammeter: -is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.

 The Ammeter is usually connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured.
 An Ammeter usually has low resistance so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the
circuit being measured.
 Ammeter has a very low impedance as the voltage drop across the ammeter should be low.
 The principle of ammeter is that the resistanceand inductive reactance must be very low.

Fig :-Ammeter
Types of Ammeter:-

1. Analog Ammeter:-An analog ammeter is adevice that measure electric current in a circuit .And
display the reading with a moving needle on a scale.

Fig :-Analog ammeter

2. Digital Ammeter:- Digital ammeter is a device that measures electric current in a circuit and
displays the reading as a numerical value on a digital screen.

Fig :-Digital Ammeter

Uses of Ammeter:-

 Measuring Current: Used to measure the flow of electric current in circuits, ranging from small
electronics to large industrial systems.
 Circuit Testing: Helps diagnose issues in electrical circuits by checking if the current is within the
expected range.
 Battery Testing: Measures the current drawn by devices to assess battery performance.
 Monitoring Power Consumption: In appliances and machines, it tracks the current usage to monitor
power consumption and efficiency
Multimeter

A Multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A typical
Multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current in which case it is also known as a volt-ohm-
milliammeter (VOM), as the unit is equipped with voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter functionality.

Key Functions

1. Voltage Measurement: Multimeter can measure both AC (alternating current) and DC (direct
current) voltages. Voltage measurement is typically done by connecting the mustimeter’s probes
across the component or circuit.
2. Current Measurement: To measure current, the Multimeter is connected in series with the
circuit. This function often requires moving the probe to a different port on the Multimeter, and
care must be taken not to exceed the current rating of the device
3. Resistance Measurement: By connecting the probes across a resistor or a circuit segment, the
Multimeter can measure resistance. This function is often used to check the continuity of circuits
or to test individual components like resistors.
4. Continuity Testing: This function checks if there is a complete path for current to flow in a
circuit. When continuity is present, the Multimeter usually emits a beep, indicating a closed
circuit.
5. Additional Features: Many modern Multimeter include functions such as capacitance
measurement, frequency measurement, temperature measurement with thermocouples, and
transistor testing.

Fig :-Multimeter
CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope )
 A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device that converts electrical signals into an active graphical
representation on a fluorescent screen.
 A cathode ray oscilloscope is a very fast X-Y plotter that can displays voltage waveforms on a
screen, allowing users to observe the shape, amplitude, frequency, and other characteristics of the
signal.
Operation:
2.Signal Input: The electrical signal is fed into the oscilloscope through input channels.
Deflection: The signal is used to control the vertical deflection of the electron beam, while the time base
controls the horizontal movement.
Deflection: The signal is used to control the vertical deflection of the electron beam, while the time base
controls the horizontal movement.

Fig :-Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Types of Oscilloscope:-

1. Analog Oscilloscope: An analog oscilloscope displays electrical signal waveforms as continuous

traces on a screen using a cathode ray tube (CRT).
2. Digital Storage Oscilloscope: A Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) captures and stores electrical
signal waveforms digitally.
3. Mixed Signal Oscilloscope: A Mixed Signal Oscilloscope (MSO) combines the features of an
oscilloscope and a logic analyser. It can measure and display both analog and digital signals
simultaneously, providing a comprehensive view of complex systems.
Resistor

A resistor is an electrical component used to limit or regulate the flow of electric current in a circuit. It
provides resistance, which controls the amount of current passing through and can help protect other
components from excessive current.

 Uses of Resistor
 Current Limiting: Protects components by controlling the amount of current flowing through them.
Voltage Division: Creates specific voltage levels within a circuit by dividing the input voltage.
 Biasing: Sets the operating point of transistors and other active components in electronic circuits.
Pull-up/Pull-down: Ensures defined logic levels in digital circuits by connecting inputs to a known
high or low voltage.
 Load Simulation: Mimics the electrical load of a component or device for testing and calibration
purposes.
 Signal Conditioning: Adjusts signal levels and reduces noise or interference in analog and digital
circuits.

Fig :-Resistor
Inductor
An inductor is an electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when current flows through it.
It resists changes in current and is commonly used in filtering, tuning circuits, and energy storage
applications.

Uses of Indicator

1. Filtering: Removes unwanted frequencies from signals in power supplies and audio circuits. Energy
Storage: Stores energy in its magnetic field in power supply circuits and switching regulators.
2. Tuning: Adjusts resonant frequencies in radio frequency (RF) circuits and tuning circuits. Chokes:
Reduces high-frequency noise in power lines and signal paths.
3. Transformers: Used in transformer windings to step up or step down voltage in power applications.
4. Inductive Coupling: Transfers energy between circuits without direct electrical connection, often
used in wireless charging.

Fig :-Inductor
Capacitor
A capacitor is an electrical component that stores and releases electrical energy in an electric
field. It consists of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material (dielectric).

1. Uses of Capacitor
2. Filtering: Smooths out voltage fluctuations in power supplies by filtering out AC
ripple from DC signals.
3. Energy Storage: Temporarily stores energy for applications like flash photography
and power backups.
4. Coupling and Decoupling: Blocks DC while allowing AC signals to pass in audio and
signal processing circuits.
5. Timing Circuits: Works with resistors to create time delays in oscillators and timers.
6. Signal Processing: Helps in tuning and filtering signals in radio, television, and audio
equipment.
7. Power Factor Correction: Improves the efficiency of power systems by correcting
the phase difference between voltage and current in AC circuits.

Fig :-Capacitor
Power supply
Power supply is an electrical device that provides the necessary electrical power to a circuit
or device. It converts electrical energy from a source (such as a wall outlet or battery) into a
stable and suitable voltage and current required for the operation of electronic equipment.

Uses of Power supply:-

1. Providing Power: Supplies electrical energy to power electronic devices, circuits, and
systems.
2. Voltage Regulation: Converts and stabilizes voltage levels to ensure consistent and
reliable operation of electronic equipment.
3. Battery Charging: Powers battery chargers to recharge batteries for various devices.
4. Testing and Prototyping: Provides adjustable and controlled power for testing and
developing electronic prototypes and circuits.
5. Powering Electronics: Delivers power to household appliances, computers, and
industrial machinery.
6. Supporting Communication Systems: Supplies power to telecommunications
equipment and network devices to maintain connectivity.

Fig :-Power Supply

Function Generator
A function generator is an electronic device that produces various types of electrical waveforms, such as
sine, square, triangular, and sawtooth waves. It is used to test and simulate different signal conditions in
electronic circuits, helping in the design, testing, and troubleshooting of electronic systems.

Uses of Function Generator

1. Signal Simulation: Produces test signals to simulate various conditions in electronic circuits.
2. Circuit Testing: Provides waveforms to test and troubleshoot circuits, verifying their response to
different signal types.
3. Frequency Response Analysis: Helps analyze the frequency response of filters and other electronic
components.
4. Testing Amplifiers: Evaluates the performance of amplifiers by supplying different signal
frequencies and amplitudes.
5. Creating Waveforms: Generates specific waveforms for calibration and signal processing
applications. Educational Purposes: Assists in teaching and demonstrating electronic principles and
circuit behaviours

Fig :-Function Generator

 Experiment No: 02
Aim:
 Explain the structure of a P-N junction diode
 Explain the function of a P-N junction diode
 Explain forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode
Apparatus required:
a) A diode
b) A DC voltage supplier
c) Bread board
d)1000 Ω resistor
e ) 2 multimeter for measuring current and voltage
 f) Connecting wires

Theory:
Theory of experiment the diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type
material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode. The primary
function of the diode is rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher potential is connected to the
anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reversed biased (the higher potential is connected to the cathode
lead), current flow is blocked. A general curve looks like this:

Ideal V-I Characteristics

Structure of P-N junction diode
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material. The lead
connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is the
cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type
region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The
positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the
n-type material repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or
switches sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that
the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a
consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material
(or holes that cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the
diode.

Figure 3
Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode breaks
down.

Figure 4

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of battery is
connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the
junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise,
because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from
the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of
charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of
the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric
field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a
critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the
Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are
reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor
material to overheat and cause thermal damage.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the forward
biasing will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the
forward biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts
like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and
reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts
conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-
in voltage.
 Figure 5

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since
reverse biasing leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more
difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current
flow..

Diode Equation

In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current If, and the voltage Vf, of a semiconductor
diode are related by the diode equation:
νf
nvt
̅ f = Is (exp−1 )
⊥

where,
Is is reverse saturation current or leakage current,
If is current through the diode(forward current),
Vf is potential difference across the diode terminals(forward voltage)
VT is thermal voltage, given by

𝒌𝑻
𝒗𝑻 =
𝒒
and k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10−23 J /°Kelvin, q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10−19
joules/volt(Coulombs), T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin(°K = 273 + temperature in °C), At room
temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV, n is an empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and current levels. It depends
on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in the depletion region. Among the quantities affecting
the value of n are the diode manufacture, levels of doping and purity of materials.
If n=1, the value of

𝒌𝑻
𝒒

is 26 mV at 25°C. When n=2, the value

𝒌𝑻
𝒒
becomes 52 mV. For germanium diodes, n is usually considered to be close to 1. For silicon diodes, n is in
the range of 1.3 to 1.6.

Note

1. Ideal Diode Model: Diode is a simple switch that is either closed (conducting) or open (non
conducting). Specifically, the diode is a short circuit, like a closed switch, when voltage is applied in
the forward direction, and an open circuit, like an open switch, when the voltage is applied in the
reverse direction.

2. Offset Voltage Model: The offset voltage model adds the barrier potential to the ideal switch model.
When the diode is forward biased it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent
voltage source equal to the barrier potential (0.6 V for Silicon, 0.2 for germanium) with the positive
side towards the anode. When the diode is reverse biased, it is equivalent to an open switch just as in
the ideal model.

3. Complete diode Model: It is the most accurate of the diode models. The Complete diode model of a
diode consists of the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance and the ideal diode. The
resistor approximates the semiconductor resistance under forward bias. This diode model most
accurately represents the true operating characteristics of the real diode.

4. When a diode is reverse biased a leakage current flows through the device. This current can be
effectively ignored as long as the reverse breakdown voltage of the diode is not exceeded. At
potentials greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, charge is pulled through the p-n junction by
the strong electric fields in the device and large reverse current flows. This usually destroys the
device. There are special diodes that are designed to operate in breakdown. Such diodes are called
zener diodes and used as voltage regulators.
 Procedure
Forward Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .

2. Select the diode.

3. Set the resistor.

4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.

5. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to the N side(cathode) of
the diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for particular DC voltage
.

7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI

10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage
exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figure:1
Reverse Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .

2. Select the diode.

3. Set the resistor.

4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.

5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative terminal of
battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.

6. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage .

7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter reading.

8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

Figure: 2
 Experiment Table-1: For Forward Bias

S. No Supply Voltage Forward Voltage (Volt) Forward Current (mA)

(Volt)

Graph:
 Experiment Table-2: For Reverse Bias

S. No Supply Voltage (Volt) Reverse Voltage (Volt) Reverse Current (mA)

Graph: