DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL, BANGALORE- EAST

CHAP 4 - CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

NOTES

Covalent Bonding

Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion

To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses four of its
valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+ ion hence formed will be highly unstable due to
the presence of six protons and two electrons.
If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of the noble gas, Ne,
C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required. Moreover, in C4+ ion it is difficult
for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence
electrons and forms covalent bonds.

Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a nonmetal. The
electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:

1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)

2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is primarily formed
between two same non-metallic atoms or between non-metallic atoms with similar electronegativity.

Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots around it represent the
valence electrons of the element.
Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2
Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to acquire the nearest
noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:

Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:

Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.

NOTE –
• A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them, i.e., one
electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.
• A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them, i.e., one
pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines between the two atoms.
• A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the two
atoms.
Covalent Bonding of N, O with H

• In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen atom and
form three covalent bonds.
• In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and form two
covalent bonds.

Covalent Bonding in Carbon

A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen atom.

Versatile Nature of Carbon

Tetravalency, and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds demonstrates its
versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and rings when joined to other carbon atoms.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules. Organic compounds,
on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic compounds that do not form bonds.
Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a versatile element that can
be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations. Carbon’s versatility is best appreciated through
properties like tetravalency and catenation.

• Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four so it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of
carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Catenation: The property of carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to form
long carbon chains is called catenation.
M.P, B.P and Electrical Conductivity
Covalent compounds:

1. Are molecular compounds

2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids

Allotropes of Carbon
– The phenomenon of the existence of the same element in different physical forms with similar chemical
properties is known as allotropy.
– Some elements like carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., exhibit this phenomenon.
– Crystalline allotropes of carbon include diamond, graphite and, fullerene.
– Amorphous allotropes of carbon include coal, coke, charcoal, lamp black and gas carbon.
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These are known as
alkanes. General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General formula = CnH2n
where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General formula =
CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..

Chains, Rings and Branches

Carbon chains may be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings.

In cyclic compounds, atoms are connected to form a ring.

Structural Isomers
The compounds with the same molecular formula and different physical or chemical properties are known
as isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
The isomers that differ in the structural arrangement of atoms in their molecules are called structural
isomers and the phenomenon is known as structural isomerism.
EXAMPLES-
Classification of Functional Groups
Main Functional Groups:
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as alcohols. For
example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known as aldehydes. For
example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.
(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two alkyl groups
are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3), etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence, they are also
called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.
(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom is substituted
by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane
(CH3Br), etc.

Homologous Series
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, similar chemical
characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their molecular formula by
−CH2.
Examples of homologous series
Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
The general formula of this series is CnH2n+2.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (CH3CH3), Propane (CH3CH2CH3), Butane (CH3CH2CH2CH3).
It can be noticed that there is a difference of −CH2 unit between each successive compound.

IUPAC Nomenclature
According to the Guidelines set by IUPAC, the nomenclature of compounds must follow these steps:

1. The Longest Chain Rule: The parent hydrocarbon must be identified and subsequently named. The
parent chain belonging to the compound in question is generally the longest chain of carbon atoms,
be it in the form of a straight chain or a chain of any other shape.
2. The Lowest Set of Locants: The carbon atoms belonging to the parent hydrocarbon chain must be
numbered using natural numbers and beginning from the end in which the lowest number is
assigned to the carbon atom which carries the substituents.
3. Multiple instances of the same substituent: Prefixes which indicate the total number of the same
substituent in the given organic compounds are given, such as di, tri, etc.
4. Naming of different substituents: In the organic compounds containing multiple substituents, the
corresponding substituents are arranged in alphabetical order of names in the IUPAC nomenclature
of organic compounds in question.
5. The naming of different substituents present at the same positions: In the scenario wherein two
differing substituent groups are present at the same position of the organic compound, the
substituents are named in ascending alphabetical order.
6. Naming Complex Substituents: Complex substituents of organic compounds having branched
structures must be named as substituted alkyl groups whereas the carbon which is attached to the
substituent group is numbered as one. These branched and complex substituents must be written in
brackets in the IUPAC nomenclature of the corresponding compounds.

The format of the IUPAC Name of the Compound can be written as: Locant + Prefix + Root + Locant +
Suffix

1. Root
The Word root indicates the total number of carbon atoms present in the longest carbon chain belonging to
the compound. For example, ‘Meth’ refers to a chain with 1 carbon atom and ‘Pent’ refers to a chain
with 5 carbon atoms.

2. Suffix
The suffix in IUPAC nomenclature is usually a functional group belonging to the molecule which follows
the root of the name. It can be further divided into the following types.

• A Primary Suffix, which is written immediately after the word root as in the case of alkanes, where
the suffix is ‘ane’.
• A Secondary Suffix, which is generally written after the primary suffix is written. For example,
compounds having an alkane and alcohol group attached to them will be named as alkanol, with ‘ol’
being the secondary suffix for the alcohol group.
In accordance with these norms, the suffix of a compound can be written as a part of the IUPAC name of
the given compound.

3. Prefix
Prefixes are added prior to the root of the compounds IUPAC nomenclature. Prefixes are very useful since
they indicate the presence of side chains or substituent groups in the given organic molecule. These prefixes
also offer insight into the cyclic or acyclic natures of the compounds in question.

• Primary Prefixes Indicate the cyclic or acyclic nature of the given compound. The prefix ‘cyclo’ is
used for cyclic compounds, for example.
• Secondary Prefixes Indicate the presence of side chains or substituent groups. An example of these
types of prefixes would be the ‘CH3’ group, which is called the methyl group.
Thus, prefixes in IUPAC nomenclature can be broadly classified into primary prefixes and secondary
prefixes.

IUPAC Nomenclature of a Few Important Aliphatic Compounds

The IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are discussed in the subsections below.

1. Alkanes
The General formula of alkanes corresponds to CnH2n+2
The suffix ‘ane’ is generally used to describe alkanes. Examples for the nomenclature of alkanes as per
IUPAC guidelines include methane for the compound CH4 and Butane for the compound C4H10

2. Alkenes
The General formula of alkenes is described as CnH2n
The suffix ‘ene’ is used to describe alkenes via IUPAC norms. Examples for the nomenclature of alkenes
include the name ethene used to describe the compound given by C2H4 and Propene used to describe the
compound given by C3H6

3. Alkynes
The General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2
The suffix ‘yne’ is generally used to describe alkynes. An example of the IUPAC nomenclature of alkynes
is: ethyne used to describe the compound given by C2H2
Physical Properties
The members of any particular family have almost identical chemical properties due to the same functional
group. Their physical properties such as melting point, boiling point, density, etc., show a regular gradation
with the increase in the molecular mass.

Chemical Properties
A chemical property is a property that describes a substance’s ability to undergo a specific chemical change.
We look for a chemical shift to identify a chemical attribute. A chemical change always results in the
formation of one or more types of matter that are distinct from the matter that existed before to the change.

Combustion Reactions
Combustion means burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the presence of air or oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.
For example,
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 4H2O + 2CO2

Flame Characteristics
Saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame. In the presence
of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame.
A black substance formed by combustion or separated from fuel during combustion, rising in fine particles,
and adhering to the sides of the chimney or pipe conveying the smoke especially : the fine powder
consisting chiefly of carbon that colours smoke called soot.

Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and results in the loss of one or more
electrons.

Addition
The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of the combining
molecules are called addition reactions.
The hydrogenation reaction is an example of the addition reaction. In this reaction, hydrogen is added to a
double bond or a triple bond in the presence of a catalyst like nickel, palladium or platinum.

Substitution
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced or substituted by different atoms
or group of atoms is called substitution reaction. In alkanes, hydrogen atoms are replaced by other elements.
CH4+Cl2+Sunlight → CH3Cl+HCl

Ethanol and Ethanoic Acid

Ethanol
(i) Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
(ii) It boils at 351 K.
(iii) It is miscible with water in all proportions.
(iv) It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
(v) It is neutral to litmus.
Uses:
1. As an antifreeze in radiators of vehicles in cold countries.
2. As a solvent in the manufacture of paints, dyes, medicines, soaps and synthetic rubber.
3. As a solvent to prepare the tincture of iodine.

How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?

(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.

Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium ethoxide. This reaction supports the acidic
character of ethanol.
2C2H5OH+2Na → 2C2H5ONa+H2(↑)
(sodium ethoxide)

Elimination Reaction
An elimination reaction is a type of reaction in which two substituents are removed from a molecule. These
reactions play an important role in the preparation of alkenes.

Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This reaction is known as
dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water molecule is removed from the ethanol molecule.
CH3CH2OH → CH2=CH2+H2O
(reaction taking place in presence of Conc.H2SO4)

Ethanoic Acid or Acetic Acid

(i) Molecular formula: CH3COOH
(ii) It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether.
(iii) It often freezes during winter in cold climate and therefore it is named as glacial acetic acid.

Esterification
When a carboxylic acid is refluxed with alcohol in the presence of a small quantity of conc.H2SO4, a sweet-
smelling ester is formed. This reaction of ester formation is called esterification.
When ethanol reacts with ethanoic acid in presence of conc.H2SO4, ethyl ethanoate and water are formed.
CH3COOH+C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5+H2O
(reaction taking place in presence of Conc.H2SO4- act as a dehydrating agent)

Saponification
A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acid). The soap molecule is
generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group and −COO−Na+ ionic
group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a concentrated sodium or potassium
hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap and glycerol are formed. This alkaline hydrolysis of
oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Metals and Bases

Ethanoic acid (Acetic acid) reacts with metals like sodium, zinc and magnesium to liberate hydrogen gas.
2CH3COOH+2Na→2CH3COONa+H2(↑)
It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carboxylic acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates with the evolution of CO2 gas. For example, when
ethanoic acid (acetic acid) reacts with sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, CO2 gas is evolved.
2CH3COOH+Na2CO3→2CH3COONa+H2O+CO2
CH3COOH+NaHCO3→CH3COONa+H2O+CO2

Soaps and Detergents

Cleansing Action of Soap

When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form spherical shape
micelles.

The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of the fabric, while
the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to water molecules.

The agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles and detach them
from the fibres of the fabric.

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