Hardware and Software Interfacing

Computer Architecture and Organization:

Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a programmeror, put
another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.
Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits used to
represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and techniques for
addressing memory.
For example, it is an architectural design issue whether a computer will have a multiply
instruction. It is an organizational issue whether that instruction will be implemented by a
special multiply unit or by a mechanism that makes repeated use of the add unit of the
system.
Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize
the architectural specifications.
Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the programmer, such
as control signals; interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the memory
technology used.
Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer models, all with the same
architecture but with differences in organization.
Consequently, the different models in the family have different price and performance
characteristics.
Furthermore, a particular architecture may span many years and encompass a number of
different computer models, its organization changing with changing technology.
Structure and Function:
Structure: The way in which the components are interrelated
There are four main structural components:
Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.
Main memory: Stores data.
I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU,
main memory, and I/O. A common example of system interconnection is by means of a
system bus, consisting of a number of conducting wires to which all the other components
attach.
Function: The operation of each individual component as part of the structure
In general, there are four basic functions:
• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control
The computer, of course, must be able to process data. The data may take a wide variety of
forms, and the range of processing requirements is broad. However, there are only a few
fundamental methods or types of data processing.
It is also essential that a computer store data. Even if the computer is processing data on the
fly (i.e., data come in and get processed, and the results go out immediately), the computer
must temporarily store at least those pieces of data that are being worked on at any given
moment. Thus, there is at least a short-term data storage function.
Equally important, the computer performs a long-term data storage function. Files of data are
stored on the computer for subsequent retrieval and update.
The computer must be able to move data between itself and the outside world.
The computer’s operating environment consists of devices that serve as either sources or
destinations of data. When data are received from or delivered to a device that is directly
connected to the computer, the process is known as input–output (I/O), and the device is
referred to as a peripheral. When data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote
device, the process is known as data communications.
Finally, there must be control of these three functions. Ultimately, this control is exercised by
the individual(s) who provides the computer with instructions. Within the computer, a control
unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional
parts in response to those instructions.
Hardware and Software Interfacing
Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to do. Software is created
through the process of programming. Without software, the hardware would not be
functional.
Software can be broadly divided into two categories: Operating systems and Application
software. Operating systems manage the hardware and create the interface between the
hardware and the user. Application software is the category of programs that do something
useful for the user.
Operating systems:
The operating system provides several essential functions, including:
• managing the hardware resources of the computer;
• providing the user-interface components;
• providing a platform for software developers to write applications.
Most popular operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows, Apple’s OS X (earlier known as
Macintosh operating system (MAC)), and Linux.

Application Software
The second major category of software is application software. Application software is,
essentially, software that allows the user to accomplish some goal or purpose.
For example, Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, Power Point), Internet Browser, Music Player
or Computer Games etc.
Communications Protocol:
A communications protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to transmit or exchange
data, especially across a network. They are used for a variety of purposes, such as:
Transferring files, Automating processes, Text-based communications, and Accessing the
Internet.
A standardised communications protocol is one that has been codified as a standard.
Examples of these include WiFi, the Internet Protocol, and the Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP). Some examples of communication protocols and standards include:
When you connect a microcontroller to a sensor, display, or other module, do you ever think
about how the two devices talk to each other? What exactly are they saying? How are they
able to understand each other?
Communication between electronic devices is like communication between humans. Both
sides need to speak the same language. In electronics, these languages are called
communication protocols. Luckily for us, there are only a few communication protocols we
need to know when building most DIY electronics projects. In this series of articles, we will
discuss the basics of the three most common protocols: Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI),
Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C), and Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
driven communication.

First, we’ll begin with some basic concepts about electronic communication, then explain in
detail how SPI works. In the next article, we’ll discuss UART driven communication, and in
the third article, we’ll dive into I2C.

SPI, I2C, and UART are quite a bit slower than protocols like USB, ethernet, Bluetooth, and
WiFi, but they’re a lot more simple and use less hardware and system resources. SPI, I2C,
and UART are ideal for communication between microcontrollers and between
microcontrollers and sensors where large amounts of high speed data don’t need to be
transferred.
Serial vs. Parallel Communication
Electronic devices talk to each other by sending bits of data through wires physically
connected between devices. A bit is like a letter in a word, except instead of the 26 letters (in
the English alphabet), a bit is binary and can only be a 1 or 0. Bits are transferred from one
device to another by quick changes in voltage. In a system operating at 5 V, a 0 bit is
communicated as a short pulse of 0 V, and a 1 bit is communicated by a short pulse of 5 V.

The bits of data can be transmitted either in parallel or serial form. In parallel
communication, the bits of data are sent all at the same time, each through a separate wire.
The following diagram shows the parallel transmission of the letter “C” in binary
(01000011):
In serial communication, the bits are sent one by one through a single wire. The following
diagram shows the serial transmission of the letter “C” in binary (01000011):

Introduction to SPI Communication

SPI is a common communication protocol used by many different devices. For example, SD
card reader modules, RFID card reader modules, and 2.4 GHz wireless transmitter/receivers
all use SPI to communicate with microcontrollers.

One unique benefit of SPI is the fact that data can be transferred without interruption. Any
number of bits can be sent or received in a continuous stream. With I2C and UART, data is
sent in packets, limited to a specific number of bits. Start and stop conditions define the
beginning and end of each packet, so the data is interrupted during transmission.

Devices communicating via SPI are in a master-slave relationship. The master is the
controlling device (usually a microcontroller), while the slave (usually a sensor, display, or
memory chip) takes instruction from the master. The simplest configuration of SPI is a single
master, single slave system, but one master can control more than one slave (more on this
below).
MOSI (Master Output/Slave Input) – Line for the master to send data to the slave.

MISO (Master Input/Slave Output) – Line for the slave to send data to the master.

SCLK (Clock) – Line for the clock signal.

SS/CS (Slave Select/Chip Select) – Line for the master to select which slave to send data to.

*In practice, the number of slaves is limited by the load capacitance of the system, which
reduces the ability of the master to accurately switch between voltage levels.
How SPI Works
The Clock
The clock signal synchronizes the output of data bits from the master to the sampling of bits
by the slave. One bit of data is transferred in each clock cycle, so the speed of data transfer is
determined by the frequency of the clock signal. SPI communication is always initiated by
the master since the master configures and generates the clock signal.
Any communication protocol where devices share a clock signal is known
as synchronous. SPI is a synchronous communication protocol. There are
also asynchronous methods that don’t use a clock signal. For example, in UART
communication, both sides are set to a pre-configured baud rate that dictates the speed and
timing of data transmission.
The clock signal in SPI can be modified using the properties of clock polarity and clock
phase. These two properties work together to define when the bits are output and when they
are sampled. Clock polarity can be set by the master to allow for bits to be output and
sampled on either the rising or falling edge of the clock cycle. Clock phase can be set for
output and sampling to occur on either the first edge or second edge of the clock cycle,
regardless of whether it is rising or falling.
Slave Select
The master can choose which slave it wants to talk to by setting the slave’s CS/SS line to a
low voltage level. In the idle, non-transmitting state, the slave select line is kept at a high
voltage level. Multiple CS/SS pins may be available on the master, which allows for multiple
slaves to be wired in parallel. If only one CS/SS pin is present, multiple slaves can be wired
to the master by daisy-chaining.
Multiple Slaves
SPI can be set up to operate with a single master and a single slave, and it can be set up with
multiple slaves controlled by a single master. There are two ways to connect multiple slaves
to the master. If the master has multiple slave select pins, the slaves can be wired in parallel
like this:

If only one slave select pin is available, the slaves can be daisy-chained like this:
MOSI and MISO
The master sends data to the slave bit by bit, in serial through the MOSI line. The slave
receives the data sent from the master at the MOSI pin. Data sent from the master to the slave
is usually sent with the most significant bit first.
The slave can also send data back to the master through the MISO line in serial. The data sent
from the slave back to the master is usually sent with the least significant bit first.
Steps of SPI Data Transmission
1. The master outputs the clock signal:

2. The master switches the SS/CS pin to a low voltage state, which activates the slave:
3. The master sends the data one bit at a time to the slave along the MOSI line. The slave
reads the bits as they are received:

4. If a response is needed, the slave returns data one bit at a time to the master along the
MISO line. The master reads the bits as they are received:

Advantages and Disadvantages of SPI

There are some advantages and disadvantages to using SPI, and if given the choice between
different communication protocols, you should know when to use SPI according to the
requirements of your project:
Advantages
● No start and stop bits, so the data can be streamed continuously without interruption
● No complicated slave addressing system like I2C
● Higher data transfer rate than I2C (almost twice as fast)
● Separate MISO and MOSI lines, so data can be sent and received at the same time
Disadvantages
● Uses four wires (I2C and UARTs use two)
● No acknowledgement that the data has been successfully received (I2C has this)
● No form of error checking like the parity bit in UART
● Only allows for a single master
UART:
Basics of UART Communication

Remember when printers, mice, and modems had thick cables with those huge clunky
connectors? The ones that literally had to be screwed into your computer? Those devices
were probably using UARTs to communicate with your computer. While USB has almost
completely replaced those old cables and connectors, UARTs are definitely not a thing of the
past. You’ll find UARTs being used in many DIY electronics projects to connect GPS
modules, Bluetooth modules, and RFID card reader modules to your Raspberry Pi, Arduino,
or other microcontrollers.
UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter. It’s not a communication
protocol like SPI and I2C, but a physical circuit in a microcontroller, or a stand-alone IC. A
UART’s main purpose is to transmit and receive serial data.

One of the best things about UART is that it only uses two wires to transmit data between
devices. The principles behind UART are easy to understand, but if you haven’t read part one
of this series, Basics of the SPI Communication Protocol, that might be a good place to start.

Introduction to UART Communication

In UART communication, two UARTs communicate directly with each other. The
transmitting UART converts parallel data from a controlling device like a CPU into serial
form, transmits it in serial to the receiving UART, which then converts the serial data back
into parallel data for the receiving device. Only two wires are needed to transmit data
between two UARTs. Data flows from the Tx pin of the transmitting UART to the Rx pin of
the receiving UART:
UARTs transmit data asynchronously, which means there is no clock signal to synchronize
the output of bits from the transmitting UART to the sampling of bits by the receiving
UART. Instead of a clock signal, the transmitting UART adds start and stop bits to the data
packet being transferred. These bits define the beginning and end of the data packet so the
receiving UART knows when to start reading the bits.

When the receiving UART detects a start bit, it starts to read the incoming bits at a specific
frequency known as the baud rate. Baud rate is a measure of the speed of data transfer,
expressed in bits per second (bps). Both UARTs must operate at about the same baud rate.
The baud rate between the transmitting and receiving UARTs can only differ by about 10%
before the timing of bits gets too far off.

Both UARTs must be configured to transmit and receive the same data packet structure.

How UART Works

The UART that is going to transmit data receives the data from a data bus. The data bus is
used to send data to the UART by another device like a CPU, memory, or microcontroller.
Data is transferred from the data bus to the transmitting UART in parallel form. After the
transmitting UART gets the parallel data from the data bus, it adds a start bit, a parity bit, and
a stop bit, creating the data packet. Next, the data packet is output serially, bit by bit at the Tx
pin. The receiving UART reads the data packet bit by bit at its Rx pin. The receiving UART
then converts the data back into parallel form and removes the start bit, parity bit, and stop
bits. Finally, the receiving UART transfers the data packet in parallel to the data bus on the
receiving end:
UART transmitted data is organized into packets. Each packet contains 1 start bit, 5 to 9 data
bits (depending on the UART), an optional parity bit, and 1 or 2 stop bits:

Start Bit
The UART data transmission line is normally held at a high voltage level when it’s not
transmitting data. To start the transfer of data, the transmitting UART pulls the transmission
line from high to low for one clock cycle. When the receiving UART detects the high to low
voltage transition, it begins reading the bits in the data frame at the frequency of the baud
rate.

Data Frame
The data frame contains the actual data being transferred. It can be 5 bits up to 8 bits long if a
parity bit is used. If no parity bit is used, the data frame can be 9 bits long. In most cases, the
data is sent with the least significant bit first.

Parity
Parity describes the evenness or oddness of a number. The parity bit is a way for the
receiving UART to tell if any data has changed during transmission. Bits can be changed by
electromagnetic radiation, mismatched baud rates, or long distance data transfers. After the
receiving UART reads the data frame, it counts the number of bits with a value of 1 and
checks if the total is an even or odd number. If the parity bit is a 0 (even parity), the 1 bits in
the data frame should total to an even number. If the parity bit is a 1 (odd parity), the 1 bits in
the data frame should total to an odd number. When the parity bit matches the data, the
UART knows that the transmission was free of errors. But if the parity bit is a 0, and the total
is odd; or the parity bit is a 1, and the total is even, the UART knows that bits in the data
frame have changed.
Stop Bits
To signal the end of the data packet, the sending UART drives the data transmission line
from a low voltage to a high voltage for at least two bit durations.

Steps of UART Transmission

1. The transmitting UART receives data in parallel from the data bus:

2. The transmitting UART adds the start bit, parity bit, and the stop bit(s) to the data frame:

3. The entire packet is sent serially from the transmitting UART to the receiving UART. The
receiving UART samples the data line at the pre-configured baud rate:
4. The receiving UART discards the start bit, parity bit, and stop bit from the data frame:

5. The receiving UART converts the serial data back into parallel and transfers it to the data
bus on the receiving end:

Advantages and Disadvantages of UARTs

No communication protocol is perfect, but UARTs are pretty good at what they do. Here are
some pros and cons to help you decide whether or not they fit the needs of your project:
Advantages
● Only uses two wires
● No clock signal is necessary
● Has a parity bit to allow for error checking
● The structure of the data packet can be changed as long as both sides are set up for it
● Well documented and widely used method
Disadvantages
● The size of the data frame is limited to a maximum of 9 bits
● Doesn’t support multiple slave or multiple master systems
● The baud rates of each UART must be within 10% of each other
I2C
Introduction to I2C Communication
I2C combines the best features of SPI and UARTs. With I2C, you can connect multiple
slaves to a single master (like SPI) and you can have multiple masters controlling single, or
multiple slaves. This is really useful when you want to have more than one microcontroller
logging data to a single memory card or displaying text to a single LCD.

Like UART communication, I2C only uses two wires to transmit data between devices:

SDA (Serial Data) – The line for the master and slave to send and receive data.
SCL (Serial Clock) – The line that carries the clock signal.
I2C is a serial communication protocol, so data is transferred bit by bit along a single wire
(the SDA line).
Like SPI, I2C is synchronous, so the output of bits is synchronized to the sampling of bits by
a clock signal shared between the master and the slave. The clock signal is always controlled
by the master.
How I2C Works
With I2C, data is transferred in messages. Messages are broken up into frames of data. Each
message has an address frame that contains the binary address of the slave, and one or more
data frames that contain the data being transmitted. The message also includes start and stop
conditions, read/write bits, and ACK/NACK bits between each data frame:

Start Condition: The SDA line switches from a high voltage level to a low voltage level
before the SCL line switches from high to low.

Stop Condition: The SDA line switches from a low voltage level to a high voltage level after
the SCL line switches from low to high.

Address Frame: A 7 or 10 bit sequence unique to each slave that identifies the slave when the
master wants to talk to it.

Read/Write Bit: A single bit specifying whether the master is sending data to the slave (low
voltage level) or requesting data from it (high voltage level).

ACK/NACK Bit: Each frame in a message is followed by an acknowledge/no-acknowledge

bit. If an address frame or data frame was successfully received, an ACK bit is returned to the
sender from the receiving device.

Addressing
I2C doesn’t have slave select lines like SPI, so it needs another way to let the slave know that
data is being sent to it, and not another slave. It does this by addressing. The address frame is
always the first frame after the start bit in a new message.

The master sends the address of the slave it wants to communicate with to every slave
connected to it. Each slave then compares the address sent from the master to its own address.
If the address matches, it sends a low voltage ACK bit back to the master. If the address
doesn’t match, the slave does nothing and the SDA line remains high.
Read/Write Bit
The address frame includes a single bit at the end that informs the slave whether the master
wants to write data to it or receive data from it. If the master wants to send data to the slave,
the read/write bit is a low voltage level. If the master is requesting data from the slave, the bit
is a high voltage level.

The Data Frame

After the master detects the ACK bit from the slave, the first data frame is ready to be sent.

The data frame is always 8 bits long, and sent with the most significant bit first. Each data
frame is immediately followed by an ACK/NACK bit to verify that the frame has been
received successfully. The ACK bit must be received by either the master or the slave
(depending on who is sending the data) before the next data frame can be sent.

After all of the data frames have been sent, the master can send a stop condition to the slave
to halt the transmission. The stop condition is a voltage transition from low to high on the
SDA line after a low to high transition on the SCL line, with the SCL line remaining high.

Steps of I2C Data Transmission

1. The master sends the start condition to every connected slave by switching the SDA line
from a high voltage level to a low voltage level before switching the SCL line from high to
low:

2. The master sends each slave the 7 or 10 bit address of the slave it wants to communicate
with, along with the read/write bit:
3. Each slave compares the address sent from the master to its own address. If the address
matches, the slave returns an ACK bit by pulling the SDA line low for one bit. If the address
from the master does not match the slave’s own address, the slave leaves the SDA line high.

4. The master sends or receives the data frame:

5. After each data frame has been transferred, the receiving device returns another ACK bit to
the sender to acknowledge successful receipt of the frame:
6. To stop the data transmission, the master sends a stop condition to the slave by switching
SCL high before switching SDA high:

Advantages and Disadvantages of I2C

There is a lot to I2C that might make it sound complicated compared to other protocols, but
there are some good reasons why you may or may not want to use I2C to connect to a
particular device:

Advantages
● Only uses two wires
● Supports multiple masters and multiple slaves
● ACK/NACK bit gives confirmation that each frame is transferred successfully
● Hardware is less complicated than with UARTs
● Well known and widely used protocol
Disadvantages
● Slower data transfer rate than SPI
● The size of the data frame is limited to 8 bits
● More complicated hardware needed to implement than SPI