Senior High School

NOT

Quarter 3 - Module 1
Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids

General Chemistry 2

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

Lesson Kinetic Molecular Model of
1 Liquids and Solids
What I Need to Know
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Compare the properties of liquids and solids with those of gases;
2. Apply the kinetic molecular theory to describe liquids and solids;
3. Describe the various intermolecular forces and factors that affect their strengths; and
4. Identify the types of intermolecular forces that may operate in a given molecular substance.

What I Know
Write the letter of the best answer in the blank.
____1. Which of the following properties pertain to solids only?
a. The kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome the attractive forces.
b. The particles are able to slide past one another.
c. They expand slightly when heated.
d. They diffuse extremely slow because the particles are tightly packed.
____2. Rank the matter based on decreasing relative strength of attractive forces between
particles.
a. liquid, solid, gas
b. solid, liquid, gas
c. gas, liquid, solid
d. liquid, gas, solid
____3. Which of the following is common to both solids and liquids?
a. They have fixed shape and fixed volume.
b. They have a strong intermolecular forces of attraction and vibrate in fixed position
because their particles are close to each other.
c. They have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome their attractive forces.
d. They are slightly compressible.
____4. Which of the three states of matter gas the strongest intermolecular forces?
a. solid
b. liquid
c. gas
d. gas, solid, liquid
____5. Which of the following explains the formation of water droplets on the surface of a
glass of cold water?
a. Water molecules are pushed by air onto the surface of the glass and form drops.
b. When water molecules in the air move slower, they get attracted to each other and
come together as drops.
c. Water molecules in the air gets attracted to the liquid water.
d. Water molecules escape through the porous glass.

What’s In
In the previews lesson, we have discussed the following: Teacher Tips:
Some notes on polarity of molecules are
A. Recall Kinetic Molecular Theory: given in Appendix A.
1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
2. These particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature. Increased temperature means
greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between particles, in the freedom of motion
of particles, and in the extent to which the particles interact.

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 5. For an animation showing the motion of particles in a solid, liquid or gas, the lesson
below may be viewed.
http://preparatorychemistry.com/KMT_flash.htm
B. Recall Molecular Geometry, Determining Polarity, Bond Dipole, Dipole Moment
Complete the table by following these instructions:
1. Draw the Lewis structures of the following molecules with the correct shape around the
central atom;
2. Indicate each bond’s polarity by drawing an arrow to represent the bond dipole along
each bond;
3. Determine the molecule’s polarity and indicate this with an arrow to represent the
dipole;
4. Circle your choice in each box to mark the molecule as polar or nonpolar

Cl2 NH3 CH3Br CH4

polar or nonpolar polar or nonpolar polar or nonpolar polar or nonpolar

What’s New
Activity 1: Comical sketch of the three physical states – solid, liquid, gas.
Make a comical sketch using three heroes as particles (or molecules) and present their
behavior and positions relative to each other in the solid, liquid and gaseous state. Assign one
hero as the solid, the second as liquid and the third one as gas. Explain the part of each hero.

What’s is It
Before we start, you should be familiar with the following relevant vocabulary that will be used
in the lesson:
Phase
A homogeneous part of a system in contact with other parts of the system, but separated
from these other parts by well-defined boundaries.
Condensed phases
Liquids and solids
Intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule

A. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and

Solids
We will start our discussion using
the comical sketch you made in Activity 1
and the following illustration of solid, liquid
and gas (Figure 1), answer the questions
that follow. Prior viewing of the animations
suggested in the review (Recall Kinetic
Molecular Theory) may also be useful in
this activity.

Figure 1: Molecular or particle level view of a

solid, liquid and a gas

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 Compare the properties of gases, liquids, and
Teacher Tips: solids in terms of distances and arrangement of
The Condensed State: Liquids and Solids their molecules.
• In liquids, the molecules are so close together that
there is very little empty space between them. a. Compare the distances among molecules in
Liquids are much more difficult to compress and the gas, liquid and solid and rank the
they are much denser at normal conditions. phases in increasing distance between
• Molecules in a liquid are held together by one or particles.
more types of attractive forces. However, the b. Describe the characteristic movement of
molecules can move past one another freely. the particles of gas, liquid and solid.
Liquids can flow, can be poured and assumes the c. How are the molecules of gas, liquid and
shape of its container.
solid arranged?
• In a solid, molecules are held tightly in position
d. Arrange the three phases of matter in order
with virtually no freedom of motion. There is even
less empty space in a solid than in a liquid. of increasing volume of empty space
• Solids are almost incompressible and possess between its molecules.
definite shape and volume. e. Identify the property of matter that
corresponds to the molecular behavior.

Use the table to present the comparison of the characteristic properties of gases, liquids and
solids
Molecular Behavior
.Properties of Matter
gas liquid solid
Volume/Shape
Density
Compressibility
Motion of Molecules

Now, we will proceed to intermolecular forces

a. Define intermolecular forces of attraction
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that act between molecules or particles in the
solid or liquid states. Generally, these attractive forces are much weaker than bonding forces.
b. Explain why melting points and boiling points of substances can be used as indicators of
strength of intermolecular forces operating in given solids and liquids
When a solid melts, or a liquid boils, the particles move away from each other. As they do
intermolecular forces of attraction are broken. The stronger the intermolecular forces to be
broken, the larger the amount of energy needed to break them, hence, the higher the melting
point for solid to liquid transformation, and boiling point for liquid to gas transformation.
c. Describe the different types of intermolecular forces and relate these to the type of molecules
that exhibit them.
The different types of intermolecular forces are the following:
Dispersion forces
Dispersion forces – these forces of attraction result from temporary dipole moments induced
in ordinarily nonpolar molecules. These forces are present between all types of molecules due
to the movement of electrons. As electrons move around the nucleus, an uneven distribution
causes momentary charge separations. Slightly positive sides of a molecule are attracted to
the slightly negative sides of the adjacent molecule.
What attractive interaction occurs in nonpolar substances? To learn the answer to this
question, consider the arrangement shown in Figure 3. If we place an ion or a polar molecule
near an atom (or a nonpolar molecule), the electron distribution of the atom (or molecule) is
distorted by the force exerted by the ion or the polar molecule, resulting in a kind of dipole. The
dipole in the atom (or nonpolar molecule) is said to be an induced dipole because the

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separation of positive and negative charges in the atom (or nonpolar molecule) is due to the
proximity of an ion or a polar molecule. The attractive interaction between an ion and the
induced dipole is called ion-induced dipole interaction, and the attractive interaction between a
polar molecule and the induced dipole is called dipole-induced dipole interaction.
The likelihood of a dipole moment being induced depends not only on the charge on the ion
or the strength of the dipole but also on the polarizability of the atom or molecule—that is, the
ease with which the electron distribution in the atom (or molecule) can be distorted. Generally,
the larger the number of electrons and the more diffuse the electron cloud in the atom or
molecule, the greater its polarizability. Thus, dispersion forces may be the weakest of
intermolecular forces that can exist between two molecules, but the larger the atoms present,
the stronger the dispersion forces. By diffuse cloud we mean an electron cloud that is spread
over an appreciable volume, so that the electrons are not held tightly by the nucleus.
For example, F2, the lightest halogen, is a gas, Br2 is a liquid, and the heavier I2, is a solid
at room conditions. Further, the more atoms that make up the molecules, the stronger are the
dispersion forces. Methane, CH4, is gaseous, but larger hydrocarbons like butane, C4H10, is
liquid, and those with larger number of carbon atoms, like the waxes, are solids at room
temperature.

An Illustration of London Dispersion Forces using Helium atoms (2 electrons)

• Consider atoms of helium. The average distribution of electrons around each nucleus is
spherically symmetrical. The atoms are nonpolar and possess no dipole moment.

Figure 2. (a) Spherical charge distribution in a helium atom.

(b) Distortion caused by the approach of a cation.
(c) Distortion caused by the approach of a dipole.

• At a given instant in time, the distribution of electrons around an individual atom, may not
be perfectly symmetrical. Both electrons may be on one side of the nucleus, as shown on
the leftmost atom in figure 3.
• The atom would have an apparent dipole moment at that instant in time (i.e. a transient
dipole).
• A close neighboring atom, shown on the right, would be influenced by this apparent dipole.
The electrons of the neighboring atom would move away from the negative region of the
dipole. Due to electron repulsion, a temporary dipole on one atom can induce a
similar dipole on a neighboring atom.
• This will cause the neighboring atoms to be attracted to one another. This is called the
London dispersion force (or just dispersion force). It is significant only when the atoms are
close together.

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 Figure 3. London dispersion forces between helium atoms. Image obtained from
http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Forces/Intermol/Forces02.htm

Dipole-dipole forces
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules that possess
dipole moments). In polar molecules the electrons are unevenly distributed because some
elements are more electronegative than others. The partial negative side of one molecule is
attracted to the partial positive side of another molecule.
This type of force is stronger than the dispersion forces because polar molecules have a
permanent uneven distribution of electrons. The nature of attraction is electrostatic and can be
understood in terms of Coulomb’s law: The larger the dipole moment, the stronger the
attraction.

Figure 4. Attractive Dipole-Dipole Interactions. Image obtained from

http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Forces/Intermol/Forces02.htm

Ion-Dipole Forces
Coulomb’s law also explains ion-dipole forces, which attract an ion (either a cation or an
anion) and a polar molecule to each other (Figure 5). The strength of this interaction depends
on the charge and size of the ion and on the magnitude of the dipole moment and size of the
molecule. The charges on cations are generally more concentrated, because cations are
usually smaller than anions. Therefore, a cation interacts more strongly with dipoles than does
an anion having a charge of the same magnitude

Figure 5 (a) Interaction of a water molecule with a Na+ ion and a Mg 2+ ion.
(b) In aqueous solutions, metal ions are usually surrounded by six water
molecules in an octahedral arrangement.

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 Figure 5 shows the ion-dipole interaction between the Na+ and Mg2+ ions with a water
molecule, which has a large dipole moment (1.87 D). Because the Mg2+ ion has a higher
charge and a smaller ionic radius (78 pm) than that of the Na+ ion (98 pm), it interacts more
strongly with water molecules. (In reality, each ion is surrounded by a number of water
molecules in solution.) Consequently, the heats of hydration for the Na+ and Mg2+ ions are
2405 kJ/mol and 21926 kJ/mol, respectively. Similar differences exist for anions of different
charges and sizes.

Hydrogen bond
Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in
a polar bond, such as N‒H, O‒H, or F‒H, and an electronegative O, N, or F atom. Hydrogen
bonds between water molecules are particularly strong. The interaction is written as

A ‒ H ••• B or A ‒ H ••• A

A and B represent O, N, or F; A ‒ H is one molecule or part of a molecule and A or B is a

part of another molecule; the dotted line represents the hydrogen bond.
Examples of hydrogen bonding in water (H2O), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):

Figure 6. Hydrogen bonds in H2O, NH3 and HF. Image obtained from
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3082/3156196/blb1102.html

What’s More
1. (a) Which type of intermolecular attractive force operates between all molecules?
(b) Which type of intermolecular attractive force operates only between polar molecules?
(c) Which type of intermolecular attractive force operates only between the hydrogen atom
of a polar bond and a nearby small electronegative atom?

2. (a) What is meant by the term polarizability?

(b) Which of the following atoms would you expect to be most polarizable: N, P, As, Sb?
Explain.
(c) List the following molecules in order of increasing polarizability: GeCl4, CH4, SiCl4, SiH4,
and GeBr4.
(d) Predict the order of boiling points of the substances in part (c)

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What I have Learned
Write the letter of the best answer in the blank.
____1. Which one of the following statements does not describe the general properties of
liquids accurately?
a. Liquids have characteristic volumes that do not change greatly with changes in
temperature. (Assuming that the liquid is not vaporized.)
b. Liquids have characteristic volumes that do not change greatly with changes in
pressure.
c. Liquids diffuse only very slowly when compared to solids.
d. The liquid state is highly disordered compared to the solid state.
e. Liquids have high densities compared to gases.
____2. Identify which property liquids do not have in common with solids.
a. rigid shape
b. volumes do not change significantly with pressure
c. hydrogen bonding forces can be significant
d. practically incompressible
e. volumes do not change significantly with temperature
____3. Which one of the following statements does not describe the general properties of
solids accurately?
a. Solids have characteristic volumes that do not change greatly with changes in
temperature.
b. Solids have characteristic volumes that do not change greatly with changes in
pressure.
c. Solids diffuse only very slowly when compared to liquids and gases.
d. Solids are not fluid.
e. Most solids have high vapor pressures at room temperature.
____4. Which of the following interactions are the strongest?
a. hydrogen bonding force
b. ion-ion interactions
c. permanent dipole force
d. dispersion force
e. London force
____5. The boiling points of the halogens increase in the order F 2 < Cl2 < Br2 < I2 due to the
resulting increasing _________ interactions.
a. ion-dipole
b. hydrogen-bonding
c. ion-ion
d. dispersion forces
e. permanent dipole-dipole
____6. For which of the following would permanent dipole-dipole interactions play an important
role in determining physical properties in the liquid state?
a. BF3 b. ClF c. BeCl2 d. F2 e. CCl4
____7. For which of the following would dispersion forces be the most important factor in
determining physical properties in the liquid state?
a. H2O b. NaCl c. F2 d. HF e. NH4Cl
____8. For which of the following would hydrogen bonding not be an important factor in
determining physical properties in the liquid state?
a. HI b. H2O c. HF d. NH3 e. H2O2
____9. Which of the following substances will have the strongest intermolecular forces?
a. H2S b. NO c. CH3NH2 d. Cl2 e. Rn

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 ____10. Which response correctly identifies all the interactions that might affect the properties
of BrI?
a. dispersion force, ion-ion interaction
b. hydrogen bonding force, dispersion force
c. permanent dipole force
d. permanent dipole force, dispersion force
e. dispersion force

What I Can Do
1. Which of the following can form hydrogen bonds with water?
CH3OCH3, CH4, F-, HCOOH, Na+.
2. As a metal such as lead melts, what happens to
a. the average kinetic energy of the atoms?
b. the average distance between the atoms?
3. Does the diagram on the right best describe a
crystalline solid, a liquid, or a gas? Explain.
4. List the three states of matter in order of
a. increasing molecular disorder and
b. increasing intermolecular attraction.
c. Which state of matter is most easily compressed?

Appendix A. Notes on Molecular Polarity

To determine the polarity of a molecule, both the bonds present and the overall shape of the
molecule should be considered. Two or more polar bonds may cancel each other out leading to a
nonpolar molecule
A molecule will be nonpolar if:
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are the same
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are symmetrically arranged around the central atom
• The terminal atoms (or groups) have the same charges
• Example: CO2

A molecule will be polar if:

• One or more terminal atoms differ from each other.
• At least one polar bond is present.
• The terminal atoms are not symmetrically arranged
• The molecule has one slightly positive end and one slightly negative end.
• Example: H2O

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Lesson Properties of Liquids and
2 Intermolecular Forces
What I Need to Know
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. describe the properties of liquids: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point,
and molar heat of vaporization;
2. explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these properties; and
3. relate the properties of water to intermolecular forces that operate among its molecules.

What I Know
Write the letter of the best answer in the blank.
____1. Which of the following properties refers to the resistance of liquid to flow?
a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization
____2. Which of the following properties explains why raindrops are spherical in shape?
a. surface tension
b. viscosity
c. vapor pressure
d. heat of vaporization
____3. What property of water explains why water inside the tiny cracks in rocks helps the
latter break when it freezes?
a. Water has a high boiling point.
b. Water has high surface tension.
c. Water has a greater volume in its solid state.
d. Water has high heat of vaporization
____4. With all other factors held constant, which of the following places will rice cook for a
longer time?
a. at the peak of a mountain
b. at sea level
c. It would take the same time to cook rice regardless of location.
d. It depends on the variety of rice
____5. What property of water explains why our body temperature remains essentially
constant?
a. Water has high heat of vaporization.
b. Water has a high specific heat.
c. Water has high density in its liquid form.
d. Water has high boiling point.

What’s In
As part of our review on our previews lessons on intermolecular forces, list the types of
intermolecular forces that exist between molecules (or basic units) in each of the following
species:
a. benzene (C6H6)
b. CH3Cl
c. PF3
d. NaCl
e. CS2

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What is It
You should be familiar with the following relevant vocabulary that will be used in the lesson:
Fluid − A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
Surface tension − The measure of the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is the amount
of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.
Capillary action − The tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be drawn into small
openings.
Viscosity − A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
Vapor − A gaseous substance that exist naturally as a liquid or solid at normal temperature.
Vaporization − The change of phase from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase).
Vapor pressure of a liquid − The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid; that is, the
pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed container.
Boiling point − The temperature at which a liquid boils. The boiling point of a liquid when the
external pressure is 1 atm is called the normal boiling point.
Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) − The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize
1 mole of a liquid at a given temperature.

Now that you are familiar with those words we will continue our discussion on the Properties of
Liquid and Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces give rise to a number of structural features and properties of

liquids. In this section we will look at five such phenomena associated with liquids
in general: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of
vaporization. The properties of liquids that were observed are consequences of the
interactions of particles that make up the liquid.

Surface Tension
Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces; there is no
tendency for them to be pulled in any one way. However, molecules at the surface are pulled
downward and sideways by other molecules, but not upward away from the surface (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Intermolecular forces acting on Figure 2. Water beads on an apple,

a molecule in the surface layer which has a waxy surface
of a liquid and in the interior (Karp, 2010)
region of the liquid (Karp, 2010)

These intermolecular attractions thus tend to pull the molecules into the liquid and cause
the surface to tighten like an elastic film. Because there is little or no attraction between polar
water molecules and, say, the nonpolar wax molecules on a freshly waxed car, a drop of water
assumes the shape of a small round bead, because a sphere minimizes the surface area of a
liquid. The waxy surface of a wet apple also produces this effect (Figure 2).

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 A measure of the elastic force in the surface of a liquid is
surface tension. The surface tension is the amount of energy
required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit
area (for example, by 1 cm2). Liquids that have strong
intermolecular forces also have high surface tensions. Thus,
because of hydrogen bonding, water has a considerably greater
surface tension than most other liquids.
Another example of surface tension is capillary action. Surface tension enables the
Figure 3(a) shows water rising spontaneously in a capillary tube. water strider to “walk” on water.
A thin film of water adheres to the wall of the glass tube. The
surface tension of water causes this film to contract, and as it does, it pulls the water up the tube.
Two types of forces bring about capillary action. One is cohesion, which is the intermolecular
attraction between like molecules (in this case, the water molecules). The second force, called
adhesion, is an attraction between unlike molecules, such as those in water and in the sides of a
glass tube. If adhesion is stronger than cohesion, as it is in Figure 3(a), the contents of the tube
will be pulled upward. This process continues until the adhesive force is balanced by the weight of
the water in the tube. This action is by no means universal among liquids, as Figure 3(b) shows. In
mercury, cohesion is greater than the adhesion between mercury and glass, so that when a
capillary tube is dipped in mercury, the result is a depression or lowering, at the mercury level—
that is, the height of the liquid in the capillary tube is below the surface of the mercury.

Figure 3. (a) When adhesion

is greater than cohesion, the liquid
(for example, water) rises in the
capillary tube. (b) When cohesion
is greater than adhesion, as it is
for mercury, a depression of the
liquid in the capillary tube results.
Note that the meniscus in the tube
of water is concave, or rounded
downward, whereas that in the
tube of mercury is convex, or
rounded upward.

Viscosity
The expression “slow as molasses in January” owes its truth to another physical property of
liquids called viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The greater the
viscosity, the more slowly the liquid flows. The viscosity of a liquid usually decreases as
temperature increases; thus, hot molasses flows much faster than cold molasses.
Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces have higher viscosities than those that have
weak intermolecular forces (Table 1). Water has a higher viscosity than many other liquids
because of its ability to form hydrogen bonds. Interestingly, the viscosity of glycerol is significantly
higher than that of all the other liquids listed in Table 1. Glycerol has the structure

Glycerol is a clear, odorless, syrupy liquid used to make explosives, ink, and lubricants.

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 Like water, glycerol can form hydrogen bonds. Each glycerol molecule has three -OH groups
that can participate in hydrogen bonding with other glycerol molecules.
Table 1. Viscosity of Some Common Liquids at 20°C

*The SI units of viscosity are newton-second per meter squared.

Furthermore, because of their shape, the molecules have a great tendency to become
entangled rather than to slip past one another as the molecules of less viscous liquids
do. These interactions contribute to its high viscosity.

Vapor Pressure
Molecules can escape from the surface of a liquid into the gas phase by evaporation.
Suppose we place a quantity of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) in an evacuated, closed container, as in
(Figure 4). The ethanol quickly begins to evaporate. As a result, the pressure exerted by the vapor
in the space above the liquid increases. After a short time the pressure of the vapor attains a
constant value, which we call the vapor pressure.

Figure 4. Vapor pressure over a liquid

At any instant, some of the ethanol molecules at the liquid surface possess sufficient kinetic
energy to overcome the attractive forces of their neighbors and, therefore, escape into the gas
phase. At any particular temperature, the movement of molecules from liquid phase to gas phase
goes on continuously. As the number of gas-phase molecules increases, however, the probability
increases that a molecule in the gas phase will strike the liquid surface and be recaptured by the
liquid, as shown in the flask on the right in Figure 4. Eventually, the rate at which molecules return
to the liquid equals the rate at which they escape. The number of molecules in the gas phase then
reaches a steady value, and the pressure exerted by the vapor becomes constant.

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 The condition in which two opposing processes occur simultaneously at equal rates is called
dynamic equilibrium (or simply equilibrium). Chemical equilibrium, is a kind of dynamic
equilibrium in which the opposing processes are chemical reactions. A liquid and its vapor are in
dynamic equilibrium when evaporation and condensation occur at equal rates. It may appear that
nothing is occurring at equilibrium because there is no net change in the system. In fact, though, a
great deal is happening as molecules continuously pass from liquid state to gas state and from
gas state to liquid state. The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapor
when the liquid and vapor are in dynamic equilibrium.

Boiling Point
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure equals the external
pressure, acting on the liquid surface. At this temperature, the thermal energy of the molecules is
great enough for the molecules in the interior of the liquid to break free from their neighbors and
enter the gas phase. As a result, bubbles of vapor form within the liquid. The boiling point
increases as the external pressure increases. The boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr)
pressure is called its normal boiling point. From Figure 5 we see that the normal boiling point of
water is 100 °C.
The time required to cook food in boiling water depends on the water temperature. In an open
container, that temperature is 100 °C, but it is possible to boil at higher temperatures. Pressure
cookers work by allowing steam to escape only when it exceeds a predetermined pressure; the
pressure above the water can therefore increase above atmospheric pressure. The higher
pressure causes the water to boil at a higher temperature, thereby allowing the food to get hotter
and to cook more rapidly.
The effect of pressure on boiling point also explains why it takes longer to cook food at high
elevations than it does at sea level. The atmospheric pressure is lower at higher altitudes, so
water boils at a temperature lower than 100 °C, and foods generally take longer to cook.

Figure 5. Vapor pressure for four liquids as a function of temperature.

Molar Heat of Vaporization

A measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid is the molar heat of
vaporization (ΔHvap), defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a
liquid. The molar heat of vaporization is directly related to the strength of intermolecular forces that
exist in the liquid. If the intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free the
molecules from the liquid phase and the molar heat of vaporization will be high. Such liquids will
also have a low vapor pressure. H is the symbol for enthalpy, which means heat content at a given
standard condition.

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 Table 2. Molar heats of vaporization and boiling points of selected substances
Substance ΔHvap (kJ/ mol) Boiling Point* (OC)
Argon (Ar) 6.3 -186
Pentane(C5H12) 26.5 36.1
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 30.3 56.5
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 39.3 78.3
Water (H2O) 40.79 100
*Measured at 1 atm
A practical way to demonstrate differences in the molar heat of vaporization is by rubbing ethyl
alcohol on your hands. Compare what is felt when water is used. Ethyl alcohol has a lower ΔHvap
than water so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of these
molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize them. As a result of the loss of heat from the
skin, our hands feel cool.

The next topic that we are going to discuss is about the properties of water with its molecular
structure.
The Structure and Properties of Water
Water is so common a substance on Earth that we often overlook its unique nature. All life
processes involve water. Water is an excellent solvent for many ionic compounds, as well as for
other substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.
Table 3. The Specific Heats of Some Common Substances
Substance Specific Heat (J/goC)
Al 0.900
Au 0.129
C (graphite) 0.720
C (diamond) 0.502
Cu 0.385
Fe 0.444
Hg 0.139
H2O 4.184
C2H5OH (ethanol) 2.460

As Table 3 shows, water has a high specific heat. The reason is that to raise the temperature
of water (that is, to increase the average kinetic energy of water molecules), we must first break
the many intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Thus, water can absorb a substantial amount of heat
while its temperature rises only slightly. The converse is also true: Water can give off much heat
with only a slight decrease in its temperature. For this reason, the huge quantities of water that are
present in our lakes and oceans can effectively moderate the climate of adjacent land areas by
absorbing heat in the summer and giving off heat in the winter, with only small changes in the
temperature of the body of water.
The most striking property of water is that its solid form is less dense than its liquid form: ice
floats at the surface of liquid water. The density of almost all other substances is greater in the
solid state than in the liquid state (Figure 6).

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 To understand why water is different, we have to examine the electronic structure of the H2O
molecule. There are two pairs of nonbonding electrons, or two lone pairs, on the oxygen atom:

Figure 6. Left: Ice cubes float on water. Right: Solid

benzene sinks to the bottom of liquid Electrostatic potential map of water
benzene (Karp, 2010)

Although many compounds can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds, the difference between
H2O and other polar molecules, such as NH3 and HF, is that each oxygen atom can form two
hydrogen bonds, the same as the number of lone electron pairs on the oxygen atom. Thus, water
molecules are joined together in an extensive three dimensional network in which each oxygen
atom is approximately tetrahedrally bonded to four hydrogen atoms, two by covalent bonds and
two by hydrogen bonds. This equality in the number of hydrogen atoms and lone pairs is not
characteristic of NH3 or HF or, for that matter, of any other molecule capable of forming hydrogen
bonds. Consequently, these other molecules can form rings or chains, but not three dimensional
structures.

Figure 7. The three dimensional structure of

ice. Each O atom is bonded to four
H atoms. The covalent bonds are
shown by short solid lines and the
weaker hydrogen bonds by long
dotted lines between O and H. The
empty space in the structure
accounts for the low density of ice.

The highly ordered three-dimensional structure of ice (Figure 7) prevents the molecules from
getting too close to one another. But consider what happens when ice melts. At the melting point,
a number of water molecules have enough kinetic energy to break free of the intermolecular
hydrogen bonds. These molecules become trapped in the cavities of the three-dimensional
structure, which is broken down into smaller clusters. As a result, there are more molecules per
unit volume in liquid water than in ice. Thus, because density = mass/volume, the density of water
is greater than that of ice. With further heating, more water molecules are released from
intermolecular hydrogen bonding, so that the density of water tends to increase with rising
temperature just above the melting point. Of course, at the same time, water expands as it is
being heated so that its density is decreased. These two processes—the trapping of free water
molecules in cavities and thermal expansion—act in opposite directions. From 0°C to 4°C, the
trapping prevails and water becomes progressively denser. Beyond 4°C, however, thermal
expansion predominates and the density of water decreases with increasing temperature (Figure
8).

16
 Figure 8. Plot of density versus temperature for liquid water.
The maximum density of water is reached at 4°C.
The density of ice at 0°C is about 0.92 g/cm 3.

What’s More
At 50°C the vapor pressure of ethanol is 0.30 atm, acetic acid is 0.08 atm, water is 0.12 atm,
and acetone is 0.84 atm.
a. Arrange these substances in order of increasing rates of evaporation.
b. Arrange these substances in order of increasing boiling point temperature.
c. Arrange these substances in order of increasing intermolecular forces.

What I Have Learned

1. Which of the following affects the vapor pressure of a liquid?
a. Volume of the liquid
b. surface area
c. intermolecular attractive forces
d. temperature
e. density of the liquid
2. (a) What is the relationship between surface tension and temperature?
(b) What is the relationship between viscosity and temperature?
(c) Why do substances with high surface tension also tend to have high viscosities?
3. Explain the following observations:
a. The surface tension of CHBr3 is greater than that of CHCl3.
b. As temperature increases, oil flows faster through a narrow tube.
c. Raindrops that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a nearly spherical shape.
d. Oil droplets that collect on a waxed automobile hood take on a flat shape.

Assessment
Write the letter of the best answer in the blank.
For numbers 1-4, refer to the table below.
Liquid Normal Boiling Point (°C)
J 46.0
K 61.7
L 78.5
____1. Which liquid would have the highest vapor pressure?
a. J b. K c. L d. It depends on the temperature.
____2. Which has the weakest intermolecular forces?
a. J b. K c. L d. They are equally weak
____3. Which liquid would be the most viscous?
a. J b. K c. L d. They would be equally viscous

17
 ____4. What would be the boiling point of liquid L at the top of a mountain where the
atmospheric pressure if lower than 1 atm?
a. 78.5 °C
b. less than 78.5 °C
c. greater than 78.5 °C
d. It depends on the amount of heat the liquid is exposed to
____5. The vapor pressure of ethyl alcohol at 60 °C is 47.02 kPa. What would be its vapor
pressure at 20 °C?
a. 47.02 kPa
b. greater than 47.02 kPa
c. less than 47.02 kPa
d. cannot be determined

Lesson
Nature of Crystals
3
What I Need to Know
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to compare the properties of crystalline and
amorphous solids

What’s In
In the previous lesson, we have discussed the properties of water like high specific heat, that
explains why water can give off much heat with only a slight decrease in its temperature. The
most striking property of water is that its solid form is less dense than its liquid form: ice floats at
the surface of liquid water.

What’s New
Activity 1

Source: https://binged.it/2EMGrte Source: https://binged.it/2EE3NkZ

Examine the images above and answer the following questions:
1. What are the two general types of solids?
2. What features can be used to distinguish the two types of solid?

18
What is It
In activity 1, you should tell that solids can form regular repeating three-dimensional structure
called a crystal lattice, thus producing a crystalline solid or they can aggregate with no particular
long range order (image on the right) and form an amorphous solid.

A. What are the two general types of solids? What features can be used to distinguish a
crystalline solid from an amorphous solid? 11.

Crystal Structure
Solids can be divided into two categories:
crystalline and amorphous. Ice is a crystalline
solid, which possesses rigid and long-range order;
its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy specific
positions. The arrangement of such particles in a
crystalline solid is such that the net attractive
intermolecular forces are at their maximum. The
forces responsible for the stability of a crystal can be
ionic forces, covalent bonds, van der Waals forces,
hydrogen bonds, or a combination of these forces.
Amorphous solids such as glass lack a well-
Figure 1. (a) A unit cell and (b) its
defined arrangement and long-range molecular
extension in three dimensions.
order.
The black spheres represent
A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of
either atoms or molecules.
a crystalline solid. Figure 1 shows a unit cell and its
extension in three dimensions. Each sphere represents an atom, ion, or molecule and is called a
lattice point. In many crystals, the lattice point does not actually contain such a particle. Rather,
there may be several atoms, ions, or molecules identically arranged about each lattice point. For
simplicity, however, we can assume that each lattice point is occupied by an atom. This is
certainly the case with most metals. Every crystalline solid can be described in terms of one of the
seven types of unit cells shown in Figure 2. The geometry of the cubic unit cell is particularly
simple because all sides and all angles are equal. Any of the unit cells, when repeated in space in
all three dimensions, forms the lattice structure characteristic of a crystalline solid.

Figure 2. The seven types of unit cells. Angle a is defined by edges b and c, angle b by
edges a and c, and angle g by edges a and b.

19
Packing Spheres
We can understand the general geometric requirements for crystal formation by considering
the different ways of packing a number of identical spheres (Ping-Pong balls, for example) to form
an ordered three-dimensional structure. The way the spheres are arranged in layers determines
what type of unit cell we have.
In the simplest case, a layer of spheres can be arranged as shown in Figure 3(a). The three-
dimensional structure can be generated by placing a layer above and below this layer in such a
way that spheres in one layer are directly over the spheres in the layer below it. This procedure
can be extended to generate many, many layers, as in the case of a crystal. Focusing on the
sphere labelled with an “x,” we see that it is in contact with four spheres in its own layer, one
sphere in the layer above, and one sphere in the layer below. Each sphere in this arrangement is
said to have a coordination number of 6 because it has six immediate neighbors. The
coordination number is defined as the number of atoms (or ions) surrounding an atom (or ion) in
a crystal lattice. Its value gives us a measure of how tightly the spheres are packed together—the
larger the coordination number, the closer the spheres are to each other. The basic, repeating unit
in the array of spheres is called a simple cubic cell (scc) [Figure 3(b)].

Figure 3. Arrangement of identical spheres in a simple cubic cell. (a) Top view of one layer
of spheres. (b) Definition of a simple cubic cell. (c) Because each sphere is
shared by eight unit cells and there are eight corners in a cube, there is three
equivalent of one complete sphere inside a simple cubic unit cell.

The other types of cubic cells are the body-centered cubic cell (bcc) and the face-centered
cubic cell (fcc) (Figure 4). A body-centered cubic arrangement differs from a simple cube in that
the second layer of spheres fits into the depressions of the first layer and the third layer into the
depressions of the second layer (Figure 5). The coordination number of each sphere in this
structure is 8 (each sphere is in contact with four spheres in the layer above and four spheres in
the layer below). In the face centered cubic cell, there are spheres at the center of each of the six
faces of the cube, in addition to the eight corner spheres.

Figure 4. Three types of cubic

cells. In reality, the
spheres representing
atoms, molecules, or
ions are in contact
with one another in
these cubic cells.

20
 Because every unit cell in a crystalline solid is adjacent to other unit cells, most of a cell’s
atoms are shared by neighboring cells. For example, in all types of cubic cells, each corner atom
belongs to eight unit cells [Figure 6(a)]; an edge atom is shared by four unit cells [Figure 6(b)], and
a face-centered atom is shared by two unit cells [Figure 6(c)]. Because each corner sphere is
shared by eight unit cells and there are eight corners in a cube, there will be the equivalent of only
one complete sphere inside a simple cubic unit cell (see Figure 4). A body-centered cubic cell
contains the equivalent of two complete spheres, one in the center and eight shared corner
spheres. A face-centered cubic cell contains four complete spheres—three from the six face-
centered atoms and one from the eight shared corner spheres.

Figure 5. Arrangement of identical

spheres in a body-centered
cube. (a) Top view.
(b) Definition of a body-
centered cubic unit cell.
(c) There is the equivalent
of two complete spheres
inside a body-centered
cubic unit cell.

Figure 6. (a) A corner atom in any

cell is shared by eight unit
cells. (b) An edge atom is
shared by four unit cells.
(c) A face centered atom in
a cubic cell is shared by
two unit cells.

Closest Packing
Clearly there is more empty space in the simple cubic and body-centered cubic cells than in
the face-centered cubic cell. Closest packing, the most efficient arrangement of spheres, starts
with the structure shown in Figure 7(a), which we call layer A. Focusing on the only enclosed
sphere, we see that it has six immediate neighbors in that layer. In the second layer (which we call
layer B), spheres are packed into the depressions between the spheres in the first layer so that all
the spheres are as close together as possible [Figure 7(b)].

Figure 7. (a) In a close packed layer, each

sphere is in contact with six others. (b)
Spheres in the second layer fit into the
depressions between the first-layer
spheres. (c) In the hexagonal close-
packed structure, each third layer
sphere is directly over a first-layer
sphere. (d) In the cubic close-packed
structure, each third layer sphere fits
into a depression that is directly over a
depression in the first layer.

21
 There are two ways that a third-layer sphere may cover the second layer to achieve closest
packing. The spheres may fit into the depressions so that each third-layer sphere is directly over a
first-layer sphere [Figure 7(c)]. Because there is no difference between the arrangement of the
first and third layers, we also call the third layer layer A. Alternatively, the third-layer spheres may
fit into the depressions that lie directly over the depressions in the first layer [Figure 7(d)]. In this
case, we call the third layer layer C. Figure 8 shows the “exploded views” and the structures
resulting from these two arrangements. The ABA arrangement is known as the hexagonal close
packed (hcp) structure, and the ABC arrangement is the cubic close-packed (ccp) structure, which
corresponds to the face-centered cube already described. Note that in the hcp structure, the
spheres in every other layer occupy the same vertical position (ABABAB...), while in the ccp
structure, the spheres in every fourth layer occupy the same vertical position (ABCABCA...). In
both structures, each sphere has a coordination number of 12 (each sphere is in contact with six
spheres in its own layer, three spheres in the layer above, and three spheres in the layer below).
Both the hcp and ccp structures represent the most efficient way of packing identical spheres in a
unit cell, and there is no way to increase the coordination number to beyond 12.
Many metals and noble gases, which are monatomic, form crystals with hcp or ccp structures.
For example, magnesium, titanium, and zinc crystallize with their atoms in a hcp array, while
aluminum, nickel, and silver crystallize in the ccp arrangement. All solid noble gases have the ccp
structure except helium, which crystallizes.
.

Figure 8. Exploded views of (a) a

hexagonal close-packed
structure and (b) a cubic
close packed structure. The
arrow is tilted to show the
face-centered cubic unit cell
more clearly. Note that this
arrangement is the same as
the face-centered unit cell.

In the hcp structure. It is natural to ask why a series of related substances, such as the
transition metals or the noble gases, would form different crystal structures. The answer lies in the
relative stability of a particular crystal structure, which is governed by intermolecular forces. Thus,
magnesium metal has the hcp structure because this arrangement of Mg atoms results in the
greatest stability of the solid. Figure 9 summarizes the relationship between the atomic radius r
and the edge length a of a simple cubic cell, a body-centered cubic cell, and a face-centered cubic
cell. This relationship can be used to determine the atomic radius of a sphere if the density of the
crystal is known.

22
Figure 9. The relationship between the edge length (a) and radius (r) of atoms in the simple cubic cell,
body-centered cubic cell, and face-centered cubic cell.

Amorphous Solids
Solids are most stable in crystalline form. However, if a solid is formed rapidly (for example,
when a liquid is cooled quickly), its atoms or molecules do not have time to align themselves and
may become locked in positions other than those of a regular crystal. The resulting solid is said to
be amorphous. Amorphous solids, such as glass, lack a regular three-dimensional arrangement
of atoms. In this section, we will discuss briefly the properties of glass. Glass is one of civilization’s
most valuable and versatile materials. It is also one of the oldest—glass articles date back as far
as 1000 b.c. Glass commonly refers to an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic
materials that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing. By fusion product we mean that the
glass is formed by mixing molten silicon dioxide (SiO2), its chief component, with compounds
such as sodium oxide (Na2O), boron oxide (B2O3), and certain transition metal oxides for color
and other properties. In some respects glass behaves more like a liquid than a solid. X-ray
diffraction studies show that glass lacks long-range periodic order. There are about 800 different
types of glass in common use today. Figure 10 shows two-dimensional schematic representations
of crystalline quartz and amorphous quartz glass. Table 1 shows the composition and properties
of quartz, Pyrex, and soda-lime glass.
The color of glass is due largely to the presence of metal ions (as oxides). For example, green
glass contains iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, or copper(II) oxide, CuO; yellow glass contains uranium(IV)
oxide, UO2; blue glass contains cobalt(II) and copper(II) oxides, CoO and CuO; and red glass
contains small particles of gold and copper. Note that most of the ions mentioned here are derived
from the transition metals.

Figure 8. Two-dimensional
representation of (a)
crystalline quartz and (b)
noncrystalline quartz
glass. The small spheres
represent silicon. In
reality, the structure of
quartz is three
dimensional. Each Si
atom is tetrahedrally
bonded to four O atoms.

23
Table 1. Composition and Properties of Three Types of Glass

What’s More
Observing and Comparing Solids
This is a short activity that can be done in approximately 10 minutes. Materials needed:
Magnifying glasses, sugar, salt, pepper
You will observe granules of sugar, salt, and pepper under a magnifying glass, and observe
the similarities and differences between these common materials. A pinch of each material
should be taken from its container and placed on a piece of paper or board paper. Using
different magnifying glasses with different powers, they will examine the grains.
Can you see the difference between the sugar and salt granules?
Can you see the different angles?
Are there angles in the pepper? Does it look crystalline?
Answer the following questions:
1. Which of the substances appears to be made of crystals?
2. Defend your answer with evidence from your observation. What did you use to help you
decide which are crystals, and which are not?

What I Can Do
1. Which has a greater density, crystalline SiO2 or amorphous SiO2? Why?
2. Imagine the primitive cubic lattice. Now imagine grabbing the top of it and stretching it
straight up. All angles remain 90°. What kind of primitive lattice have you made?

3. The densities of the elements K, Ca, Sc, and Ti are 0.86, 1.5, 3.2, and 4.5 g/cm 3,
respectively. One of these elements crystallizes in a body-centered cubic structure; the
other three crystallize in a face-centered cubic structure. Which one crystallizes in the
body-centered cubic structure? Justify your answer.

4. Aluminum metal crystallizes in a face-centered cubic unit cell.

a. How many aluminum atoms are in a unit cell?
b. What is the coordination number of each aluminum atom?
c. Estimate the length of the unit cell edge, a, from the atomic radius of aluminum (1.43 Å).
d. Calculate the density of aluminum metal.

24
Assessment
Write the letter of the best answer in the blank.
____1. In a body-centered cubic lattice, how many atoms are contained in a unit cell?
a. one b. two c. three d. four e. five
____2. Which statement about crystal structure is false?
a. Polymorphous substances have more than one crystal structure.
b. Rhombic, triclinic and cubic are examples of crystal structures.
c. In a cubic lattice, four other cells share an atom lying at the corner of the unit cell
equally.
d. Isomorphous substances have only one crystal structure.
e. Amorphous substances have no organized crystal structure.
____3. In a face-centered cubic lattice, how many atoms are contained in a unit cell?
a. one b. two c. four d. five e. six
____4. In any cubic lattice, an atom lying at the corner of a unit cell is shared equally by how
many unit cells?
a. one b. two c. eight d. four e. sixteen
____5. In a face-centered cubic lattice, an atom laying in a face of a unit cell is shared equally
by how many unit cells?
a. one b. two c. eight d. four e. sixteen
____6. In a cubic lattice, an atom on the edge of a unit cell is shared equally by how many
unit cells?
a. one b. two c. eight d. four e. twelve
____7. A single substance that can crystallize in more than one arrangement is said to be
_______.
a. isomorphous
b. amorphous
c. primitive
d. triclinic
e. polymorphous
Assuming all the spheres are the same, what is the coordination number of each sphere in a
____8. Simple cubic cell
____9. Body-centered cubic cell
____10. Face-centered cubic cell

25