DETRERMINATION OF BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN SOME

LOCALLY CONSUMED FOODS IN NASARAWA STATE AND BENUE

STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

ABUBAKAR SANI HASSAN

0219044001827

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
(HONS) DEGREE TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY,
NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY KEFFI, NASARAWA STATE
NIGERIA.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY,

FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES,

NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY, KEFFI.

OCTOBER, 2024.

i
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project has been written by me and is a report of my research work.

It has not been presented in any previous application for a degree. All quotations are

indicated and sources of information specifically acknowledged by means of references.

________________________ ________________________

Abubakar Sani Hassan Signature/ Date

0219044001827

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work was prepared and written by Abubakar Sani Hassan,

0219044001827 under the guidance and supervision of Mr. Hassan M. Abdullahi in the

Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Nasarawa State

University, Keffi.

______________________ __________________
Mr. Hassan M. Abdullahi Date
(Supervisor)

______________________ __________________
Dr . C.C. Nweze Date
(Head of Department)

______________________ __________________
External Examiner Date

iii
 DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah and my beloved parent’s Mr. and Mrs.

Sani Hassan.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My most profound gratitude goes to Allah Almighty who provided wisdom, strength, good

health and understanding in the course of the research.

I express my sincere and whole hearted gratitude, to my supervisor Mr. M.H. Abdullahi, for

his time, efforts, contributions, regular advice, and magnitude of dynamic guidance,

suggestion and encouragement throughout the course of this research.

This acknowledgement remains incomplete without expressing my profound gratitude the

Head of Department Dr. C.C. Nweze, my sincere thanks goes to our tireless exams officer

Mr. Aminu Dallah for his efforts in making our results a success, I would also like to

acknowledge Dr. M. Bawa, our friendly lecturer for his effort and time in making sure

everything is in place for us to succeed. Also, I would like to thank Mr. G.S. Haruna, Prof.

J.P. Mairiga, Mrs. Rhimat, Mr. Yahaya, Mr. Lawal, Dr. Daiko and the entire staff of the

department of Biochemistry. I am grateful for your timeless efforts in giving me advices,

encouragement and for shaping and sharpening my intellectual, throughout my academic

period.

I am forever grateful to my lovely parents, my father Late Alhaji Sani Hassan and my

mother’s Hajiya Sa’adatu Sani, and Hajiya Talatu Sani, for their countless effort in proper

upbringing, consistent advice, financial support toward assurance of my success, may

Almighty Allah increase them in health, wealth, long life, prosperity and make them among

the dwellers of paradise.

v
My sincere appreciation also goes to my brothers and sisters; Abdulrahman, Fauziyat,

Ummisalmat, Aliyu Ohunene Zainab, Isah hafsat Abdullahi, Amrah Haruna Abubakar for

their love, moral and financial support toward pursuing my academic endeavors.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Cover page - - - - - - - - - - i

Declaration - - - - - - - - - - ii

Certification - - - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - v

Table of Content - - - - - - - - - vi

List of Tables - - - - - - - - - ix

List of Figures - - - - - - - - - x

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - xi

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the research problem - - - - - - 3

1.3 Justification of the Study - - - - - - - 4

1.4 Aims and Objectives - - - - - - - - 5

7
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Food and Nutrition - - - - - - - - 6

2.1.1 Food composition - - - - - - - - 7

2.1.2 Food Composition Data - - - - - - - - 16

2.2 Non-Communicable Disease - - - - - - - -

19

2.2.1 Key Risk Factors of Non-communicable Diseases - - - - - 20

2.2.2 Common Non-Communicable Diseases - - - - - - 21

2.2.3 Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases - - - - - 46

2.3 Bioactive Compounds - - - - - - - - 52

2.3.1 Silicon-Containing Compounds - - - - - - - 54

2.3.2 Aromatic Amines - - - - - - - - - 55

2.3.3 Nitroaromatics - - - - - - - - - 56

2.3.4 Heterocyclic Compounds - - - - - - - - 58

2.3.5 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives - - - - - - - 59

2.3.6 Organic Bases - - - - - - - - - - 60

8
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials - - - - - - - - - - 62

3.2 Methodology - - - - - - - - - - 63

3.2.1 Study design - - - - - - - - - - 63

3.2.2 Area of Study and Sampling - - - - - - - - 63

3.2.3 Sample Preparation - - - - - - - - 69

3.2.4 Data collection method - - - - - - - - 74

3.2.5 Extraction of Sample - - - - - - - - 75

3.2.6 Determination of Fatty Acids - - - - - - - 76

3.2.6.1 Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) - - - - 76

3.2.6.2 Principle Using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) - - 76

3.2.6.3 Oxalate - - - - - - - - - - 77

3.3 Statistical Analysis - - - - - - - - 79

CHAPTER FOUR

9
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results - - - - - - - - - - 80

4.2 Discussion - - - - - - - - - 90

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 92

5.2 Recommendations - - - - - - - - 92

References - - - - - - - - - 94

LIST OF TABLES

The Major Dietary Carbohydrates - - - - - - - 10

10
Table 2.1. Common Foods Consumed in Benue State - - - - 18

Table 2.2. Common Foods Consumed in Nassarawa State - - - - 19

Table 2.3: Risk Factors of Non-communicable Diseases - - - - 21

Table 3.1. Name of Senatorial District for the Survey - - - - 65

Table 3.2. Names of Senatorial District for the Survey - - - - 66

Table 4.1. GCMS analysis of some locally consumed foods - - - - 85

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Pathophysiology of Chronic Kidney Disease - - - - 27

11
Figure 2.2. Pathophysiology of Stroke - - - - - - 31

Figure 2.3. Pathophysiology of Hypertension - - - - - 36

Figure 2.4. Pathophysiology of Diabetes - - - - - - 41

Figure 2.5. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - - - - - 44

Figure 2.6. Chemical structure of Silicon-containing compounds - - - 55

Figure 2.7. Chemical structures of Aromatic Amines - - - - - 56

Figure 2.8. Chemical structure of Nitroaromatics compounds - - - 58

Figure 2.9. Chemical structure of Heterocyclic compounds - - - - 59

Figure 2.10. Chemical structure of Carboxylic acid derivatives - - - 60

Figure 2.11. Chemical structure of Organic Bases - - - - - 61

Figure 4.1. Response of the food analysis from Nasarawa State in Nigeria - - 81

Figure 4.2. Response of the food analysis from Benue State in Nigeria - - 83

ABSTRACT
Bioactive compounds are active compounds present in small quantities in food having the ability
to improve present or prevent any potential health condition. Compounds such as bioactive

12
peptides, phytosterols, fibers, fatty acids, and vitamins have the ability to regulate various
metabolic processes in human body such as free radical scavenging, inhibition or induction of
gene expression, receptor activity, and enzymes. To analyze the bioactive compounds of locally
consumed food in Nasarawa state and Benue state. Cross-sectional study design was used in this
study. The study took place from February 20204. Actual data collection lasted for 3 months
across the states (Nasarawa state and Benue state). The data expressed as mean ± standard
deviation, were analyzed by frequency and one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) using
statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 software, and p<0.05 was taken to be
significant. The result of the bioactive compounds composition of various locally consumed
foods in Nasarawa state and Benue state are presented in figure 4.1 and 4.2 presented various
foods consumed in Nasarawa state and Benue state classified based on their frequency of
appearance in the questionnaire from into the most consumed, moderately consumed and least
consumed and bioactive compounds composition of locally consumed foods with GCMS
analyses. The analyses of bioactive compounds of locally consumed food from Nasarawa state
and Benue state reveals significant insight into the nutritional quality and dietary patterns of this
regions. The study highlights the presence of various bioactive compounds, in the selected food
samples. This diversity is essential for understanding the potential health implications of the
local diet.

CHAPTER ONE

13
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Food consumption is a dynamic aspect of daily life, shaping dietary patterns and nutritional

intake. It is intricately linked to the choices individuals make regarding the foods they consume,

which, in turn, influence their overall health and nutrition. Local food, produced in close

proximity to where it is consumed, represents a key component of food consumption practices,

often distinguished by a unique social structure and supply chain, differing from the large-scale

supermarket system (Federal Ministry of Health Nigeria, 2019). Local diets often rely heavily on

traditional food sources and the nutritional content of these foods is influenced by various

factors, including cultivation practices, soil quality and processing methods (Osendarp et al.,

2020).

Nutrition is a critical aspect of public health, directly impacting the well-being of individuals and

communities. There has been an increase in the consumption of carbohydrate foods like yam,

cassava, maize and rice and some decrease in the consumption of such food items as fish, fresh

fruits, as well as fresh and processed vegetables. Nutrition plays a pivotal role in ensuring a

healthy populace, and understanding the composition of vitamins in locally consumed meals is

crucial for promoting overall well-being. In Benue, a state rich in diverse cultural cuisines, the

nutritional content of indigenous foods forms an integral part of daily life. Nutrients are

substances that provide nourishment and support the growth, maintenance, and proper

functioning of the human body (Gaman et al., 2019). They are essential for various physiological

processes and can be categorized into macronutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats,

and micronutrients such as, minerals and vitamins (Muhammed et al., 2020).

14
Bioactive compounds are naturally occurring biologically active extra nutritional compounds.

Various food and food products of plant, animal, and aquatic origin contain these compounds in

small quantities. Due to the presence of bioactive compounds, these foods are able to provide

benefits beyond the delivery of the basic nutrients (Kris-Etherton et al. 2020). These compounds

provide health benefits owing to their ability to regulate and modulate one or more essential

metabolic processes and functions (Galanakis 2017). These biologically active compounds are

generally produced as secondary metabolites by plants and microorganisms. Increasing

awareness about the effect of diet on the individual’s health and wellbeing gives rise to

consumers’ concern about what they are being served in the name of RTE or processed foods

(Day et al. 2019). Numerous chronic diseases (obesity, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, cancers,

etc.) are progressing as an effect of various environmental factors, specific type of eating

(consumption of food high in fat, sugar, and salt), and lifestyle habits (lack of exercise,

inactivity). Foreseeing possibilities of chronic diseases, consumers demand for foods with

health-promoting elements other than just containing basic nutrients and calories (Bech-Larsen et

al., 2018). As per the increasing demand of the consumer, now food industries also need to keep

the focus on health-promoting element of the food and food ingredients other than just safety of

these food and food ingredients (Day et al. 2019). In light of current scenario, the inclusion of

natural bioactive compounds in processed food products is gaining more importance for food

industries. It will also aid in changing consumer perception that unprocessed or minimally

processed foods hold more health benefits than their processed versions (Shahidi 2021).

Therefore, more and more industries are engaged in the extraction of natural bioactive

compounds so that these compounds can be used as additives in food processing where they will

15
serve both the purposes of technological advancement in processing and health benefits to the

consumers (Galanakis et al. 2013). Soluble dietary fibers are

examples of one such bioactive compound. Food industries have initiated to incorporate these as

fat substitutes and gelling agents, which lower the blood lipids level and stabilize emulsion,

respectively. Similarly, compounds such as ascorbic acid, polyphenols, tocopherols, and

carotenoids can execute both preservation (vegetable oil and emulsions) and nutritional

(reducing aging process, preventing cancer, etc.) functions by scavenging free radicals

(Galanakis et al. 2015) Therefore, investigating the composition of vitamins in locally consumed

meals is pivotal, as it directly influences the health and disease susceptibility of individuals

within Benue State and Nasarawa State.

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem

The nutritional composition of locally consumed meals in Benue State and Nasarawa state lacks

comprehensive investigation, creating a substantial knowledge gap regarding the presence and

quantity of essential vitamins in these traditional dishes. This gap poses a critical concern for

public health as it hinders informed dietary recommendations and interventions tailored to the

region's unique dietary habits. The absence of data on bioactive compounds content in Benue's

traditional meals and Nasarawa’s traditional meals obscures the understanding of potential

nutritional deficiencies prevalent among its populace (Gaman et al., 2019).

The scarcity of information regarding the specific bioactive compounds present in locally

consumed dishes in Benue State and Nasarawa State inhibits the ability to address potential

deficiencies effectively. This knowledge gap may lead to inadvertent neglect of crucial

nutritional aspects, impacting the overall health and well-being of the community. Without a

16
detailed analysis of the fat composition, it remains challenging to develop targeted strategies to

enhance the nutritional quality of these meals and promote better health outcomes among the

populace. This study aims to bridge this gap by providing valuable insights into the types and

quantities of bioactive compounds present in these traditional dishes, enabling informed

nutritional guidelines and interventions tailored to address the specific dietary needs of the

Nasarawa and Benue population (Madukwe and Ene-Obong, 2022).

1.3 Justification of the Study

The determination of bioactive compounds in some locally consumed food in Nassarawa state

and Benue state is rooted in its potential to address critical gaps in knowledge and contribute to

the well-being of the population. Firstly, there is a notable absence of comprehensive data

regarding the types and quantities of bioactive compounds present in locally consumed foods in

Nasarawa State and Benue state. Understanding the specific bioactive compounds content is

essential for assessing the potential health risks associated with these foods. Moreover, the lack

of awareness among the population about fatty acids and their implications on health contributes

to suboptimal dietary practices. By shedding light on the presence and impact of bioactive

compounds, the study aims to raise awareness among the local community, fostering informed

dietary choices.

Furthermore, the study is also justified by the potential consequences of bioactive compounds on

nutrient absorption and overall health, which have not been thoroughly explored in the context of

Nasarawa State and Benue state. Identifying and quantifying bioactive compounds in various

locally consumed foods will provide valuable insights into their prevalence and concentrations,

enabling a better understanding of potential health risks. Lastly, the study's findings can serve as

17
 a foundation for evidence-based recommendations and interventions. It can inform policymakers,

health professionals and the general public about strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of

bioactive compounds, such as refining dietary habits and food processing practices.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to determine the bioactive compounds analysis in some locally

consumed foods in Benue State and Nasarawa State.

The specific objectives include:

i. To identify the commonly consumed foods in Benue State and Nasarawa State via the

administration of questionnaires.

ii. To determine the bioactive compounds composition in locally consumed foods in Benue State

and Nasarawa State.

18
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Food and Nutrition

Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant,

animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins,

vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the

organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Human nutrition science

has greatly developed in the past decades, turning from the consideration of foods as simply

energy sources to the recognition of their role in maintaining health and in reducing the risk of

disease (German et al., 2022). The importance of food for human health is not a new concept,

considering Hippocrates’s sentence ‘‘Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food’’; the

recent progresses in analytical methods allowed scientists to demonstrate the role of food in

human health, and not to simply hypothesize it (Valdes et al., 2022). So, according to another

Hippocrates’s sentence ‘‘There are in fact two things, science and opinion; the former begets

knowledge, the latter ignorance’’, nowadays we are not simply thinking that a good diet is

important for health, but we can demonstrate it, evidencing the mechanisms underlying these

health effects. In recent years, food science greatly grew as well, developing new food products,

designing processes to produce these foods, improving packaging materials, food shelf-life, and

sensory characteristics. Food chemistry, devoted to the evaluation of the molecular composition

of food and the involvement of these molecules in chemical reactions, food physical chemistry,

19
which studies both physical and chemical interactions in foods, and food microbiology also took

great advantages from the new analytical methods.

Researchers are now facing the possibility of connecting food components, foods, the diet, the

individual, the health, and the diseases, but this broad vision needs not only the application of

advanced technologies, but mainly the ability of looking at the problem with a different

approach, a ‘‘foodomics approach’’. Foodomics is the comprehensive, high-throughput approach

for the exploitation of food science in the light of an improvement of human nutrition.

Foodomics is a new approach to food and nutrition that studies the food domain as a whole with

the nutrition domain to reach the main objective, the optimization of human health and well-

being (Capozzi and Bordoni, 2012).

2.1.1 Food Composition

Food is mainly composed of water, lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Minerals (e.g., salts) and

organic substances (e.g., vitamins) can also be found in food. Plants, algae, and some

microorganisms use photosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients (Rahman and

McCarthy, 2021). Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself. Water

and fiber have low energy densities, or calories, while fat is the most energy-dense component

(Zoroddu et al., 2019). The seven major classes of food are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals,

proteins, vitamins, and water. Nutrients can be grouped as either macronutrients or

micronutrients (needed in small quantities). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are macronutrients,

and provide energy. Water and fiber are macronutrients, but do not provide energy. The

micronutrients are minerals and vitamins (World Health Organization and Food and Agricultural

Organization of the United Nations, 2018). The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water)

20
provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell

membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material

can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or

kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little

'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per

gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on

such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance

(Berg et al., 2020).

Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A

third class of dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to

be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain

unclear. For all age groups, males on average need to consume higher amounts of macronutrients

than females. In general, intakes increase with age until the second or third decade of life

(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2018). Some nutrients can be stored – the fat-soluble vitamins –

while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of

required nutrients, or for some vitamins and minerals, too much of a required nutrient. Essential

nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, and must be obtained from food (Australian Bureau

of Statistics, 2018).

Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted bioactive compounds monomers bound to a glycerol

backbone. Some bioactive compounds, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be

synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen,

and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids,

some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the

21
amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for

energy production just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking

down existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are

discarded, primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during

periods of starvation (Nelson and Cox, 2017)

i. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of

1:2:1 (Lanza et al., 2020). Carbohydrates can be classified into three main groups: sugars,

starches, and fibers. Sugars, such as glucose and fructose, are simple carbohydrates, while

starches and fibers are complex carbohydrates. These compounds serve as the primary source of

energy for the human body, playing a crucial role in various physiological processes (Daniel et

al., 2023).

Sources of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are found in a wide variety of foods, including fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes,

and dairy products (Amsterdam, 2018). Simple carbohydrates are abundant in fruits, honey, and

refined sugars, while complex carbohydrates are prevalent in starchy foods like potatoes, rice,

and bread. Additionally, dietary fibers, a type of carbohydrate that cannot be digested by the

human body, are found in whole grains, vegetables, and legumes. It is important to consume a

balanced mix of these carbohydrate sources to ensure a well-rounded and nutritious diet (Miller

et al., 2020).

22
The Major Dietary Carbohydrates

(Hall KD, 2017)

Functions of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates serve several essential functions in the human body. Primarily, they are the

primary source of energy for various physiological processes (Bohm et al., 2019). Glucose, a

simple sugar derived from carbohydrates, is the preferred fuel for the brain and central nervous

system. Additionally, carbohydrates play a crucial role in the synthesis of nucleic acids and

structural components of cells (Zoroddu et al., 2019). Furthermore, dietary fibers, a type of

carbohydrate, aid in digestion and promote gastrointestinal health by adding bulk to the stool and

23
facilitating regular bowel movements. Carbohydrates also play a role in protein metabolism, as

they can be converted to glucose to meet the body's energy needs, thereby sparing protein for its

primary functions such as tissue repair and enzyme synthesis.

ii. Protein

Proteins are macronutrients that support the growth and maintenance of body tissues (Burton et

al., 2019). They are complex molecules made up of amino acids and are essential for the

structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs (Thow et al., 2018). Proteins

are composed of one or more linear chains of amino acids, folded into a globular form (Ferrani

et al., 2021). These amino acids are linked by peptide bonds and are categorized into essential

and non-essential amino acids (Rulter et al., 2017).

Sources of Protein

Proteins can be sourced from both animal and plant sources. Animal sources of protein are

generally considered as complete proteins, as they are a rich source of essential amino acids

(EAAs) which the human body is unable to biosynthesize (Malik et al., 2020). On the other

hand, plant-based proteins are also important sources of protein and can provide a variety of

essential nutrients and health benefits (Wang et al., 2019). Examples includes; hemoglobin,

insulin, collagen, antibodies, keratin, actin and myosin, enzymes, casein, albumin and ferritin.

Traditional agriculture is no longer enough to meet the global food demand as the world

24
population keeps rising, and as a result, protein is one of the main nutrients that will be in short

supply in the near future (Hawkes et al., 2015).

Functions of Protein in the Human Body

Proteins play a crucial role in the human body, serving various functions such as supporting

growth and repair of tissues, acting as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, and providing energy

(Yi et al., 2017). They are involved in the formation of muscles, tendons, organs, and skin, and

are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs (Breen,

2004). Additionally, proteins are involved in the regulation of the immune system, transportation

of molecules, and as catalysts for biochemical reactions (Naish and Court, 2018). Furthermore,

proteins are essential for the synthesis of enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, and play a vital

role in maintaining the body's fluid balance and pH level (Jayakrishnan, 2020).

iii. Fat/Lipids

Fats, also known as lipids, are a group of organic molecules that are insoluble in water but

soluble in organic solvents such as ether and chloroform (Malik et al., 2020). They are composed

of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and are characterized by their hydrophobic nature due to

the presence of long hydrocarbon chains (Xie et al., 2018). Fats serve as a concentrated source of

energy in the body, providing more than twice the amount of energy per gram compared to

carbohydrates and proteins (Thow et al., 2018).

Sources of Fat/Lipids

Fats are obtained from various dietary sources, including both animal and plant-based foods

(Wang et al., 2019). Animal sources of fats include meat, dairy products, and eggs, while plant-

25
based sources include nuts, seeds, avocados, and oils derived from plants such as olive, coconut,

and sunflower (Olusegun et al., 2020). Different types of fats can be found in these sources,

including saturated fats, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated), and trans fats.

It is important to consume a balanced amount of these different types of fats to maintain overall

health.

Functions in the human body

Fats play several crucial roles in the human body:

a. Energy Storage: Fats serve as a highly efficient energy storage form. Adipose tissue, which is

composed mainly of fat, acts as a reservoir for energy, providing a source of fuel during times of

fasting or low food intake (Roth et al., 2017).

b. Structural Component: Lipids are essential components of cell membranes, contributing to

their fluidity and integrity (Whelton et al., 2019). Phospholipids, a type of lipid, form the lipid

bilayer of cell membranes, providing a barrier that separates the internal cellular environment

from the external environment (Rauber et al., 2018).

c. Insulation and Protection: Adipose tissue also acts as insulation, helping to maintain body

temperature and protect internal organs from physical shock (Burton et al., 2019).

26
d. Absorption of Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Fats aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A,

D, E, and K) in the digestive system (Hawkws et al., 2015). These vitamins require the presence

of dietary fats for proper absorption and utilization in the body (Roth et al., 2017).

e. Hormone Production: Lipids are precursors for the synthesis of various hormones, including

steroid hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone (Akinleye et al., 2017).

iv. Minerals

Minerals are inorganic elements that are essential for various physiological functions in the

human body (Hawkes et al., 2015). These elements are required in relatively small amounts, but

they play crucial roles in maintaining overall health and well-being (Malik et al., 2020). Some of

the essential minerals include calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and selenium, among

others (German et al., 2021). These minerals are distinct from organic compounds such as

vitamins, proteins, and carbohydrates, but they are equally important for the proper functioning

of the human body (Burton et al., 2019).

Sources of Minerals

Minerals can be obtained from various sources, including food, water, and dietary supplements

(Ferrano et al., 2021). Different foods contain different minerals, and a balanced diet is essential

to ensure an adequate intake of all essential minerals (Khairunnisa et al., 2022). For example,

calcium can be found in dairy products, leafy green vegetables, and fortified foods, while iron is

abundant in red meat, poultry, fish, and legumes (Naish and Court, 2018). Additionally, certain

minerals can be obtained from drinking water, depending on the mineral content of the water

source. In cases where dietary intake may be insufficient, mineral supplements can be used to

meet the body's requirements (Xie et al., 2018).

27
Functions in the Human Body

Minerals play diverse and vital roles in the human body (Wang et al., 2019). Calcium, for

instance, is essential for bone health, muscle function, and nerve transmission. Potassium is

crucial for maintaining proper fluid balance, muscle contractions, and nerve signals (Hawkes et

al., 2015). Magnesium is involved in hundreds of biochemical reactions in the body, including

energy production, protein synthesis, and muscle function (German et al., 2021). Iron is

necessary for the production of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in the blood, while zinc is

involved in immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis. Selenium acts as an

antioxidant and is important for thyroid function and reproductive health (Khairunnisa et al.,

2022).

v. Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for normal physiological function in the

human body (Thow et al., 2018). They are micronutrients that are required in small amounts for

various biochemical processes, including growth, metabolism, and overall health (Mozaffarian et

al., 2021). Vitamins are classified into two categories: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and

water-soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins and vitamin C). Each vitamin has specific chemical

structures and functions within the body (Akinleye et al., 2017)

Sources of Vitamins

Vitamins can be obtained from a variety of sources, including food and supplements. Different

vitamins are found in different types of food (Burton et al., 2019).

28
For example, vitamin A can be found in liver, fish, and dairy products, while vitamin C is

abundant in citrus fruits, strawberries, and bell peppers (Yi et al., 2017). Vitamin D can be

synthesized by the body when the skin is exposed to sunlight, and it is also found in fatty fish

and fortified dairy products. B-complex vitamins are found in a wide range of foods, including

whole grains, leafy green vegetables, and animal products (Malik et al., 2020). It is important to

obtain vitamins from a balanced diet that includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains,

and lean proteins to ensure an adequate intake of all essential vitamins (Hawkes et al., 2015).

Functions in the human body

Vitamins play crucial roles in various physiological processes in the human body. For example,

vitamin A is essential for vision, immune function, and cell differentiation (German et al., 2021).

Vitamin D is important for calcium absorption and bone health, while vitamin E acts as an

antioxidant, protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals. Vitamin K is necessary for

blood clotting and bone metabolism (Thow et al., 2018). The B-complex vitamins, including

thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folate, and cobalamin, are

involved in energy metabolism, red blood cell formation, and the maintenance of healthy skin,

hair, and nails. Vitamin C is an antioxidant that supports immune function, collagen synthesis,

and iron absorption (Khairunnisa et al., 2022).

2.1.2 Food Composition Data

Food composition database (FCD) or also referred to as food composition tables (FCT) are the

basis for almost everything in nutrition. FCD or FCT, are data that provide the nutritional

composition of foods. The data are normally derived from quantitative chemical analysis of

representative samples of foods and beverages (Savorani et al., 2020). Data that are provided in

29
the FCD are macronutrients which are required in larger quantities in the body like

carbohydrates, lipid, proteins and also micronutrients, which are required in smaller quantities

which include vitamins and minerals (Morrison et al., 2016). The number of nutrients included

in the FCD depending on the requirement by regulators or countries involved in the compilation

of FCD.

Relevant, authentic and up-to-date food composition data are the basis and of fundamental

importance in many aspects of nutrition, dietetics and health, but also for other disciplines such

as food science, biodiversity, plant breeding, food industry, trade and food regulation. FCD has

been used extensively in many areas, including for nutritional analysis or assessment of nutrient

intakes, prescription of therapeutic diets, nutrition labeling, research into diet-disease

relationships, national food and nutrition policy, nutritional regulation of the food supply and

planning of nutrition intervention program (Morrison et al., 2016). Reliable data on the nutrient

composition of foods is crucial and can only be obtained firstly, by a careful performance of

appropriate, accurate and precise analytical methods. Secondly, the choice of the appropriate

methods carried out by a trained analyst should follow by a quality assurance schemes. This is a

crucial element in ensuring the quality of the values in a food composition database. Every

analyst should consider three important criteria’s in choosing the right methods for FCD. Firstly,

predilection to the methods that have been recommended or adopted by international

organizations such as Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC). Secondly,

predilection to the methods for which reliability has been established by collaborative studies

involving several laboratories either locally or internationally (Soni et al., 2021). Lastly,

predilection to the methods which is applicable to a wide range of food types and matrices rather

than those focused only for specific foods.

30
Table 2.1: Common Foods Consumed in Benue State
Native Name Common Name Botanical

Starchy (Roots/Tubers) Yam Dioscorea spp

Cassava Manihot spp

Cocoyam Collocasia and Xanthosoma spp

Irish Potato Ipomea batata

Cereals Corn Zea mays

Rice Oryza spp

Wheat Triticum vulgare

31
 Legumes/Pulses Bambara Vigna subterranean

Pigeon pea Cajus cajan

Oil Seeds/Nuts Groundnuts Arachis hypoea

Soybeans Glycine max

Locust bean Partia biglobosa

Castor Oil Ricinus communis

(Morrison et al., 2016)

Table 2.2: Common Foods Consumed in Nassarawa State

Native Name Common Name Botanical Name

Starchy (Roots/Tubers)
Amala Yam Fufu Dioscorea spp
Lafun Cassava Fufu Manihot esculenta
Acha Pap Digitaria Pap Digitaria exilis
Akamu Maize Pap Zea mays

Cereals
Tuwo Shinkafa Rice Fufu Oryza sativa
Masara Sorghum Porridge Sorghum bicolor
Fara Millet Porridge Pennisetum glaucum

32
Native Name Common Name Botanical Name

Legumes/Pulses
Miyan Geda Bean Soup Vigna unguiculata
Miyan Kuka Baobab Leaf Soup Adansonia digitata
Miyan Wake Groundnut Soup Arachis hypogaea

Oil Seeds/Nuts
Gurasa Local Bread Wheat Flour
Dambu Nama Dried Meat Snack Bos taurus
Kuli Kuli Peanut Snack Arachis hypogaea
(USDA, 2019)

2.2 Non-Communicable Diseases

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic conditions that are not transmissible from

person to person and are generally long in duration. They include cardiovascular diseases,

cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes (Aggarwal et al., 2020). The prevalence of

NCDs, such as obesity, type II diabetes, and hypertension, is increasing globally (Rauber et al.,

2018). Several studies have established a strong link between food, nutrition, and NCDs. Ultra

processed food consumption has been associated with an increased risk of NCDs (Lane et al.,

2020). Additionally, the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages has been linked to nutrition-

related NCDs (Mukanu et al., 2021).

Furthermore, the adoption of unhealthy dietary habits, such as consuming street foods rich in

carbohydrates and fats, has been shown to elevate the risk of chronic NCDs (Verma and Mishra,

2020). The impact of nutrition on NCDs is evident from studies that have highlighted the

33
association between inadequate fruit and vegetable consumption and the increased risk of NCDs

(Khairunnisa et al., 2022). Moreover, the quantity of nutritional intake during pregnancy has

been correlated with the long-term occurrence of NCDs in children (Lane et al., 2020). It is

important to note that the burden of NCDs is not only influenced by individual dietary choices

but also by broader environmental and social factors. The nutrition transition, characterized by

changes in lifestyle and socioeconomic status, has been implicated in the rising prevalence of

NCDs. Additionally; aggressive marketing of unhealthy products by the food and beverage

industry has posed challenges in addressing the determinants of NCDs.

2.2.1 Key Risk Factors of Non-communicable Diseases

A risk factor is a condition or behavior that increases the chances of developing a particular

disease, injury, or other health condition. The figure below shows how risk factors can lead to

Non-communicable diseases. The more risk factors one has, the greater is the chance of getting a

particular disease (Mukanu et al., 2021).

Table 2.3: Risk Factors of Non-communicable Diseases

34
(Mukanu et al., 2021)

2.2.2 Common Non-Communicable Diseases

i. Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a type of kidney disease in which a gradual loss of kidney

function occurs over a period of months to years (Aggarwal et al., 2020). Initially generally no

symptoms are seen, but later symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of

appetite, and confusion. Complications can relate to hormonal dysfunction of the kidneys and

include (in chronological order) high blood pressure (often related to activation of the renin–

35
angiotensin system), bone disease, and anemia (Liao et al., 2018). Additionally, CKD patients

have markedly increased cardiovascular complications with increased risks of death and

hospitalization (Go et al., 2020).

Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease

The National Kidney Foundation (NKF) divided kidney disease into five stages (Hawkes et al.,

2015). This helps doctors provide the best care, as each stage calls for different tests and

treatments.

Doctors determine the stage of kidney disease using the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), a math

formula using a person's age, gender, and their serum creatinine level (identified through a blood

test) (Jayakrishan, 2020). Creatinine, a waste product that comes from muscle activity, is a key

indicator of kidney function. When kidneys are working well they remove creatinine from the

blood; but as kidney function slows, blood levels of creatinine rise (Rulter et al., 2017).

Stage 1 Chronic Kidney Disease

A person with stage 1 chronic kidney disease (CKD) has kidney damage with a glomerular

filtration rate (GFR) at a normal or high level greater than 90 ml/min (Malik et al., 2020).

There are usually no symptoms to indicate the kidneys are damaged. Because kidneys do a good

job even when they are not functioning at 100 percent, most people will not know they have

stage 1 CKD. If they do find out they are in stage 1, it is usually because they were being tested

for another condition such as diabetes or high blood pressure (the two leading causes of kidney

disease) (Rauber et al., 2018).

Stage 2 Chronic Kidney Diseases

36
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 2 is defined as kidney damage or reduced kidney function

that persists for more than 3 months (Yi et al., 2017). It is associated with age-related renal

function decline accelerated in hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and primary renal disorders

(Aggarwal et al., 2020). Patients in stage 2 of CKD show elevated levels of urinary Kidney

Injury Molecule-1, which gradually decrease in stages 3 and 4, making it useful in tracking

disease progression (Wang et al., 2019). Additionally, CKD stage 2 increases the risk of venous

thrombosis. The prevalence of CKD is higher in older people (Olusegun et al., 2020).

As renal function declines, there is a progressive impairment in the regulation of mineral

homeostasis leading to altered serum concentrations of calcium, phosphate, parathyroid

hormone, and vitamin D, collectively known as chronic kidney disease related-mineral bone

disorders (CKD-MBD) (Zoroddu et al., 2019).

Stage 3 Chronic Kidney Diseases

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 3 is a critical phase characterized by a significant reduction

in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and the onset of complications (Lanza et al., 2020). It is

associated with age-related renal function decline, particularly accelerated in conditions such as

hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and primary renal disorders (Ferrano et al., 2021) Importantly,

stages 3 and 4 of CKD are usually asymptomatic, making early detection and intervention

challenging (Aggarwal et al., 2020). This is particularly relevant for older patients, as CKD in all

its stages has become a significant problem for this demographic, with a higher prevalence in

residential care and nursing homes, necessitating increased demand for patient education and

support (Malik et al., 2020). Furthermore, advanced stages of CKD (3–5) have been strongly

37
linked to adverse outcomes such as bleeding and acute kidney injury, emphasizing the critical

nature of stage 3 CKD. Additionally, CKD stage 3 is associated with a higher prevalence of

gallbladder stones in predialysis patients, highlighting the systemic impact of this stage on

various organ systems (Bohm et al., 2019)

Stage 4 Chronic Kidney Diseases

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) stage 4 is a critical phase characterized by severe kidney damage

and a significant decrease in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to 15-29 ml/min. At this stage,

patients are at a high risk of complications such as premature mortality and end-stage kidney

disease (ESKD) (Jayakrishan, 2020) The progression to ESKD and cardiovascular events is a

major concern for individuals in stage 4 CKD (Burton et al., 2019). Additionally, patients with

stage 4 CKD are prone to recurrent hyperkalemia, which is a serious concern that requires close

monitoring and management (Xie et al., 2018). Furthermore, the presence of right ventricular

dysfunction has been observed in patients with stage 4 CKD, indicating the systemic impact of

this disease on other organ systems (Akinleye et al., 2017).

It is essential to note that stage 4 CKD demands careful management to prevent further

progression and mitigate associated risks. Early intervention is crucial in the care of stage 2-4

CKD patients to stabilize renal function and minimize adverse outcomes (Miller et al., 2020)

Moreover, the impact of stage 4 CKD on patients' oral health and the potential for immune

disorders in this stage necessitate comprehensive patient care and monitoring (Thow et al.,

2018). The prevalence of CKD, particularly in its later stages, underscores the significance of

addressing this global chronic disease burden (Burton et al., 2019).

Stage 5 Chronic Kidney Diseases

38
Stage 5 chronic kidney disease (CKD), also known as end-stage renal disease (ESRD), is

characterized by a significant decline in kidney function, with an estimated glomerular filtration

rate (eGFR) of less than 15 mL/min/1.73 m 2 (Xie et al., 2018). Patients with stage 5 CKD often

require renal replacement therapy, such as hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, to manage the

complications associated with kidney failure (Mozaffarian et al., 2021). The prevalence of stage

5 CKD is substantial, particularly among older patients, with a higher prevalence in residential

care and nursing homes. Additionally, patients with stage 5 CKD may experience a decline in

quality of life. Furthermore, stage 5 CKD is associated with various comorbidities, such as

gallbladder stones and immune disorders, which can further impact the health and well-being of

affected individuals. It is important to note that stage 5 CKD is a complex condition with a

significant burden on patients and their families, necessitating specialized and professional

healthcare, including emergency care (Wang et al., 2018).

Moreover, genetic factors, particularly in certain ethnic groups, contribute to the susceptibility to

hypertension-associated ESRD, highlighting the multifactorial nature of this condition (Burton et

al., 2019).

Causes of Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant public health concern with various causes. The

primary risk factors include poorly controlled diabetes, unmanaged high blood pressure, and

cardiovascular diseases (Roth et al., 2017). Additionally, vascular disease, particularly

hypertension, is a common cause of CKD, contributing to 21% of adult cases (Akinleye et al.,

2017). Other factors such as smoking and infections also play a role in the development of CKD.

Furthermore, CKD can be associated with specific conditions like diabetic kidney disease,

39
glomerular disease, and leptospirosis (Jayakrishan, 2020). The prevalence of CKD is also

influenced by geographical and environmental factors, such as hot climates and agricultural

overlaps (German et al., 2021). Moreover, albuminuria and decreased renal function are crucial

indicators of the accelerated progression of CKD. These diverse factors contribute to the global

burden of CKD, emphasizing the need for comprehensive strategies for prevention and early

detection (Malik et al., 2020).

Pathophysiology of Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive and irreversible renal disorder characterized by

the body's failure to maintain metabolism, balance, and electrolytes (Rauber et al., 2018). CKD

promotes hypertension and dyslipidemia, contributing to the progression of renal failure. The

pathophysiology of CKD involves multiple mechanisms, including oxidative stress, renal tissue

hypoperfusion, and hypoxia, which ultimately lead to CKD and its progression from acute

kidney injury (AKI) (Miller et al., 2020). Additionally, CKD is associated with increased risk of

all-cause mortality and various specific causes of mortality (Bohm et al., 2019). The molecular

mechanisms underlying CKD have been extensively investigated, revealing the role of

membrane proteins, inflammatory processes, and microbiota in the development and progression

of the disease (Wang et al., 2019). Furthermore, CKD is linked to various complications such as

cardiovascular diseases, atherosclerosis, and peripheral arterial disease (Daniel et al., 2013).

Understanding the pathophysiology of CKD is crucial for developing effective management and

treatment strategies for this major public health problem.

40
 Figure 2.1. Pathophysiology of Chronic Kidney Disease (Roth et al., 2017).

Nontraditional CKD-related risk factors such as chronic inflammation, uremic toxins, reactive

oxygen radicals, anemia, and mineral-bone disorder are proposed to contribute to risk by

triggering vascular injury and endothelial dysfunction. Uremia can cause protein carbamylation

which has proatherosclerotic effects via enhanced dyslpidemia. It can also impair platelet

adhesiveness and platelet endothelial interaction, increasing the risk of hemorrhagic stroke

(German et al., 2021). Hyperphosphatemia, arising from CKD-related mineral-bone disorder,

causes arterial medial calcification by inducing an osteogenic phenotype change of vascular

smooth muscle cells. (Słowik-Borowiec et al., 2022).

Management and Treatment of Chronic

41
Initial treatments of chronic kidney disease may include medications to lower blood pressure,

blood sugar, and cholesterol. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin

II receptor antagonists (ARBs) are generally first-line agents for blood pressure control, as they

slow progression of the kidney disease and the risk of heart disease. Loop diuretics may be used

to control edema and, if needed, to further lower blood pressure (Xie et al., 2018). NSAIDs

should be avoided (Wile, 2020). Other recommended measures include staying active, and

certain dietary changes such as a low-salt diet and the right amount of protein. Treatments for

anemia and bone disease may also be required. Severe disease requires hemodialysis, peritoneal

dialysis, or a kidney transplant for survival (Xie et al., 2018). Chronic kidney disease affected

753 million people globally in 2016 (417 million females and 336 million males). In 2015, it

caused 1.2 million deaths, up from 409,000 in 1990 (Bikbov et al., 2018). The causes that

contribute to the greatest number of deaths are high blood pressure at 550,000, followed by

diabetes at 418,000, and glomerulonephritis at 238,000 (Wang et al., 2018).

ii. Stroke

Stroke (also known as a cerebrovascular accident or brain attack) is a medical condition in which

poor blood flow to the brain causes cell death.

Types of Stroke

There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to

bleeding. Both cause parts of the brain to stop functioning properly (Wile, 2020). They are two

42
distinct types of stroke with different underlying causes and characteristics. Ischemic stroke

occurs when a blood vessel supplying blood to the brain is obstructed, leading to a lack of blood

flow and oxygen to the brain tissue. On the other hand, hemorrhagic stroke results from the

rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, causing bleeding and damage to the surrounding brain

tissue (Hawkes et al., 2015). Ischemic stroke is often associated with risk factors such as

hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus, which contribute to the development of

atherosclerosis and thrombotic events (Amsterdam, 2018) Additionally, cancer patients with

ischemic stroke were found to have a significantly lower proportion of hypertension, atrial

fibrillation, hyperlipidemia, and ischemic heart disease than non-cancer patients with ischemic

stroke (Naish and Court, 2018). Furthermore, the level of serum high sensitivity C-reactive

protein (hs-CRP), a pro-inflammatory factor related to the occurrence and development of

atherosclerosis, is closely associated with the incidence of ischemic stroke (Roth et al., 2017).

Conversely, hemorrhagic stroke is often associated with risk factors such as advanced cancer,

elevated D-dimer and fibrin degradation product levels, and coagulopathy (Malik et al., 2020).

Additionally, recurrent stroke after intracerebral hemorrhage was found to be more frequent as

hemorrhagic rather than ischemic stroke (Zoroddu et al., 2019).

Pathophysiology of Stroke

The pathophysiology of stroke involves a complex interplay of mechanisms. It encompasses

neuronal tissues and a vascular neural network, including small arteries, arterioles, capillaries,

venules, and small veins (Xie et al., 2018). Ischemic stroke results from excitotoxicity, oxidative

and nitrative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis (Aggarwal et al., 2020). Inflammatory events

43
outside the brain impact stroke susceptibility and outcome (Whelton et al., 2017) Additionally,

hormones play a role in the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke (Bohm et al., 2019).

Hemorrhagic stroke involves mechanisms such as oxidative stress, inflammation, iron toxicity,

and thrombin formation (Wang et al., 2019). The role of salt intake in stroke pathophysiology

has translational relevance (Miller et al., 2020). Overall, understanding these pathophysiological

mechanisms is crucial for developing effective preventive and therapeutic strategies for stroke.

Figure 2.2. Pathophysiology of stroke (Lloyd-Jones, 2009).

Ischemic cascade leading to cerebral damage: Ischemic stroke leads to hypo-perfusion of a brain

area that initiates a complex series of events. Excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, microvascular

injury, blood-brain barrier dysfunction and post-ischemic inflammation lead ultimately to cell

44
death of neurons, glia and endothelial cells. The degree and duration of ischemia determine the

extent of cerebral damage (Chopp et al., 2007).

Signs and Symptoms of Stroke

Signs and symptoms of stroke may include an inability to move or feel on one side of the body,

problems understanding or speaking, dizziness, or loss of vision to one side. Signs and

symptoms often appear soon after the stroke has occurred (Liao et al., 2018). If symptoms last

less than one or two hours, the stroke is a transient ischemic attack (TIA), also called a mini-

stroke. Hemorrhagic stroke may also be associated with a severe headache. The symptoms of

stroke can be permanent. Long-term complications may include pneumonia and loss of bladder

control (Go et al., 2020).

Risk Factors of Stroke

The biggest risk factor for stroke is high blood pressure. Other risk factors include high blood

cholesterol, tobacco smoking, obesity, diabetes mellitus, a previous TIA, end-stage kidney

disease, and atrial fibrillation. Ischemic stroke is typically caused by blockage of a blood vessel,

though there are also less common causes (Liao et al., 2018). Hemorrhagic stroke is caused by

either bleeding directly into the brain or into the space between the brain's membranes (Ferri,

2017; Xie et al., 2018; Wile, 2020). Bleeding may occur due to a ruptured brain aneurysm.

Management and Treatment of Stroke

Diagnosis is typically based on a physical exam and supported by medical imaging such as a CT

scan or MRI scan. A CT scan can rule out bleeding, but may not necessarily rule out ischemia,

which early on typically does not show up on a CT scan. Other tests such as an

45
electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood tests are done to determine risk factors and rule out other

possible causes. Low blood sugar may cause similar symptoms (Ferri, 2017; Wile, 2020).

Cognitive behavioural therapy has been identified as an effective intervention to reduce post-

stroke depression, aiming to improve the mental health of stroke survivors (Lanza et al., 2020).

Additionally, statin therapy after the first stroke has been found to reduce 10-year stroke

recurrence and improve survival, highlighting the importance of secondary prevention therapies

in stroke management (Daniel et al., 2023) Furthermore, the administration of infusion therapy,

such as 0.9% sodium chloride solution, is considered part of the overall treatment of stroke,

particularly in patients at an increased risk of dehydration due to depression of consciousness or

respiratory disorders (Miller et al., 2020). These interventions, along with the implementation of

stroke units and the use of statin therapy, contribute to the comprehensive approach to treating

stroke and improving patient outcomes.

Prevention of Stroke

Prevention includes decreasing risk factors, surgery to open up the arteries to the brain in those

with problematic carotid narrowing, and warfarin in people with atrial fibrillation. Aspirin or

statins may be recommended by physicians for prevention. Stroke or TIA often requires

emergency care (Liao et al., 2018). Ischemic stroke, if detected within three to four-and-a-half

hours, may be treatable with a medication that can break down the clot. Some cases of

hemorrhagic stroke benefit from surgery. Treatment to attempt recovery of lost function is called

stroke rehabilitation, and ideally takes place in a stroke unit; however, these are not available in

much of the world (Liao et al., 2018).

46
In 2013, approximately 6.9 million people had ischemic stroke and 3.4 million people had

hemorrhagic stroke. In 2015, there were about 42.4 million people who had previously had

stroke and were still alive (Xie et al., 2018). Between 1990 and 2010 the annual incidence of

stroke decreased by approximately 10% in the developed world, but increased by 10% in the

developing world (Go et al., 2020). In 2015, stroke was the second most frequent cause of death

after coronary artery disease, accounting for 6.3 million deaths (11% of the total). About 3.0

million deaths resulted from ischemic stroke while 3.3 million deaths resulted from hemorrhagic

stroke. About half of people who have had stroke live less than one year (Ferri, 2017). Overall,

two thirds of cases of stroke occurred in those over 65 years old (Liao et al., 2018).

iii. Hypertension

Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a long-term medical condition in which the

blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. High blood pressure usually does not cause

symptoms (Naish and Court, 2018). It is, however, a major risk factor for stroke, coronary artery

disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney

disease, and dementia. Hypertension is a major cause of premature death worldwide (Lackland

and Weber, 2017; Mendis et al., 2021).

Types of Hypertension

High blood pressure is classified as primary (essential) hypertension or secondary hypertension.

About 90–95% of cases are primary, defined as high blood pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle

and genetic factor (Poulters et al., 2017). Lifestyle factors that increase the risk include excess

salt in the diet, excess body weight, smoking, physical inactivity and alcohol use (Carretero and

47
Oparil, 2020). The remaining 5–10% of cases are categorized as secondary high blood pressure,

defined as high blood pressure due to a clearly identifiable cause, such as chronic kidney disease,

narrowing of the kidney arteries, an endocrine disorder, or the use of birth control pills (Poulters

et al., 2017).

Blood pressure is classified by two measurements, the systolic (high reading) and diastolic

(lower reading) pressures. For most adults, normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of

100–130 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic and 60–80 mmHg diastolic (Poulters et al.,

2017). For most adults, high blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure is persistently

at or above 130/80 or 140/90 mmHg. Different numbers apply to children (Whelton et al., 2018).

Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over a 24-hour period appears more accurate than office-

based blood pressure measurement (James et al., 2018). Hypertension is around twice as

common in diabetics (Poulters et al., 2017).

Causes of Hypertension

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, can be caused by a variety of factors. In children and

adolescents, common causes include renal parenchymal or vascular disease, aortic coarctation,

and renal pathology (Thow et al., 2018). Additionally, vascular intracranial hypertension can be

caused by cerebral vascular illnesses such as cerebral venous thrombophlebitis and cerebral

venous sinus thrombosis (Miller et al., 2020). In adults, risk factors for hypertension include

family history, previous hypertension, smoking, high salt intake, and the ingestion of salted

liquorice (Xie et al., 2018). Furthermore, liver cirrhosis is a primary cause of portal

hypertension, accounting for 90% of cases in the United States (Wang et al., 2019). These

factors contribute to the global burden of disease, with hypertension accounting for up to 15% of

48
global mortality (Olusegun et al., 2020). It is important to consider these diverse causes when

diagnosing and managing hypertension to provide appropriate and effective treatment.

Pathophysiology of Hypertension

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is a complex condition with multifactorial

pathophysiology. It involves mechanisms such as sympathetic activation, vascular damage,

endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, renin-angiotensin system activation, and sodium/fluid

retention (Burton et al., 2019). Additionally, obesity, diabetes, and aging contribute to arterial

stiffness and endothelial dysfunction, further exacerbating hypertension (Khairunnisa et al.,

2022). In pregnancy, hypertension pathophysiology involves inadequate trophoblastic vascular

invasion and uteroplacental artery transformation (Yi et al., 2017). Furthermore, hypertension in

the elderly is associated with age-related changes in the cardiovascular system and sympathetic

activity (Aggarwal et al., 2020). The involvement of the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway, immune

mechanisms, and redox signaling further complicates the pathophysiology of hypertension

(Jayakrishnan et al., 2020). Overall, understanding the diverse pathophysiological aspects of

hypertension is crucial for developing effective management strategies (Burton et al., 2019).

49
 Figure 2.3. Pathophysiology of hypertension (Te Riet L, et al., 2015).

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a hormonal cascade that functions in the

homeostatic control of arterial pressure, tissue perfusion, and extracellular volume (Ma TK, et

al., 2010). The classical RAAS cascade begins with the production of renin. Renin converts

angiotensinogen to Angiotensin-1 (Ang-1). Ang-1 requires further activation by angiotensin-

converting enzyme (ACE), to form the Angiotensin-II (Ang-II). Ang-II act by binding to two G-

protein couple receptors, AT1 and AT2; it also act on the adrenal cortex and causes the release of

aldosterone. The current view of the RAAS also includes a local (tissue) RAAS, alternative

pathways for Ang-II synthesis (ACE independent), the formation of other biologically active

50
angiotensin peptide (Ang-III, Ang-IV, Ang-1-7), and additional angiotensin binding receptors

(AT4, Mas) that participate in cell growth differentiation, hypertrophy, inflammation, fibrosis,

and apoptosis. Angiotensis-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and Ang-II receptor blockers

(AREs) are used to block the RAAS. Apart from potent antihypertensive, ACEIs and ARBs have

significant cardiovascular and renal therapeutic benefits (Garg M, et al., 2012).

Management and Treatment of Hypertension

Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health

complications. Lifestyle changes include weight loss, physical exercise, decreased salt intake,

reducing alcohol intake, and a healthy diet. If lifestyle changes are not sufficient, then blood

pressure medications are used (Whelton et al., 2018). Up to three medications taken concurrently

can control blood pressure in 90% of people. The treatment of moderately high arterial blood

pressure (defined as >160/100 mmHg) with medications is associated with an improved life

expectancy (Poulters et al., 2017). The effect of treatment of blood pressure between 130/80

mmHg and 160/100 mmHg is less clear, with some reviews finding benefit and others finding

unclear benefit (Musini et al., 2019; Sundstrom et al., 2017). High blood pressure affects

between 16 and 37% of the population globally (Whelton et al., 2018). In 2010 hypertension was

believed to have been a factor in 18% of all deaths (9.4 million globally) (Poulters et al., 2017).

iv. Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus, often known simply as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine

diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels (Yousuf et al., 2021) Diabetes is due

to either the pancreas not producing enough insulin, or the cells of the body becoming

unresponsive to the hormone's effects (Mogana et al., 2018). Classic symptoms include

51
thirst, polyuria, weight loss, and blurred vision. If left untreated, the disease can lead to various

health complications, including disorders of the cardiovascular system, eye, kidney, and nerves

(Atawodi, 2020). Untreated or poorly treated diabetes accounts for approximately 1.5 million

deaths every year (Yousuf et al., 2021).

As of 2021, an estimated 537 million people had diabetes worldwide accounting for 10.5% of the

adult population, with type 2 making up about 90% of all cases (Mogana et al., 2018). The

prevalence of the disease continues to increase, most dramatically in low- and middle-income

nation (Ngbolua et al., 2017). Rates are similar in women and men, with diabetes being the 7th-

leading cause of death globally (Kuete et al., 2019). The global expenditure on diabetes-related

healthcare is an estimated US$760 billion a year (Burton et al., 2019).

Types of Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1diabetes, also known as insulin-dependent diabetes or juvenile-onset diabetes, is a form of

diabetes mellitus characterized by the destruction of pancreatic beta cells, leading to an absolute

deficiency of insulin (Yi et al., 2017). It typically develops in childhood or adolescence, although

it can occur at any age. The exact cause of type 1 diabetes is not fully understood, but it is

believed to involve an autoimmune response in which the body's immune system mistakenly

attacks and destroys the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas (Yi et al., 2017). As a result,

individuals with type 1 diabetes require lifelong insulin therapy to regulate their blood glucose

levels.

Type 2 Diabetes

52
Type 2 diabetes also known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes, is the

most common form of diabetes mellitus, accounting for the majority of diabetes cases (Omoniji

et al., 2019). It is characterized by insulin resistance, in which the body's cells become less

responsive to the effects of insulin, and impaired insulin secretion by the pancreas (Sabi et al.,

2022). Type 2 diabetes is strongly associated with lifestyle factors such as obesity, physical

inactivity, and unhealthy diet. It typically develops in adulthood, although there has been an

increasing recognition of type 2 diabetes in younger individuals, including adolescents and

children (Nvah et al., 2021). Unlike type 1 diabetes, individuals with type 2 diabetes may not

require insulin therapy initially and can often manage their condition through lifestyle

modifications, oral medications, or other non-insulin injectable medications (Barrett et al., 2022).

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes is significantly higher than type 1 diabetes, accounting for

approximately 90-95% of all diabetes cases (Xu et al., 2018). It is a major global health concern,

with increasing incidence rates worldwide. The International Diabetes Federation reported that

approximately 87-91% of people with diabetes in high-income countries have type 2 diabetes

(Xu et al., 2018). Risk factors for type 2 diabetes include obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and family

history of diabetes, ethnicity, and advancing age (Zhang et al., 2019).

Causes of Diabetes

Diabetes is a complex condition influenced by various factors. Environmental and lifestyle

factors such as diet, physical inactivity, sedentary behavior, stress, and low socioeconomic status

contribute to the risk of type 2 diabetes (Malik et al., 2020) Additionally, physical activity plays

a role in the etiology and prevention of diabetes and its related morbidity (Whelton et al., 2018).

Unhealthy dietary patterns, insufficient pancreas insulin secretion, and insulin receptor

insensitivity are also causes of diabetes (Burton et al., 2019). Furthermore, diabetes is associated

53
with various diseases and disabilities, including ischemic heart disease, renal disease, visual

impairment, peripheral arterial disease, peripheral neuropathy, and cognitive impairment (Wang

et al., 2019). Moreover, type 1 diabetes is caused by a complex interaction of genetic and

environmental factors (Daniel et al., 2023).

Pathophysiology of Diabetes

Diabetes is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by chronic hyperglycemia resulting from

defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both (Zoroddu et al., 2019). The pathophysiology

of diabetes involves various mechanisms, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and

metabolic abnormalities. Oxidative stress plays a central role in the pathophysiology of diabetic

microvascular complications, such as diabetic nephropathy, by contributing to kidney damage

(Akinleye et al., 2017). Additionally, the polyol pathway and increased thickness of the retinal

capillary basement membrane are implicated in the pathophysiological changes observed in

diabetic retinopathy (Rulter et al., 2017). Furthermore, the pathophysiology of diabetes in older

adults is associated with aging and has led to the development of antihyperglycemic medications

tailored to this population (Lanza et al., 2020). The pathophysiological alterations in elderly

patients with diabetes are being systematically studied to better understand the disease in this

demographic (Bohm et al., 2019). Overall, the pathophysiology of diabetes involves a complex

interplay of various factors, and understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing

targeted treatments and management strategies.

54
 Figure 2.4. Pathophysiology of Diabetes (Horikawa, et al., 2019)

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

It was known previously as insulin independent diabetes (Juvenile onset diabetes), which can be

characterized as autoimmune disorder which involves severe destruction of the beta cell,

absolute insulin deficiency. In most cases affect non-obese people. (Joseph, et al., 2010)

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Type 2 diabetes known by its insufficient synthesis of insulin and its secretion, in addition, the

body become acquires insulin resistance. It happends due to relative insulin deficiency, it occurs

usually to obese patients, as obesity caused down regulation of insulin receptors. Over eating

55
leads to excess insulin release and excess internalization of receptors which leads to decrease the

available receptor results to down regulation. The number of available receptors are inversely

proportional to serum insulin (Joseph, et al., 2010)

Management and Treatment of Diabetes

The management and treatment of diabetes require a multifaceted approach involving education,

self-support, and medical care. Collaborative efforts involving healthcare providers, educators,

and patients are crucial in achieving optimal outcomes (Olusegun et al., 2020). Diabetes self-

management education and support play a significant role in improving patient self-efficacy and

self-care activities (Thow et al., 2018). Additionally, partnering with diabetes educators has been

shown to improve patient outcomes by empowering individuals with diabetes to manage the

disease successfully and enhance their quality of life (Wang et al., 2019). Furthermore, the

management of diabetes involves a collective effort that integrates patient perspectives with

clinical expertise, educational methodologies, and psychosocial aspects (Rauber et al., 2018). It

is essential to provide appropriate medical care, self-management education, and medication to

prevent costly complications and enable individuals with diabetes to lead healthy lives (German

et al., 2021). Moreover, nutritional self-care practices are crucial in diabetes management, but

many patients do not engage optimally in this aspect (Aggarwal et al., 2020). The management

of diabetes also involves addressing barriers to treatment and self-management, such as stress

and feeling overwhelmed (Hawkes et al., 2015). Finally, diabetes self-management can reduce

complications and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes (Bohm et al., 2019).

56
v. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a progressive lung disease characterized by

persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation (Mozaffarian et al., 2021). The primary

symptoms include chronic cough, excessive sputum production, shortness of breath (dyspnea),

and wheezing. COPD encompasses various lung conditions, such as chronic bronchitis and

emphysema, which lead to irreversible damage to the airways and lung tissue (Akinleye et al.,

2017).

Types of COPD

a. Chronic Bronchitis:

Chronic bronchitis involves long-term inflammation and irritation of the airways (bronchi),

leading to increased mucus production and persistent cough (Lanza et al., 2020).

b. Emphysema:

Emphysema primarily affects the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs, causing their destruction. This

results in reduced surface area for gas exchange, leading to difficulty in breathing (Miller et al.,

2020).

Causes of COPD:

a. Smoking:

Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of COPD. Long-term exposure to tobacco smoke irritates

and damages the airways and lung tissue, contributing significantly to the development and

progression of COPD (Burton et al., 2019)

57
b. Environmental Factors:

Prolonged exposure to pollutants, such as air pollution, secondhand smoke, occupational dust,

chemicals, and fumes, can increase the risk of developing COPD.

c. Genetic Factors:

In some cases, genetic predispositions, including alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, a rare genetic

condition, can contribute to the development of COPD, especially in non-smokers.

Physiopathology of COPD:

Figure 2.5. Pathophysiology of COPD (Rodriguesz-Roisin, 2020)

Pathophysiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. During the time course of COPD,

inflammation of the airways can lead to thickening of the airway walls, increased mucus

58
production, and damage to alveoli and alveolar ducts that leads to enlargement of the air

spaces/emphysema, and potentially to airtrapping. Mechanisms whereby COPD ultimately leads

to hypoxemia and hypercapnia COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) V/Q = ventilation

perfusion ratio. COPD involves several pathological processes that contribute to its development

and progression (Rodriguesz-Roisin R. 2020).

Inflammation: Chronic exposure to irritants leads to persistent inflammation of the airways and

lung tissue.

Airway Remodeling: Structural changes in the airways occur, leading to thickening of airway

walls and narrowing of the air passages.

Emphysema Formation: Destruction of the alveoli reduces the surface area available for gas

exchange, resulting in impaired oxygen transfer and carbon dioxide removal.

Mucus Production: Increased mucus production leads to airway obstruction and recurrent

infections.

Management/Treatment of COPD

a. Lifestyle Modifications:

Smoking Cessation: The most crucial step in managing COPD is to stop smoking to slow

disease progression.

Physical Activity: Regular exercise can improve overall lung function and endurance.

Healthy Diet: Proper nutrition supports overall health and energy levels

b. Medications:

59
Bronchodilators: These medications help relax the muscles around the airways, improving

airflow.

Inhaled Corticosteroids: These reduce airway inflammation.

Pulmonary Rehabilitation: Programs including exercise, education, and support for COPD

patients to improve their quality of life.

2.2.3 Prevention of Non-Communicable Diseases

The life course approach is an intuitive way to conceptualize NCD prevention and control. It

provides a comprehensive and sustainable framework to introduce key interventions for

improved health literacy and knowledge translation. Additionally, it provides an avenue for

adopting a complex systems model of public health (Rutter et al., 2017).

i. Preconception and Prenatal Care

The preconception period refers to a woman’s health before she becomes pregnant, and the

prenatal period refers to the time from conception up to the child’s birth. Evidence is growing

that a woman’s nutritional status during these periods may influence her offspring’s health and

susceptibility to NCDs later in life (WHO, 2018).

WHO recommends that before and during pregnancy, promoting healthy nutrition and regular

physical activity can prevent hypertension and gestational diabetes.78 Unborn children are

adversely affected by harmful exposures such as air pollution, tobacco use, and maternal

consumption of alcohol (WHO, 2018). Focused public health policies and primary healthcare

services promote access to quality services during the preconception phase. Essential

interventions include monitoring weight and counselling on nutrition and exercise. These are

60
essential components of primary healthcare, and linkages to maternal health systems can

facilitate early access to prenatal care.7 during pregnancy, health professionals should continue

weight management and support physical activity, to improve the health of the mother and her

child (WHO, 2023). Pregnancy presents an opportunity for family centred health promotion.

Household members should be advised to eliminate tobacco use, to reduce alcohol consumption,

and to eliminate air pollution within the home.

ii. Infancy

Infancy is an extremely important stage for the prevention of NCDs later in life.12 A WHO

systematic review of the literature concludes that a person’s propensity to develop NCDs and

obesity may be influenced during fetal development and infancy, and these factors may in part

explain the observed correlation between health inequalities and NCDs (WHO, 2018).

Exclusive breastfeeding prevents NCDs and helps ensure healthy newborn development, as

outlined in a WHO systematic review. Public policy has a key role in promoting breastfeeding,6

including through national labour policies supporting universal paid maternity leave and

requiring workplaces to provide suitable accommodation for breastfeeding mothers, such as

appropriate breaks and facilities. National efforts are also needed to restrict the inappropriate

marketing of products that compete with breastfeeding (WHO, 2023). The health system should

promote breastfeeding, as outlined in the baby friendly hospital initiative, as well as monitoring

the child’s growth and the micronutrient status of both mother and newborn and providing

behaviour change support related to physical activity, diet, or substance use, where necessary

(WHO, 2023). Infancy is also a key time for providing vaccinations, including hepatitis B

vaccinations to protect against liver cancer.

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A crucial consideration here is the child’s environment—in the home, in day care centres, or in

nursery facilities. In structuring these environments, a primary aim is to mitigate the infant’s

exposure to harmful influences such as secondary tobacco smoke, air pollution, and other

environmental toxins.

iii. Childhood

Children are exposed to multiple settings where new NCD related risks may be encountered.

Kindergartens, schools, and preschools are perhaps the most important, partly because most

children experience them and partly because they are a good setting for health promotion

activities. Physical activity and a healthy diet in childhood are prerequisites for healthy

development. It is therefore important to structure children’s environments in ways that result in

sufficiently high physical activity levels and low levels of consumption of energy dense, nutrient

poor foods. Health promoting schools, nurseries, or kindergartens can design their environments

and practices in ways that steer children towards greater fruit and vegetable consumption and

increased physical activity. Additionally, it is important to provide opportunities for children to

actively travel to school such as safe footpaths and cycle lanes (Davison and Lawson, 2020).

Policy makers should also consider creating national standards for the food and drinks available

in schools, placing restrictions on the marketing of unhealthy foods (including social marketing),

mandating smoke-free childcare facilities, or monitoring the air in schools and public

recreational settings to ensure that they meet WHO indoor air quality guidelines (WHO, 2018).

Schools are also a good place to monitor risk factors for NCDs, and the data can be used to guide

national prevention policies. For example, the WHO European Childhood Obesity Surveillance

Initiative measures trends in overweight and obesity among primary schoolchildren in more than

62
40 European countries, ensuring the availability of high quality data to inform policy and

practice, and to respond to the problem of childhood overweight and obesity (WHO, 2023).

iv. Adolescence

Adolescence, defined as the transitional phase between childhood and adulthood, is a time when

young people begin developing habits that will carry over into adulthood and have large

implications for their NCD risk. At this age, important settings for health promotion include

healthy school environments (described above), home environments, the neighbourhood on the

journey to and from school, and afterschool clubs and sports clubs.

Adolescents are vulnerable to marketing of harmful substances such as alcohol and tobacco.

Countries must strengthen implementation of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco

Control and tackle emerging risks such as electronic nicotine delivery systems (Pechmann et al.,

2017). Mental health also becomes increasingly important during adolescence, and prevention of

bullying and provision of school based counselling are vital (Patel et al., 2017). Healthy

behaviours initiated in childhood, such as physical activity and healthy nutrition, should be

maintained during adolescence (WHO, 2018). A priority for policy should be to develop a

coordinated response to the structural and social determinants of adolescent obesity, food

insecurity, poor access to healthful food, and exposure to unhealthy environments. Although it is

important at all stages of life, health literacy is highly valuable in adolescence as young people

begin to make their own decisions related to their health (Pechmann et al., 2017). Finally,

provision of HPV vaccinations to adolescent girls has been shown to be cost effective as part of a

comprehensive approach to cervical cancer prevention (WHO, 2018). To inform policy action, it

is important to collect information about individual risk factor behaviours, as well as information

63
about the implementation and effectiveness of health promotion interventions. The Health

Behaviour in School Aged Children initiative is a useful guide to measuring NCD risk factors

during these important years (WHO, 2023).

v. Adulthood

The workplace is an important setting for health promotion during adulthood. Interventions that

have been shown to be effective include promoting healthy food options in canteens and by

offering nutrition education and counselling. Workplace policies restricting alcohol and tobacco

use are important for the health of all employees. Providing opportunities and incentives for

physical activity (including active transport) can promote mental health, prevent and rehabilitate

musculoskeletal disorders, and improve heart health (WHO, 2018). Policies to improve health

behaviours only through workplace settings will exclude groups most likely to have NCDs, such

as unemployed people. To ensure that interventions do not widen inequalities further, it is

important to integrate similar health promoting interventions in other accessible settings,

including community centres, churches, healthcare settings, rehabilitation centres, and

recreational facilities (Warburton and Bredin, 2017). Among the many opportunities for

improving NCD related surveillance during adulthood, monitoring alcohol and tobacco use is

particularly important for purposes of targeting interventions, monitoring progress, and

advocacy. Patterns related to tobacco and alcohol use, physical activity, and nutrition among

adults should be measured alongside socioeconomic, demographic, or geographical variables.

Population based surveillance can strengthen targeted cost effective approaches to NCD

prevention and early intervention (Marten et al., 2018).

64
Governments can introduce various policies to reduce NCDs in adulthood. Fiscal policies, for

instance, could tax unhealthy products such as tobacco, alcohol, or sugary drinks, and fund

schemes that subsidise fruit and vegetables. Policies that promote mental health, such as

strengthening leadership and governance and providing comprehensive mental health and social

care services, are also beneficial at a time when people may face unsatisfying careers,

unemployment, financial stressors, low social engagement, divorce, or poor emotional resilience

(Thow et al., 2018). Health systems can support adults by providing universal healthcare and

mental health services, screening services, brief interventions targeting NCD risk factors in

primary care, and access to affordable drugs for the prevention and control of NCDs (WHO,

2018).

vi. Older People

The transition from working adulthood into retirement presents unique opportunities for

promoting health as people find new ways to spend their time and resources, while also facing

changing identities and relationships. It is important that as people leave the workplace, they

continue to have access to support from other settings, including community centres, primary

healthcare programmes, assisted living facilities, hospitals, and home care services. Measures

should be taken to maintain functional capacity, strength, and balance of older people and

promote nutrition for older people with diet related NCDs and micronutrient deficiencies

(National Institute on Aging, 2020). Mental health must also be targeted, for example, through

policies ensuring social support at a time when people often experience social isolation,

bereavement, discrimination, financial stress. This support is often provided at the local level and

in cooperation with volunteering activities. Communities must provide appropriate environments

for physical activity among older people such as safe neighborhoods, infrastructure for walking

65
and cycling, and access to recreation facilities, as well as involving older people in wider social

physical activities (WHO, 2023). Many surveillance schemes for NCDs exclude older people,

and it is worth finding ways to include people older than 69, particularly in the face of ageing

populations. Having access to high quality data on NCDs and their risk factors among older

people could provide insights for evaluating trends, targeting health promotion interventions, and

monitoring the effectiveness of policies aimed to improve the health of older people (National

Institute on Aging, 2020). Health systems can ensure promotion of physical activity and healthy

nutrition in healthcare settings and residential homes and promote physical activity and nutrition

by improving the quality of advice that health professionals give to older people.

A life course approach is an underused way to approach NCD prevention and control. Unlike a

disease oriented approach, which focuses on interventions for a single condition, a life course

approach considers the critical stages, transitions, and settings where large differences can be

made in promoting or restoring health (WHO, 2018). Importantly, it takes into account the social

determinants of health, gender, equity, and human rights. It has been emphasized in numerous

frameworks and initiatives in the past decade, but more work is needed to give the approach

more prominence. Ensuring that the life course perspective is integrated more fully into our work

will help us identify appropriate settings for health promotion, design more effective

interventions, and ultimately, save lives. Taking a life course approach requires that health

literacy should be provided through multisectoral work with individuals, institutions,

communities, and countries. Interventions must extend beyond the health sector and be targeted

within the natural settings that people encounter through the various stages of their lives. Taking

this life course approach will help us to achieve SDG 3.4 and reduce premature mortality by 30%

before 2030 (WHO, 2023).

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2.3 Bioactive Compounds

Generally, these naturally bioactive compounds are added to the staple foods or food products to

supply healthy calories and health-promoting nutrients to the consumer’s daily diet. These

compounds have the potential to synchronize essential metabolic processes in human body; a

few to name are free radical scavenging, inhibition, or induction of gene expression, and receptor

and enzymatic functioning (Correia et al. 2012). Biological activities such as antimicrobial,

anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic, antiallergenic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities

demonstrated by these compounds adds to their necessity for inclusion these compounds in the

daily diet (Ham et al. 2009). Their addition to the food will contribute to treating and preventing

various present and potent lifestyle diseases, respectively. After closely observing the current and

nearfuture lifestyle and needs of the people, many commercial industries, such as

pharmaceuticals, food, and chemicals, are setting foots into the business of bioactive compounds

extraction. Other than the above described benefits, these compounds can also serve as food

additive and processing aid of natural origin to food industries (Hamzalıoğlu and Gökmen 2016).

Some of these could be as follows:

1. Antioxidant: Processing and prolonged storage conditions generate free radical in the food

systems, which will affect the food quality. Bioactive compounds acting as antioxidant will

resolve this problem by scavenging free radicals and single oxygen molecules, chelating metal

ions (inducing agent), breaking chain reaction (autoxidation), reducing oxygen concentration in

the storage or processing system, etc. (Frankel and Meyer 2013).

67
2. Enzyme Inhibition or Induction: These compounds will aid during the processing of the

inhibition/induction of a particular type of reaction by controlling the activity of the enzyme

(Correia et al. 2012).

3. Coloring Agent: Natural coloring agents such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, curcumin, and

squid ink can replace all the synthetic colorants that are highly stable in the food systems but

extremely toxic and non-nutritive at the same time to the masses.

4. Flavoring Agents: Various natural flavors such as cinnamaldehyde and vanillin are used for

flavoring sweet foods, chewing gums, and beverages (Hamzalıoğlu and Gökmen 2016).

5. Antimicrobial Agents: Food is the most suitable medium for the growth of millions of both

food spoilers and foodborne pathogens. Food spoilers attack the organoleptic aspects of food by

metabolizing various compounds in food to produce off-flavor, gases, slime, etc., and foodborne

pathogens render the same unsafe for consumption. Antimicrobial agents such as phenolic

compounds will enable us to get food, which is intact in quality and safe for consumption

(Bhattacharya et al. 2010).

6. Texturizing Agents: Various nutritive and non-nutritive gums, dietary fibers (soluble and

insoluble), etc., can be used as texturizing agent. These compounds with their appreciable water-

and oil-holding capacity enhance the solubility and viscosity, which directly contribute to the

textural element of the food products. Also, dietary fibers will maintain healthy gut and assist in

body weight management (Elleuch et al. 2011).

7. Fortifying Agent: Bioactive compounds after extraction and purification can be used to

fortify various staples (rice, salt, milk, oils, etc.) and vulnerable population targeted food

products to provide them with deficient and essential components (functional and nutraceutical

products).

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2.3.1 Silicon-Containing Compounds

Production of aromatic nitro compounds is an important industrial process and involves the

unsolved problems of regioselectivity, over-nitration and competitive oxidation of substrates

(Zolfigol, et al. 2012). Therefore oxidation of aniline derivatives to their corresponding nitro

compounds may be a useful route for the conversion of the NH2 group into the corresponding

nitro group. Several methods for direct oxidation of aromatic amines to nitro derivatives have

been reported, such as hypofluorous acid, peracids, permaleic acid, dioxirane, tert-butyl

peroxides or H2O2 catalysed with transition metal compounds (W,5,6 Mo,7,8 V7 and Re9) and

titanium and chromium silicates. Some of the procedures described in the literature suffer from

harsh reaction conditions, over-oxidation, low yields of the desired products, unavailability of

the reagents and formation of azo compounds, etc (Karunakaran et al., 2016). Selective oxidation

of aryl amines is an important reaction in the synthesis of hydroxylamine, and nitroso, oxime,

azo, azoxy and other compounds (Waghmode et al., 2020). The product composition depends on

the oxidants, catalysts and reaction conditions employed and the selective oxidation of amines is

consequently very rare and valuable. However, for production of the nitro compounds, the best

reaction conditions and reagents should be chosen and optimized. Sodium perborate (SPB,

NaBO3.4H2O) is an inexpensive, stable, innocuous, easily handled and extensively used

ingredient in detergents as a bleaching agent. It generates hydrogen peroxide in situ in aqueous

solution and is a highly effective oxidizing reagent in glacial acetic acid. It has also been used for

functional group oxidation in organic synthesis (McKillop et al., 2011).

69
 Figure. 2.6: Chemical structure of Silicon-containing compounds (McKillop et al.,

2011).

2.3.2 Aromatic Amines

Amines constitute an important class of organic compounds derived by replacing one or more

hydrogen atoms of ammonia molecule by alkyl group(s) (alkylamines) and /or aryl group(s)

(aromatic amines). In nature, they occur among proteins, vitamins, alkaloids (e.g. like opium

alkaloids morphine, codeine, nicotine alkaloid of tobacco, etc.) and hormones. Synthetic

examples include polymers, dyestuffs and drugs (Salehi et al., 2011). Two biologically active

compounds, namely adrenaline and ephedrine, both containing secondary amino group, are used

to increase blood pressure. Novocain, a synthetic amino compound, is used as an anaesthetic in

dentistry. Benadryl, a well-known antihistaminic drug also contains tertiary amino group.

Quaternary ammonium salts are used as surfactants. Diazonium salts are intermediates in the

preparation of a variety of aromatic compounds including dyes and starting material in the

preparation of many substituted benzene compounds (both in laboratory and in industry).

Amines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia, obtained by replacement of one, two or all

the three hydrogen atoms by alkyl and/or aryl groups (Defoin, 2017).

70
 Figure. 2.7: Chemical structures of Aromatic Amines (Defoin, 2017).

2.3.3 Nitroaromatics

Nitroaromatic compounds contain one or more nitro groups directly bonded to an aromatic

group. Especially those containing imidazole and furan or thiophene groups, demonstrate

biological activities allowing for their clinical use as antibiotics and are discussed in this review.

The chemical and physical properties of the nitro group (−NO2) including its electron

withdrawing ability, polarity, size, ability to form hydrogen bonds and redox properties

(Patterson et al., 2014). contribute to its key role in the action of many drugs, especially

antimicrobial agents. Nitroaromatic compounds find use in the treatment of a wide variety of

infectious diseases for both bacterial infections, including tuberculosis (TB), and parasitic

infections such as giardiasis, trichomoniasis, human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas

disease and leishmaniasis, which are increasingly becoming global health threats (Jarrad, et al.,

2017). Despite the antibacterial and antiparasitic properties of nitroaromatic antibiotics, drugs

containing nitro groups often demonstrate mutagenicity and unacceptable toxicity profiles, which

have hindered further development of this drug class. The potent biological activity of these

71
compounds drives the search for non-mutagenic and selectively toxic nitroaromatic antibiotics

that kill the infectious agent without damaging host cells. In addition, repurposing existing

nitroaromatic antibiotics that have been proven safe represents a less risky and cost-efficient

strategy in the search of new and effective drugs to treat neglected tropical diseases (NTD)

(Jarrad, et al., 2017).

The redox biochemistry of the nitro group plays a central role in the biological activity of

nitroaromatic antibiotics. These compounds require reductive bioactivation for antimicrobial

activity with the reduction being carried out by nitroreductases (NTRs) of type 1 or 2 (or type I

or II, Scheme 1) that possess reducing power greater than the reduction potential of the

nitroaromatic compound. Numerous organism-specific nitroreductases exist as well as other

systems including pyruvate/ferredoxin oxidoreductase and hydrogenases that are capable of

catalyzing nitro group reduction (Martínez-Júlvez et al. 2012).

Figure. 2.8: Chemical structure of Nitroaromatics compounds (Heikal, 2011).

72
2.3.4 Heterocyclic Compounds

Heterocyclic compounds are of mainly interest in medicinal chemistry. The most complex

branches of chemistry are normally heterocyclic chemistry. It is equally contributed in

interesting for the industrial and physiological significances and for its diversity of its synthetic

procedure as well as its theoretical implication. Synthetic heterocyclic chemistry has not only

played an important role in every place of human life and also found their application in diverse

field as agriculture, medicine, polymer and various industries. Most of the synthetic heterocyclic

compounds act as a drug is used as anticonvulsants, hypnotics, antineoplastic, antiseptics,

antihistaminics, antiviral, anti-tumor etc. In every year large number of heterocyclic drugs is

being introduced in pharmacopeias. The size and type of ring structures, together with the

effective substituent groups of the mother scaffold, showed strongly their physicochemical

properties (Gomtsyan, 2012). Among the various medical applications, heterocyclic compounds

have a significant active role as anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, and anti-

tumor drugs (Mabkhot, 2013). Heterocycle’s general applications are as immense as they are

various and are not extensively encompassed in the scope of this brief review. The alkaloids

form a most important group of naturally occurring heterocyclic compounds having wide-

ranging biological activity. Most of the alkaloids contain basic nitrogen atoms. Here I mainly

focused on imidazole heterocyclic. Recent developing organic synthetic methodologies on

heterocyclic chemistry are more successful pathways for the chemists to prepare useful bulk

chemicals and fine. This is not only their strategies are influenced by economical aspects,

expressed in enhancement of reaction yield and purity, but the environmental aspect is gaining

additional importance as well (Y. Chen, et al, 2014).

73
 Figure. 2.9: Chemical structure of Heterocyclic compounds (Chen, et al, 2014).

2.3.5 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Carboxylic acid derivatives are classes of organic compound that are derived from carboxylic

acids by replacing the hydroxyl group (-OH) with another functional group. The most common

derivatives includes esters, amides, anhydrides, and acyl chlorides. Each of those derivatives has

distinct chemical property reactivity making them important in both synthetic and biochemical

chemistry. Amides are formed when the hydroxyl group of the carboxylic acid is replaced by an

amine group. The general structure of the amide group is RCONR’R”, where the R, R’, and R”

can be hydrogen or hydrocarbon chains (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Amides are significant in

biochemistry as they are the building blocks of proteins (peptide) are sure chains of amino acids

linked by amide bond.

Figure. 2.10: Chemical structure of Carboxylic acid derivatives (Carey and Sundberg, 2007).

2.3.6 Organic Bases

74
An organic base is an organic compound which acts as a base. Organic base are usually, but not

always, proton acceptors they usually contain nitrogen atoms, which can easily be protonated.

For example: amine or nitrogen continue heterocyclic compound have a lone pair of electron on

the nitrogen atom and can thus, add as proton acceptors (Jagtap and Ramaswamy, 2020)

examples include; pyrimidine, alkylamines and imidazole, hydroxides of quaternary ammonium

cations or some other organic cations.

Factors Affecting Organic Bases

Most organic bases are considered to be weak, many factors can affects the sense of the

compound. One such factor is the inductive effects a sample explanation of the term would state

the electropositive atoms (such as, carbon group attaching in close proximity to the potential

proton acceptor have an “electron-releasing” effect such that the positive charge acquired by the

proton acceptor is distributes over other adjacent atoms in the chain the converse is also possible

as alleviation of alkalinity: electronegative atoms will have an electron withdrawal effect and

their by reduce the basicity. (Zolfigol et al. 2014).

Figure. 2.11: Chemical structure of Organic Bases (Zolfigol et al. 2014).

75
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

Instruments

The following instruments was used during the research.

i. weighing balance(OHAUS;brandname,Pioneer,PA214)

ii. Rotary Evaporator(RE300)

iii. Soxhlet (Heating Mantel,KDM-250)

iv. Water Bath(Digital water bath DK-420,WOM)

v. GCMS (Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010SE)

76
 vi. Glasswares.

Reagents

The following reagents was used during the research.

i. Methanol

ii. Acetone

iii. Dichloromethane

iv. Ethyl acetate

v. Ionize water

3.2 Methodology

 Study design

 Area of Study and Sampling

 Sample preparation

 Data Collection Methods

 Sample selection

 Extraction of Sample

 Determination of bioactive compounds

 Statistical analysis

3.2.1 Study design

Cross-sectional study design was used in this study. The study took place from February 2024.

Actual data collection lasted 3 months across the states (Nasarawa state and Benue state).

77
3.2.2 Area of Study and Sampling.

Map of Benue State

Benue State is one of the North Central states in Nigeria with a population of about 4,253,641 in

2006 census. It is inhabited predominantly by the Tiv, Idoma, Orring and Igede. Minority ethnic

groups in Benue are Etulo, Igbo, Jukun peoples etc. Its capital is Makurdi. ("Makurdi | Nigeria"

2019). Benue is a rich agricultural region; popularly grown crops include: oranges, mangoes,

sweet potatoes, cassava, soya bean, guinea corn, flax, yams, sesame, rice, groundnuts, and Palm

tree.

The population of the survey will mostly be made up of mothers/women (18 years old and

above) in the communities and about 200–250 questionnaires will be distributed randomly in

each region.

Map of Nasarawa State

Brief write up on Nasarawa state with citation and reference comprising of location, geopolitical

zone, tribes and food.

The population of the survey will mostly be made up of mothers/women (18 years old and

above) in the communities and about 200–250 questionnaires will be distributed randomly in

each region.

78
Source: Map is adopted from Convafresh, 2019.

79
Table 3.1: Name of Senatorial District for the Survey
S/N NAME OF COMPOSITION AREA OF STUDY
SENATORIAL
DISTRICT
BENUE
KATSINA-ALA, KONSHISHA, KATSINA-ALA
KWANDE, LOGO, UKUM,
1 BENUE NORTH EAST USHONGO, VANDEIKYA USHONGO
BURUKU, GBOKO, GUMA, GWER- MARKURDI
EAST, GWER-WEST, MARKURDI,
2 BENUE NORTH WEST TARKA GUMA
ADO, AGATU, APA, OBI, OTUKPO
OGBADIBO, OHIMINI,
3 BENUE SOUTH OJU,OKPOKWU, OTUKPO OJU

80
Table 3.2: Names of Senatorial District for the Survey
S/N NAME OF SENATORIAL COMPOSITION AREA OF
DISTRICT STUDY
NASARAWA
AKWANGA,
NASARAWA AKWANGA,
1 NASARAWA NORTH EGGON, WAMBA WAMBA
KEFFI, KARU,
KOKONA,
NASARAWA, KARU,
2 NASARAWA WEST TOTO NASARAWA
AWE, DOMA,
KEANA, LAFIA,
3 NASARAWA SOUTH OBI DOMA, LAFIA

Sample Size Determination

Stratified sampling technique is used during the data collection and there are numerous

approaches, incorporating a number of different formulas, for calculating the sample size for

categorical data.

n = is the required sample size

p = is the percentage occurrence of a state or condition

E = is the percentage maximum error required

z = is the value corresponding to level of confidence required

81
There are two key factors to this formula (Bartlett et al., 2001). First, there are considerations

relating to the estimation of the levels of precision and risk that the researcher is willing to

accept:

E is the margin of error (the level of precision) or the risk the researcher is willing to accept (for

example, the plus or minus figure reported in newspaper poll results). In the social research a 5%

margin of error is acceptable. So, for example, if in a survey on job satisfaction 40% of

respondents indicated they were dissatisfied would lie between 35% and 45%. The smaller the

value of E the greater the sample size required as technically speaking sample error is inversely

proportional to the square root of n, however, a large sample cannot guarantee precision

(Bryman and Bell, 2003).

82
Z concern the level of confidence that the results revealed by the survey findings are accurate.

What this means is the degree to which we can be sure the characteristics of the population have

been accurately estimated by the sample survey. Z is the statistical value corresponding to level

of confidence required. The key idea behind this is that if a population were to be sampled

repeatedly the average value of a variable or question obtained would be equal to the true

population value. In management research the typical levels of confidence used are 95 percent

(0.05: a Z value equal to 1.96) or 99 percent (0.01: Z=2.57). A 95 percent level of confidence

implies that 95 out of 100 samples will have the true population value within the margin of error

(E) specified.

The second key component of a sample size formula concerns the estimation of the variance or

heterogeneity of the population (P). Management researchers are commonly concerned with

determining sample size for issues involving the estimation of population percentages or

proportions (Zikmund, 2002). In the formula the variance of a proportion or the percentage

occurrence of how a particular question, for example, will be answered is P(100-P). Where, P=

the percentage of a sample having a characteristic , for example, the 40 % of the respondents

who were dissatisfied with pay, and (100-P) is the percentage (60%) who lack the characteristic

or belief. The key issue is how to estimate the value of P before conducting the survey? Bartlett

et al. (2001) suggest that researchers should use 50% as an estimate of P, as this will result in the

maximization of variance and produce the maximum sample size (Bartlett et al., 2009).

83
3.2.3 Sample Preparation

Benue State

Procedure for each food

Most consumed food

Roasted yam and palm oil

Ingredients

 slices of yam

 3spoon of palm oil

 1/2 tablespoon of grinded pepper

 a pinch of Salt

Procedure

 Cut the yam into desire size

 Place it on the charcoal stove or put it on the fire.

 Allow for some minutes, check and change it position.

 Allow for at most 15 more minutes

 Remove from the fire and scrape the back gently

 Slices into pieces and put in a plate.

 Sprinkle your red oil, salt & Pepper or pour red oil in plate, add salt and little grinded

pepper.

 Serve and eat

84
Moderate Consumed food

Daffa (Corn Porridge)

Ingredients

 1/2 cup of Corn

 1full Onions

 3pcs of Fresh Pepper

 seasoning cubes

 1/2 teaspoon of salt

 1 tablespoon of Crayfish

 1/4 of palm oil

Processing

 Sundry the corn

 Pound & sprinkle water on the corn using mortal and pistol

 Remove the chaff from the Corn and wash it.

Procedure

 Place the pot on a cooking gas, add red oil to fry for a minute.

 Add all the ingredients and water.

 Pour the corn and stir to mix.

 Allow for at most 15 minutes to cook, then drop down

 Serve and eat.

85
Least consumed food

Pounded yam and fresh fish soup.

Ingredients

 4 slices of Yam

 4pcs of fresh pepper

 cubes of seasoning

 1/4 teaspoon of salt

 1 Fresh fish (any one of your choices)

 1/4 cup of palm oil

Procedure of Pounded yam.

 Peel the yam and slice into desire pieces

 Wash and arrange the yam in a pot, place on a cooking gas

 Add water and allow for at most 20 minutes,

 Check if is soft and done, then drop and pound using mortal and pistol

Fish Soup

 Processing

 cut the fish into desire pieces

 Wash with salt and warm water.

 Blend/grind the fresh pepper & onions together.

86
Procedure of preparing the Soup.

 Place the pot on a cooking gas.

 Add red oil to fried for a minute.

 Pour your blended ingredient and stir, then add water.

 Add magi, salt, and the fish.

 Allow for at most 5 minutes and drop.

 Serve with the pounded yam and eat.

Sample Preparation

Nasarawa State

Procedure for each food

Most consumed food

 Tuwon Masara and dried okro soup

Ingredients

 Corn flour

 Dried okro

 Tablespoon of grinded pepper

 Seasoning cubes

 Palm oil

 Locust beans

Procedure

 Add water to a pot and allow to boil

87
 Make a paste out of the corn flour and add to the boiling water then allow to cook for a

while

 Add in the remaining flour to the boiling paste and stir continuously till it becomes thick

and allow to simmer for 2-3 minutes

Dried okro soup procedure

 Add in water to the pot

 Add in Palm oil, seasoning cube, locust beans, pepper, and grounded ginger then allow

to boil for five minutes

 Add in the dried okro and allow to cook for 2 -3 minutes then serve with the tuwon

masara

Moderately Consumed food

 Boiled cassava and palm oil

Ingredients

 Tubers of cassava

 Palm oil

 Salt

Procedure

 Peel the cassava

 Wash and place in the pot on the fire

 Add a pinch of salt and allow to cook for 5-10 minutes

 Serve with palm oil.

88
Least consumed food

 Jollof rice (Palm oil rice)

Ingredients

 Cups of rice

 Fresh pepper

 Cubes of seasoning

 Salt

 Palm oil

 Onion ball

 Fish

 Crayfish

Procedure for jollof rice (palm oil rice)

 Wash and parboil rice

 Add in Palm oil to the pot and add in the onion, fish and pepper

 Add water and the seasoning cube, salt, crayfish and allow to boil

 Add in the parboiled rice and cook for 10-15 minutes then serve

3.2.4 Data collection method

Use of questionnaire

The questionnaires was developed and used for documenting the most commonly consumed

food, drinks, snacks, their ingredients and mode of preparation. This will serve as an important

background information on the food composition, dietary factors and nutritional status of a

population.

89
3.2.5 Extraction of Sample

Soxhlet Extractor

Standard Operating Procedure for Soxhlet apparatus

 The apparatus was assembled.

 The round bottom flask was filled with solvent (Methanol Analytical grade).

 The thimble containing sample was put into extraction tube.

 The extraction tube was attached with flask containing solvent.

 A condenser unit was attached with the extraction tube and run the water.

 The soxhlet apparatus was fixed on hot plate and heat the flask containing solvent.

 The solvent started to evaporate and falls in the extraction tube after condensing.

 The process continued till all the sample is extracted.

 The process was discontinued and

 The thimble was taken out.

 Again the extraction tube was attached with flask containing solvent along with sample

and condenser unit.

 Again the flask was heated to recover the solvent.

 The process was discontinued and clean the extraction tube and thimble.

Rotary Evaporator

The procedures of Rotary Evaporator

 Ice was used

 The apparatus was filled to more than half

 Keck clip was used

90
 Joystick knob was used to lower the flask in the water

 The vacuum source was turned on

 The rotation notch was slightly adjusted

 Stopcock was closed

 The solution was allowed to evaporate

3.2.6 Determination of Bioactive Compounds

3.2.6.1 Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GCMS)

Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a widely-used analytical tool due to its

veracity and precision in both quantitative analysis and identification of unknown compounds.

One of the reasons that GC-MS boasts such excellent versatility is the availability of various

sample introduction systems. Direct injection of a sample into the GC-MS can lead to

contamination of the system and poor-quality data. On the other hand, off-line sample

preparation can be laborious and time-consuming. Increasingly, automated sample preparation is

incorporated directly into the GC-MS system (Szpyrka et al., 2020).

3.2.6.2 Principle Using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GCMS)

The first steps in a GC-MS experiment include sample preparation, injection, and separation on a

gas chromatography column. An interface is required to transfer the molecule from the GC to the

mass spectrometer since the operation of a mass spectrometer necessitate a high vacuum system.

The molecule that exist the column enter the most popular form of instrument, the ionization

chamber, where they are subjected to a stream of powerful electrons that ionize and fragment

some of the molecules. In addition to molecular ion that have not been fragmented, processes

that result in their fragmentation or rearrangement can also produce ion. In a mass analyzer, the

91
ion are accelerated and swiftly sorted in accordance with the mass to charge ration (m/z, where

m is the mass and z is the charge). The mass analyzer can quickly sort thousands of distinct ion

masses (m/z). The number of electron produced when the ion impact the detector for each m/z is

den measured by a detector to determine the abundance of the ions. A chromatogram that shows

the amount of each compound as a function of retention time is produced by gas chromatography

using mass spectrum as the detector. A mass spectrum, which is a histogram of each ions

abundance as a function of m/z and act as a fingerprint to identify the substance represented by a

peak on the chromatogram, is the fundamental mass spectrum specific dimension of data

(McNair, H.M. and J.M. Miller 2009).

3.2.6.3 Oxalate

Extraction Method

Generally, GC-MS-based analytical methods for bioactive compounds analysis included three

steps:

(1) Extraction of the bioactive compounds from the sample matrix

(2) Derivatization of the bioactive compounds

(3) GCMS analysis.

There are various well-established extraction protocols, and generally, these extraction methods

could be applied to different types of samples; however, to achieve the best performance for

specific target analytes, some method optimization is required. Since many parameters such as

instrumental settings would affect the method performance, I did not provide quantitative

comparison for different extraction methods. In the following section, then briefly introduce the

92
frequently used extraction methods. Cleaving the ester bond between the fatty acid moiety and

the glycerol part (Wang SH, et al., 2014).

Derivatization Methods

Derivatization is usually necessary for bioactive compounds analysis by GCMS, especially for

the compounds with carbon numbers larger than 10. Bioactive compounds are commonly

derivatized to form numerous compounds, which are then detected by GCMS. In this section, we

introduced the methods frequently used for bioactive compounds derivatization. Generally, acid

derivatization methods can be applied to total bioactive compounds; however, basic

derivatization methods are limited to esterification of compounds (Cruz-Hernandez C, et al.,

2019).

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) Analysis

The phyto components of PALE was identified using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy

(GC-MS) detection system (Idakwoji PA, et al., 2016). The GC-MS analysis was accompanied

using an Agilent 19091s GC system. The capillary column used was 933HP-1MS (30 x 250 μm;

film thickness of 0.25μm; J & W Scientific, USA). The temperature program was set at as

follows: initial temperature 60oC held for 1.5297 min, 30oC /min to 150oC for 5min, 30oC /min

to 250oC held for 8 min. The total run time was 21.333 min, while the flow rate of helium as a

carrier gas was 0.79653mL/min. The MS system was performed in electron ionization (EI) mode

with Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM). The ion source temperature and quadruple temperature

were set at 230oC and 150oC respectively.

Identification and interpretation of compounds on Mass-Spectrum GCMS was conducted using

the database of National Institute Standard and Technology (NIST) having more than 62,000

patterns. The spectrum of individual unknown compounds was compared with the spectrum of

93
known components stored in the NIST library. The name, molecular formula, weight and

chemical structure of the components of the test materials were ascertained (Adeshina GO, et al.,

2017)

3.3 Statistical Analysis

The data expressed as mean ± standard deviation, were analyzed by frequency and one-way

analyses of variance (ANOVA) using Statistical packages for social sciences (SPSS) version

25.0 software, and p<0.05 was taken to be significant.

94
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULT

The results of various locally consumed foods in Nasarawa state are presented in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 presented various foods consumed in Nasarawa state classified based on their

frequency of appearance in the questionnaire and Google forms into the most consumed (tuwon

masara and dry okro), moderately consumed (cassava and kulikuli), and least consumed (palm

oil rice).

95
Figure 4.1 Response of the food analysis from Nasarawa State in Nigeria.

96
Figure 4.2 presented various foods consumed in Benue state classified based on their frequency

of appearance in the questionnaire and Google forms into the most consumed (roasted yam and

palm oil), moderately consumed (daffa), and least consumed (pounded yam and fresh fish soup).

97
Figure 4.2 Response of the food analysis from Benue State in Nigeria.

98
The result of GCMS analysis of some selected locally consumed food in Nasarawa state and

Benue state such as (tuwon masara and dry okro, cassava and kulikuli, palm oil rice, roasted yam

and palm oil, daffa, pounded yam and fresh fish soup) are presented in table 4.1 below.

99
Table 4.1: GCMS analysis of some locally consumed foods

Retention % Bioactive Compounds Quality

Time Area

Roasted yam and palm oil

4.395 68.92 Cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethyl- 83

6.358 8.63 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-Octamethyl-7-(2 methylpropoxy)tetrasiloxan-1- 78

ol Cyclotetrasiloxane
6.278 1.01 3-Isopropoxy-1,1,1,5,5,5-hexamethyl-3-(trimethylsiloxy) 64
trisiloxane Ergoline-8-carboxamide
7.096 0.16 3H-pyrazol-3-one, 2,4-dihydro-5-(4-nitrophenyl)-2-phenyl- 9

10.163 0.49 2-(4-Iodo-phenyl)-6-pentyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-quinoline 7

9.980 0.27 1H-Pyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylic acid, 5-formyl-3-methyl-, diethyl 5

ester Quinazoline,
9.007 0.10 1,3,5-Triazine, 2-chloro-4,6-bis(methylthio)- 4

2.662 0.16 1,5-Hexadiyne 5

2.885 0.12 Benzo[h]quinoline 2

4.819 0.18 Benzaldehyde, 2-nitro-, diaminomet hylidenhydrazone 3

Vanadium
15.714 0.14 1-Nitro-9,10-dioxo-9,10-dihydro-anthracene-2-carboxylic acid 9
diethylamide
15.570 0.63 trans-3-Ethoxy-b-methyl-b-nitrostyrene 5

15.851 0.23 4-Phenyl-3,4-dihydroisoquinoline 1H-Isoindole-1 4

15.874 0.13 Benzamide, N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2,3,4-trifluoro- 3

7.708 0.23 4-(2'-Hydroxy-3'-isopropylaminopropoxy)phenylacetic acid 7

Daffa

3.851 1.54 Cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethyl 80

3.428 2.66 Toluene 76

7.256 0.37 Silicic acid, diethyl bis (trimethylsilyl) ester 64

100
3.182 0.39 1,2-Bis(trimethylsilyl)benzene 53

10.186 0.84 (9-Oxo-9,10-dihydroacridin-4-yl)acetic acid 50

5.293 0.51 Tris(tert-butyldimethylsilyloxy) arsane 47

5.225 0.52 Indole-2-one, 2,3-dihydro-N-hydroxy-4-methoxy-3,3-dimethyl- 38

Carvacrol
4.607 1.03 Benzonitrile, m-phenethyl-1,2,5-Oxadiazol-3-amine 35

4.269 0.40 Benzonitrile, m-phenethyl-Acetamide 37

7.611 0.35 2-Ethylacridine Silicic acid 53

11.467 1.29 1,2,5-Oxadiazol-3-amine, 4-(3-meth oxyphenoxy)-4-Phenyl-3 27

11.685 0.84 Benzothiophene-3-carboxylic acid, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-2-amino- 50

6-ethyl-, ethyl ester
11.776 1.88 Quinoline, 4-chloro-6-methoxy-2-methyl-6-Nitro-1H- 46
quinazoline-2
11.565 0.99 [1,3]Benzimidazo[2,1-a]phthalazine, 9-chloro-Benzenamine 22

10.603 1.16 6-Nitro-1H-quinazoline-2,4-dione 38

Pounded yam and Cat fish soup

6.347 21.77 Pentasiloxane, dodecamethyl- 90

5.877 11.36 3-Isopropoxy-1,1,1,5,5,5-hexamethy l-3 83

(trimethylsiloxy)trisiloxane
10.747 0.20 1H-Pyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylic acid, 5-formyl-3-methyl-, diethyl 74
ester
5.900 14.61 Cyclotetrasiloxane, octamethyl- 59

10.621 0.61 1H-Pyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylic acid, 5-formyl-3-methyl-, diethyl 56

ester
7.766 6.11 3-Amino-2-phenazinol ditms 43

15.794 0.36 7-Methyl -2-phenyl-1H-indole 9

10.283 2.18 3-Trifluoromethyl-7-phenothiazone 7

10.009 0.12 trans-3-Ethoxy-b-methyl-b-nitrostyrene 5

101
5.523 0.36 7H-Dibenzo[b,g]carbazole 3

5.174 0.18 5-Methyl-2-phenylindolizine 2

6.661 0.55 Silicic acid, diethyl bis(trimethylsilyl) ester 9

10.455 0.38 1H-Pyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylic acid, 5-formyl-3-methyl-, diethyl 5

ester
12.149 0.26 Carbonic acid, monoamide, N-propyl-N-decyl-, propargyl ester 3

11.908 0.24 Benzo[h]quinoline 2

Tuwon masara and Dry okro

5.608 15.20 Pentasiloxane, dodecamethyl- 90

3.348 30.12 Toluene 81

6.278 0.31 2-Nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenol Benzenamine 58

5.957 0.49 2-Nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl) phenol 53

9.145 0.45 2-Nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenol Benzofuran-2-one 50

3.663 2.29 Methyltris(trimethylsiloxy)silane 47

3.011 0.30 2-Bromo-4-chloroaniline 38

4.979 0.31 5-Amino-2-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-methyl-6-indolizinecarbonitrile 35

4.830 0.49 Dodecahydropyrido[1,2-b]isoquinolin-6-one 30

7.273 0.36 4-Nitro-2-trifluoromethylphenol 1H-Indole 43

8.372 0.32 2,3-Dihydroxy-6-nitroquinoxaline 1,2,5-Oxadiazol-3-amine 27

10.381 0.99 Benzenamine, 4-bromo-2-chloro- 49

10.495 0.57 3-Amino-7-nitro-1,2,4-benzotriazine 1-oxide Benzofuran-2-one 42

12.847 0.47 Silicic acid, diethyl bis(trimethylsilyl) ester 37

15.336 0.33 4-Dehydroxy-N-(4,5-methylenedioxy-2-nitrobenzylidene) 25

102
 tyramine Phenylglyoxylic acid

Cassava and kulikuli

5.603 10.36 Cyclotetrasiloxane, octamethyl- Cyclotetrasiloxane 87

4.704 1.64 Cyclotetrasiloxane, octamethyl- 74

7.571 2.00 Cyclopentasiloxane, decamethyl- Cyclopentasiloxane 59

5.466 0.36 Dimethyl Sulfoxide 53

3.142 0.59 Cyclotrisiloxane, hexamethyl- Cyclotrisiloxane 50

6.507 0.39 6-Nitro-1H-quinazoline-2,4-dione 53

4.075 0.32 7-Chloro-4-methoxy-3-methylquinoline 25

4.619 0.49 2-(Acetoxymethyl)-3-(methoxycarbonyl)biphenylene 35

4.979 0.35 Diethyl 1,4-dioxo-1,4-dihydro-2,3- phenazinedicarboxylate 22

1,3,5,7,9-Pentasiloxane
5.185 2.39 Propane, 2-chloro-Silicic acid 16

7.743 0.47 Tris (tert-butyldimethylsilyloxy) arsane Silicic acid 43

9.379 0.61 6-Nitro-1H-quinazoline-2,4-dione Benzenamine 38

10.255 0.57 2-p-Nitrophenyl-oxadiazol-1,3,4-one-5 50

10.661 0.73 1-Benzenesulfonyl-1H-pyrrole 43

11.771 1.78 4-Bromo-3-chloroaniline Benzenamine 41

Palm oil rice

6.347 32.17 Cyclotetrasiloxane, octamethyl- Cyclotetrasiloxane 78

9.105 1.48 Cyclohexasiloxane, dodecamethyl- Morphine 9

10.610 0.84 1H-Pyrrole-2,4-dicarboxylic acid, 5-formyl-3 methyl-, diethyl 5

103
 ester
9.957 0.33 l-Norvaline, N-benzyloxycarbonyl-, undecyl ester 4

11.016 1.00 9H-Fluorene-4-carboxylic acid, 9-oxo-, phenethylamide 5

14.163 0.33 Benzo[h]quinoline 2

20.497 11.19 Silicic acid, diethyl bis(trimethylsilyl) ester 9

18.998 0.53 Carbonic acid, monoamide, N-propyl-N-decyl- Vanadium 3

9.608 2.21 5-Nitro-4-(pyrrol-1-yl)naphthalen-1-amine 5

6.610 0.23 Indolizine, 2-(4-methylphenyl)- 2

8.945 0.43 (9-Oxo-9,10-dihydroacridin-4-yl)acetic acid 5

15.010 0.95 Benzamide, N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2,3,4-trifluoro- 3

10.449 0.98 6-Methyl-2-(3-nitrophenyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine 5

18.266 2.72 1-Nitro-9,10-dioxo-9,10-dihydro-anthracene-2-carboxylic acid 9

diethylamide
7.880 1.01 2-Chloro-5-nitrothiophene-3-carboxylic acid 1,3,5-Triazine 4

104
4.2 DISCUSSION

The result as shown in figure 4.1 shows varying consumeability of different food among the

habitatnts of Nasarawa State. It was discovered that different food where consumed by the

people at different proportion as shown above. Food such as; Tuwon masara and dry okro, yam

porridge and moimoi are among the most consumed food while cassava and kulikuli, beans

porride and akara were among the moderately consumed whereas the palm oil rice, okpa and

potatoes porridge were the least consumed, it was observed that people in Nasarawa state

depends mainly in locally prepared foods available within the locality, This work is similar to

Guthold, et al., (2018)

The result as shown in figure 4.2 shows varying consumeability of different food among the

habitatnts of Benue State. It was discovered that different food where consumed by the people at

different proportion as shown above. Food such as; Roasted yam with palm oil, Cooked maze,

Akpu and Okpa are among the most consumed food while Daffa, Cooked cocoyam with palm oil

and Akoto were among the moderately consumed whereas the Pounded yam with fresh fish

soup, Millet okpa and Corn moimoi were the least consumed, it was observed that people in

Nasarawa state depends mainly in locally prepared foods available within the locality, This work

corresponds to Mijalo et al., (2016).

The results of GCMS as shown in Table 4.1 above showed a diverse range of compound as

evidence by the wide range of retention time and the presence of various chemical classes such

as (Pentaasiloxane, dodecamethyl, 2-Nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl) phenol Benzenamine). It was

discovered that Pentaasiloxane, dodecamethyl in Tuwon masara and dry okro has the high

105
quality followed by 2-Nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl) phenol Benzenamine, this is due to the

antioxidant metabolite metabolites in Tuwon masara (Hanahan and Weinberg, 2021).

Also in cassava with kulikuli was discovered that Cyclotetrasiloxane octamethyl has the high

quality of followed by Dimethyl Sulfoxide which as the lowest quality, this could be due to the

contamination of processing, packaging or environmental exposure, rather than being naturally

occurring compounds (Hammond and Kaur 2019).

Lastly in palm oil rice it was discovered that Cyclohexasiloxane, dodecamethyl- Morphine has

the highest quality followed by l-Norvaline, N-benzyloxycarbonyl-, undecyl ester which has a

low quality value, this could be attributed to factor related to the processing and cooking method.

Degradation can occur when preparing palm oil rice (Kivimäki, et al., 2018).

The result of roasted yam and palm oil was discovered that Cyclotrisiloxane hexamethyl has the

high quality followed by 1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-Octamethyl-7-(2methylpropoxy)tetrasiloxan-1-ol

Cyclotetrasiloxane which has a low quality, this could be due to enhancing the texture of the

food, making it creamier and more palatable (Alavanja, et al., 2019).

Secondly it was shown that 1,2-Bis(trimethylsilyl)benzene in Daffa has the high quality in value

while the Toluene ha the low quality, this could be due to enhancing the texture of and mouthfeel

of the food making it creamier and more palatable(Anand, et al., 2018).

Also in pounded yam and cat fish soup it was discovered that Pentasiloxane dodecamethyl has

the highest quality followed by the 3-Isopropoxy-1,1,1,5,5,5 hexamethy l-3 (trimethylsiloxy)

trisiloxane which has the low quality, this could be due to overall taste profile of the food, the

acidic taste can balance the richness of other ingredients making the dish more palatable. Acid

can significantly influenced the sensory attributes of food (Clancy, et al., 2017).

106
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The research conducted on the determination of bioactive compounds in locally consumed foods

in Nasarawa state and Benue state differences in the levels of various fatty acid across different

foods. Tuwon masara and okro Soup contained high level of phenol. Cassava and kulikuli

showed high saponin concentration in kulikuli. Palm oil rice perpetuate moderate level of phenol

in rice and crayfish. Saponin concentration was high in palm oil. These findings suggest the need

for attention to food preparation and consumption methods to alleviate the impact of these fatty

acid on nutritional excellence and overall health.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations can be made:

 Change of Diet: A change of diet should be encouraged to reduce reliance on specific

foods with high fatty acid content. Promoting the consumption of various food groups

can help reduce exposure to excessive levels of particular fatty acid found in specific

foods.

 Appropriate Processing Techniques: Creation of awareness should be done to the

population of people in both Nasarawa state and Benue state on appropriate processing

methods to reduce fatty acid levels in foods. Techniques such as soaking, sprouting,

fermentation, or cooking can effectively decrease the presence of fatty acid, enhancing

the bioavailability of essential nutrients.

107
 Nutritional Tutoring Programs: A community-based educational programs to raise

awareness about the impact of fatty acid on health and nutrition should be implemented.

Empowering individuals with knowledge about the effects of fatty acid can lead to better

food choices and preparation practices.

 Further Research and Monitoring: Further studies can be done on the food from the

questionnaire data collected and also to explore innovative methods of reducing fatty acid

levels in local foods, without compromising their nutritional value. Continuous

monitoring and research are crucial to developing more effective strategies and

interventions for mitigating the impact of fatty acid on human health.

108
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