Coulomb Balance

Equipment: Coulomb balance apparatus, 5 × 5 inch plastic plate, vernier calipers, power
supply, set of fractional weights (less than 500 mg) with tweezers, resistance box set at
1 MΩ, 5 leads, index cards, analog voltmeter, laser on tripod, small container with rods and
thumb screws (used to mount the lower capacitor plate), and a 6in ruler

Reading: Coulomb’s Law in your text book

Important Information
1. HIGH VOLTAGE FROM A POWER SUPPLY IS APPLIED TO TWO CAPACITOR
PLATES. DO NOT TOUCH THE WIRES PROVIDING THIS VOLTAGE. BE SURE
THAT A 1 MΩ RESISTOR IS CONNECTED IN SERIES WITH THE CAPACITOR.

2. This experiment uses a laser beam as an optical lever arm. DO NOT LET THE
LASER BEAM OR ITS REFLECTION ENTER YOUR EYE. SERIOUS DAMAGE
TO YOUR EYE MAY RESULT.

1 Introduction
In SI units the magnitude of the force F between two charges q1 and q2 in vacuum is given
by
q1 q2
F = , (1)
4π0 R2
where R is the distance between the two charges and 0 is a constant called the vacuum of
permittivity. The unit of charge in SI units is a coulomb. This equation shows that 1/0 plays
the role of a proportionality constant, which for any values of the charges gives the correct
magnitude and dimensions for the expression so that the quantity on the right properly
represents a force. The strength of the electrostatic interaction between charges. is related
to the inverse of permittivity. In this sense the permittivity plays a role for electrical forces
which is analogous to that played by the gravitational constant in Newton’s expression for
the gravitational force between two masses. The experiment to be performed with a
Coulomb Balance is to measure the force between two separated charged objects
having a known voltage between them and having a known configuration. From
the data, the value of 0 can be deduced. The experiment is the electrical analog of
the Cavendish experiment for gravitational forces, which measures the gravitational force
between two known masses.

1
PHYS-UA 72 Intro to Exp Physics II Coulomb Balance

Maxwell showed in the mid-19th century that by combining his equations containing the
electric and magnetic fields he could predict the existence of a propagating wave containing
both types of fields. He predicted that the speed c of the wave in vacuum is given by
1
c= √ . (2)
0 µ0

The new constant µ0 is called the “vacuum permeability.” It appears in the expression for
the force between two electrical currents separated by vacuum and is a magnetic effect. The
predicted value for c, approximately 3 × 108 meters per second, has proved to be identical to
the value obtained by Michelson for the speed of light, thereby supporting the theory that
light is an example of electromagnetic radiation. Consequently, by measuring 0 and µ0 we
have an indirect way of determining c, the speed of light. This experiment is concerned with
measuring the permittivity 0 . In a later experiment the permeability µ0 will be examined.

2 Description of the Experiment and Comments

This is a difficult experiment (not everything in life is easy), and you should
not be unduly upset if your results differ substantially from the accepted value!
See Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 on how the apparatus is assembled. In the apparatus, a parallel plate
capacitor has one fixed horizontal plate. The other plate pivots above the fixed horizontal
plate so that the separation d between the plates is variable. The position of the movable
plate can be accurately monitored by a laser beam reflected off a mirror attached to the
movable plate assembly. A small weight is placed in the center of the movable plate and
the position of the top plate is then determined. The weight is removed which causes the
plates to separate a bit. A voltage is applied between the plates so that the plate separation
is the same as when the weight was in place. The applied voltage is now producing a force
of attraction between the plates that is equal to the weight. A simple equation relates the
force, voltage, plate area, and plate separation to the permittivity of space.

3 Theory
Consider a parallel plate capacitor whose dielectric is vacuum or air, which we consider to
be equivalent for the purposes of this experiment. If a voltage V is maintained between
the plates by a power supply the plates will have charges that are equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign. The charges of opposite polarities on the plates causes an attractive force
between the plates. This force, for plates of equal area, is given by

0 AV 2
F = , (3)
2d2
where
• F is the force of attraction in newtons,

• A is the area of each plate in square meters,

2
PHYS-UA 72 Intro to Exp Physics II Coulomb Balance

• V is the potential difference between the plates in volts, and

• d is the distance separating the plates in meters.

In this experiment everything in Eq. (3) is measured or determined except 0 . The analysis
of the results will be based on Eq. (3) written in the form

2F d2
0 = . (4)
AV 2

4 The Apparatus
Fig. 1 is a photograph of the Coulomb Balance and Fig. 2 is a side sketch of the entire set-up
in cross-section. During the experiment, the bottom capacitor plate is normally fixed in
position. This plate is held by two rods that are secured by four thumbscrews. This allows
the bottom plate to be rotated and tilted if necessary. The top capacitor plate is held by two
rods that are attached to a “pivot arm” that pivots on two knife edges. This allows the top
plate to freely rotate toward and away from the bottom plate. This top plate assembly has
a counter weight or “position adjustment” weight that allows the vertical position of the top
capacitor plate to be adjusted. There is a mirror attached to the pivot arm. A laser beam
is directed onto the mirror and then reflected back to a piece of paper taped to the front of
the laser. This allows you to return the top plate to a given position with great accuracy.
The “period adjustment” weight changes the oscillation period of the top plate. Moving
this weight down makes the period of oscillation longer, and lengthens the times necessary
for the top plate to stop oscillating. This weight, being below the pivot points, also serves
to make the position of the top plate stable. Stability of the top plate increase as you the
lower this weight.
There is a “centering rod” (not shown) that is a rod with two knobs at the ends and two
off-set points. When the centering rod is rotated, the two points fit into two tapered holes
in the bottom of the pivot arm, and one can lift the pivot arm a bit. When the pivot arm
is lowered back down, the knife edges should be centered on their supports. This should be
done gently so as not to damage the knife edges.
There is a plane plastic plate the size of the capacitor plates. This is temporarily inserted
between the capacitor plates so that the two plates can be set parallel to one another at a
fixed separation d, where d is the thickness of the plastic plate. With the plastic plate
inserted and the plates pressed together, the laser beam is used “mark” the position of the
upper plate so that this position can be recovered after the plastic plate has been removed.
A metal plate attached to the pivot arm is positioned in the gap of a small permanent
magnet. As the pivot arm swings back and forth, this arrangement provides eddy current
damping.

5 Apparatus Set-Up
This apparatus is sensitive! Once you start adjusting it and taking data, don’t
lean on the bench or breath in the direction of the plates, and be careful not

3
PHYS-UA 72 Intro to Exp Physics II Coulomb Balance

to bump the table. Watch for air currents, and since the power supply has a
fan, don’t put it near the apparatus. It is all too easy to start the top plate
oscillating, and as you will find out, setting the top plate into oscillation is a
bad idea.

1. Check that the board on which the apparatus is mounted does not wobble. If it does,
adjust one of the two thumbscrews on the front of the board.

2. Measure and record the length and width of the two capacitor plates. It is not necessary
to measure the thickness of the capacitor plates.

3. Wire up the apparatus, power supply, and voltmeter as shown in Fig. 2. Leave the
power supply off and the voltage control knob fully CCW.

4. Mount the lower and upper capacitor plates as shown in Fig.1.

5. Try setting the period adjustment weight toward the lower end of its range. If you
decide to move it, you will have to realign the apparatus as described below.

6. A capacitor plate pivots on two knife edges, which rest on flat surfaces. Both the knife
edges and flat surfaces are easily damaged. Please handle them with care, using the
centering rod, described below, to center the knife edges and to gently lower the knife
edges onto the flat surfaces

7. Center the pivot arm by gently raising it and lowering it with the centering rod.

8. Check that the top capacitor plate oscillates freely. The damping plate should not
touch the magnet, and the points on the centering rod should not touch the pivot arm.
At this point look above the capacitor plates and check that the plates are perfectly
aligned to one another. If not go back adjust the plates.

4
PHYS-UA 72 Intro to Exp Physics II Coulomb Balance

9. Measure and record the thickness of the plastic plate.

10. Put the plastic plate between the capacitor plates, put a penny in the center of the top
plate to force it down onto the plastic plate, and check that the top plate lies flat on
the plastic. If it does not, loosen the four screws holding the bottom plate and make
the two plates as parallel as possible. At this point you will probably observe that the
capacitor plates are not perfectly flat. Make an estimate as to how much you think the
deviations from flatness are. The thickness of the plastic will be the minimum distance
between the plates. The average distance between the plates will be more than this.
Leave the plastic plate in place and the penny on the top plate.

11. WITH THE LASER OFF, familiarize yourself with the knobs on the tripod mount so
that you can raise, lower, and rotate the laser with ease. In adjusting the laser beam,
you may also have to move the tripod sideways.

12. Tape a piece of paper to the front of the laser and to one side of the laser beam
opening. REMINDER: DO NOT LET THE LASER BEAM OR ITS REFLECTION
ENTER YOUR EYE. Turn on the laser, open the shutter, and adjust the position and
orientation of the laser beam so that it reflects off the mirror and back onto the paper
taped to the laser. Make a horizontal mark where the laser beam strikes the paper.
You might consider making the mark not at the center of the laser beam, but at the
top or bottom of the laser beam.

13. Remove the penny and the plastic plate, taking care not to disturb the position of
the top plate. Place a 50 mg mass in the center of the top plate. Rotate the
position adjustment weight until the laser beam hits the mark you have already drawn
on the paper attached to the laser. The top plate should now be in the same position
it was in with the plastic between the plates.

14. Remove the 50 mg mass, taking care not to disturb the apparatus. The capacitor
plates will swing apart to a new equilibrium position.

15. Check your wiring and that the resistance box is set for 1 MΩ. Leave it at that value
throughout the experiment. It is more than likely that the capacitor plates will short
(touch) several times during the experiment. The 1 MΩ resistor will limit the current
to a safe value.

Note. If you are using an external voltmeter that has a sensitivity switch, you should
start with the switch in the least sensitive position so as to protect the meter. Then
choose the most sensitive scale that keeps the needle of the meter on scale. If your
voltmeter has more than one set of numbers on its scale, choose the numbers that
correspond to the full scale value as given by the sensitivity switch, adjusting the
decimal point as necessary.

5
PHYS-UA 72 Intro to Exp Physics II Coulomb Balance

6 Procedures
Set your voltmeter on the least sensitive scale. Turn on the power supply. Starting from
zero, increase the voltage between the capacitor plates. This will bring the plates toward
one another. Your goal is to swing the top plate so that the reflected laser beam
hits the mark on the paper attached to the laser, and record the voltage V
necessary to do this. The task is very difficult because as the plates get closer together,
the situation gets unstable. This is due to the fact that even if the voltage is held constant,
the force varies as 1/d2 . If the top plate, due to some perturbation, moves toward the lower
plate, the Coulomb attractive force between the plate increases, and may be larger than the
restoring force supplied by the period adjustment weight. The top plate will accelerate into
the bottom plate. Hence the need for the 1 MΩ resistor. As the plates approach the
desired separation, increase the voltage very slowly so as not to give the top
plate too much momentum toward the lower plate. If you have trouble, try moving
the period adjustment weight to a new position. If you do this, you will have to realign the
apparatus. Make a number of runs, obtaining multiple values of the necessary voltage V
that will result in the plates being at the same position as with the 50 mg on the top plate.
At that voltage, the Coulomb force between the plates will be the weight of the 50 mg mass.
Use Eq. (4) to obtain multiple values of 0 . Compare your values to the accepted value.

7 Additional Questions
1. In placing the 50 mg mass on the top plate, you are advised to place this mass in the
center of the top plate. Would you get the same result if the mass were not placed in
the center, but perhaps closer or further away from the balance beam? Discuss.

2. Identify and discuss what you consider to be the main sources of error. Could you
suggest how some of these errors might be reduced?

3. There is an instability in the experiment in that the force between the plates increases
slightly with decreasing distance between the plates (why do you think this is?

8 Comment
The Coulomb and Gravitational forces are similar in that their strength varies inversely
with the square of the distance. They differ in that the Coulomb force can be repulsive as
well as attractive, and in that the Coulomb force between elementary particles is orders of
magnitude stronger than the gravitational force. In analyzing the hydrogen atom and other
atoms, the gravitational force is totally ignored.

9 Finishing Up
Please leave the bench as you found it. Thank you.

6
PHYS-UA 72 Intro to Exp Physics II Coulomb Balance

Figure 1: Coulomb Balance

l
aserbeam
mi
rror
pi
votar
m
l
aser
d = gap s
paci
ng

paper
capaci
tor
kni
fe plat
es
edge

per
iod
adj
ustment magneti
c
wei
ght damping
devi
ce

Res
ist
ance Power Vol
tmet
er
+ com
Box(1MΩ) Suppl
y
+

Figure 2: Setup Cross Section