Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

Memory devices, in the context of computer technology and electronic devices, refer
to hardware components used to store and retrieve digital information.

Basic concepts of electronic memory

Memory is subdivided into two storage units known as Bit and Byte.
Bit represents a binary data and it can have one of two values: 0 or 1.
Byte represent a wide range of data (characters, numbers, or instructions) and it’s a
group of eight Bits.

Memory devices classification:

1. Primary memory or internal memory or main memory can be directly accessed

by the processor. It includes both volatile and non-volatile memory
components.
Ex. RAM, ROM.
Primary memory can be broadly classified as
a. Volatile memory: temporary memory and it requires power or electricity to
maintain its data; Volatile memory loses all its data when the power or
electricity is turned off. Ex. RAM
b. Non-volatile memory: It is a memory that holds all the data in absence of
electricity too. Ex. ROM, Internal Hard-Disc etc.

2. Secondary memory devices include non-volatile storage options like hard disk
drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and flash memory, which provide
long-term storage for data even when the power is turned off. These storage
devices can hold large amounts of data, but accessing data from secondary
memory is relatively slower compared to primary memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM) is volatile memory, loses its data when the power is
turned off. That means to retain its content the RAM memory has to be provided with a
constant power supply. Once the power supply to this memory chip is switched off this
memory chip loses all its content. It is easy to read and write data in the RAM memory.

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a non-volatile memory, it does not require a power supply
to retain its bit value. On the ROM memory chip, the data or program is embedded during
the chip fabrication hence this memory can only be read and not be written or modified.

Cache memory is a is a volatile memory, it acts as a temporary storage area and keeps
the copies of the recently accessed information from the main memory.

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

Classification of electronic memory devices based on operational principles.

Resistor-Type Memory Devices:

In some insulators (resistive material), the change of resistance

occurs under the influence of the applied electric field and this

property has been utilised in memory applications.

Resistor-type memory devices consist of a thin film of a resistive

material (metal oxide) placed between two electrodes.

When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a redox reaction

occurs within the resistive material, causing a reversible change in

its resistance.

The resistive material can exist in two distinct resistance states, low-resistance state

and a high-resistance state, which correspond to the ON and OFF states, holding the

values of ONE and ZERO, and create a means to store and access information.

Each resistor can be at one state at a time and represents 1 bit of information.

Capacitor-Type Memory Devices: A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that

can store energy in the form of an electric charge between the two metal plates

separated by dielectric material.

The capacitor can exist in two distinct

states, discharged state and a charged

state, which correspond to the OFF and

ON states, holding the values of ZERO and

ONE, and create a means to store and

access information.

Each capacitor can be at one state at a

time and represents 1 bit of information.

Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM)

is a well-known example of this type.

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

Transistor-Type electronic memory: Transistors are semiconductor devices composed

of a source, a gate, and a drain and it has a capability to amplify and regulates current

or voltage flow.

The gate-source voltage controls the flow of charge

between source and drain.

The absence or presence of charge at the gate,

represents binary data (ZERO or ONE)

ie., the transistor is capable of toggling between the

OFF and ON states, holding the values of ZERO and

ONE, and create a means to store and access

information.

Each transistor can be at one state at a time and represents 1 bit of information.

Charge Transfer-Type Memory Devices: A device whose operation depends on the

movement of discrete packets of charge along or beneath a semiconductor surface to

achieve changes in its conductivity, which are then employed to store and retrieve

information is called a Charge Transfer-Type Memory Devices.

It consists of capacitor array of p-type silicon semiconductor with a thin layer of an

insulating layer of silicon dioxide, on top of which is deposited an array of metal gates.

When a positive bias (voltage) is applied between the electrode and its substrate,

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

electrons accumulate near the upper surface of the silicon beneath the electrode

resulting in the formation of a potential well where electrons, are trapped and held in a

stable state. Charge shifting can be accomplished by progressively shifting gate voltage

along the array.

The last capacitor in the array transfers its charge to a charge amplifier, converting it

into a voltage.

The resulting voltage being sampled, digitized, and typically stored as memory in devices.

The absence or presence of charge, represents binary data (ZERO or ONE) and create

a means to store and access information.

Organic memory devices: Some organic materials exhibit reversible changes in their
electronic properties, in response to external stimuli such as voltage, current, or light.
This property of organic materials has been utilized for storing and retrieving digital
information.

In Organic memory devices organic materials are sandwiched between two electrodes,
and their electronic properties are modified in response to external stimuli (voltage,
current, or light). The trapping and de-trapping of charge carriers (electrons or holes)
within the organic layer are utilized to represents the binary states (0 and 1) of digital
information. One of the examples for Organic Memory Devices is Organic Field Effect
Transistors (OFETs).

Organic Field Effect Transistors (OFETs) are three-terminal electrical devices (much
like conventional transistors) that controls the electrical current flowing between two
electrodes i.e., source and drain, through the modulation of voltage or current at a
third electrode i.e., gate.

Organic memory devices can be broadly categorized in to

1. Molecular memory devices, and

2. Polymer memory devices

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

1. Molecular memory devices: in a molecular memory device, a highly ordered

monolayer of molecules is packed in such a way that one end of the molecule is electrically
connected to the bottom electrode and the opposite end of the molecule is connected to
the top electrode. By applying a voltage between the electrodes, the conductivity of
the molecules is altered, enabling data to be stored in a non-volatile manner. The
process can then be reversed and the data erased by applying a voltage of the opposite
polarity to the memory cell.

Pentacene, a p-type semiconductor, as a memory material in Organic memory

devices.
Pentacene, a p-type semiconductor, is employed as a
memory material as part of transistors in Organic
memory devices such as organic field-effect
transistors (OFETs)].
When a voltage is applied to the OFET, holes as charge carries accumulate at the
Pentacene semiconductor/dielectric interface forming conductive channel and these
charge carries migrate from source to drain along the interface under the electric field.
The gate in the OFET acts as a switch that determines whether holes are injected
into the Pentacene layer. By applying appropriate voltage to the gate, the device can be
programmed to trap charge carriers in specific locations within the material. The
absence or presence of charge carries corresponds to the OFF and ON states, holding
the values of ZERO and ONE, and create a means to store and access information.

Perfluoropentacene, a n-type semiconductor, as a memory material in Organic

memory devices.
Perfluoropentacene, a n-type semiconductor, is
employed as a memory material as part of transistors in
Organic memory devices [organic field-effect
transistors (OFETs)].
When a voltage is applied to the OFET, electrons as charge carries accumulate at the
Perfluoropentacene semiconductor/ dielectric interface forming conductive channel
and these charge carries migrate from source to drain along the interface under the
electric field. The gate in the OFET acts as a switch that determines whether
electrons are injected into the Perfluoropentacene layer. By applying appropriate
voltage to the gate, the device can be programmed to trap charge carriers in specific
locations within the material. The absence or presence of charge carries corresponds
to the OFF and ON states, holding the values of ZERO and ONE, and create a means
to store and access information.

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

2. Polymer memory devices: in a molecular memory device, a thin film of polymer is

sandwiched between a top and bottom electrode. By applying a voltage between the

electrodes, the conductivity of the polymer is altered, enabling data to be stored

in a non-volatile manner. The process can then be reversed and the data erased by

applying a voltage of the opposite polarity to the memory cell.

Polyimide as an example with Donor-Triphenylamine; Acceptor–phthalimide in a

molecular memory device

The working principle of organic memory

devices based on polymeric materials with

donor-triphenylamine and acceptor–

phthalimide is based on the formation of a

Charge Transfer Complex between the

triphenylamine and phthalimide moieties.

When a voltage is applied to the device, the

triphenylamine moieties donate electrons to

the phthalimide moieties, forming the Charge

Transfer Complex.

The Charge Transfer Complex can be switched between two states:

The ON state is achieved when the Charge Transfer Complex is formed.

The OFF state is achieved when the Charge Transfer Complex is broken.

The switching between the ON and OFF states is reversible, represents binary data

(ZERO or ONE) and create a means to store and access information.

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

Display Systems: Photoactive materials and electroactive materials

Definition and principle for photoactive and electroactive.

Photoactive materials: Materials that exhibit a significant change in their physical,

chemical, or electrical properties on exposure to light (electromagnetic radiations)

are known as photoactive materials.

Working Principle of Photoactive materials in Display Systems: In display systems,

photoactive materials play vital roles in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).

Photoactive materials, in Display Systems like OLEDs, have conjugated pi-electron

systems, which can absorb and emit light efficiently, when an electric current is

applied. When an electric current is passes through the organic layer in OLEDs, the

photoactive material gets excited, and the absorbed energy is released as photons,

producing visible light. This process is called electroluminescence. The colour of the

emitted light is determined by the properties of the photoactive material, offering a

wide range of colour possibilities for displays.

Electroactive Materials: Materials that undergo reversible changes in their electrical

properties, such as conductivity, resistance, or capacitance, under the influence of

applied electric field or voltage are known as electroactive Materials.

Working Principle of Electroactive materials in Display Systems: Electroactive

materials work based on the principle of electrochemical response to an applied electric

field. Electroactive materials are commonly used in liquid crystal displays (LCDs). In an

LCD, liquid crystals are sandwiched between two layers of transparent electrodes.

These liquid crystals are electroactive and can change their orientation when subjected

to an electric field. By applying different voltages to the electrodes, the alignment of

the liquid crystal molecules can be adjusted, allowing light to pass through or be blocked,

thus controlling the brightness and color of individual pixels.

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Optoelectronic Device: An optoelectronic device is a device that converts light energy

into electrical energy or electrical energy into light energy. It is a combination of

photoactive and electroactive systems. Optoelectronic devices are used in a wide variety

of applications, including telecommunications, imaging, sensing, and display.

Working Principle: In an optoelectronic device, the light is either absorbed or emitted

by the material.

If the light is absorbed, the energy

of the light is converted into

electrical energy. This is the

principle of operation of a

photodiode. A photodiode is a

semiconductor device that converts

light energy into electrical current.

If the light is emitted, the

electrical energy is converted to

light. This is the principle of

operation of a light-emitting diode

(LED). An LED is a semiconductor

device that emits light when an

electrical current is applied.

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Nanomaterial: refers to the matter whose length scale, in any dimension, is in 1 to 100
nanometers.

Silicon Nano crystals: represent the ranges of wide bandgap silicon-based

nanomaterial characterized by their tuneable light emission properties in photonics.

Characteristics/Properties

1. It has high surface to volume ratio resulting in more “surface” dependent

properties.

2. They are wide bandgap semiconducting nanomaterial. The bandgap of a Silicon

Nano crystals determines the wavelength of light that they emit.

3. Silicon Nano crystals emit light when they are excited by light or heat. This

property makes them useful for applications such as LEDs and lasers.

4. The properties of Silicon Nano crystals can be tuned by changing the size, shape,

and surface chemistry. This makes them a versatile material that can be used for

a variety of applications.

Applications:

Optoelectronic devices, Light-emitting diodes, Transistors, Memory devices, Sensors,

and Solar cells

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)

Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) is a low band gap p-type

semiconducting polymer synthesized by oxidative
polymerization of monomer 3-hexylthiophene in the
presence of initiator, such as benzoyl peroxide or AIBN.

Important properties / characteristics of Poly(3-hexylthiophene) suitable for

optoelectronic devices,

1. Bandgap: The bandgap of P3HT is in the range of 1.8 to 2.2 eV, which makes it
suitable for optoelectronic devices that emit light in the visible or near-infrared
region of the spectrum.
2. Conductivity: P3HT is a semiconducting polymer, and this property makes it
suitable for use in electronic devices, such as transistors and sensors.
3. Transparency: P3HT is transparent in the visible region of the spectrum, which
makes it suitable for use in optoelectronic devices.
4. Processability: P3HT can be easily processed into thin films by a variety of
methods, such as spin coating and inkjet printing. This makes it a versatile
material that can be used in a variety of optoelectronic devices.
5. Thermal stability: P3HT is relatively poor photochemical and thermal stability
under ambient atmosphere.

Applications of Poly(3-hexylthiophene):

1. Optoelectronic devices,
2. Light-emitting diodes,
3. Transistors,
4. Memory devices,
5. Sensors,
6. OLEDs and OFETs,
7. Organic Solar cells.

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Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK)

Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK) is a large band gap p-type non-

conjugated semiconducting polymer synthesized by oxidative
polymerization of monomer N-vinylcarbazole in the presence of
initiator, such as benzoyl peroxide or AIBN.

Important properties / characteristics of Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] suitable for

optoelectronic devices,

1. Bandgap: The bandgap of PVK is around 3.5 eV, which makes it suitable for
optoelectronic devices that emit light in the visible or near-infrared region of the
spectrum.
2. In OLEDs, PVK is used as the hole-transporting layer.
3. Conductivity: PVK is a semiconducting polymer, which can be can be doped (iodine
or sulphur) to increase its electrical conductivity. This property makes it suitable
for use in electronic devices, such as transistors and sensors.
4. Transparency: PVK is transparent in the visible region of the spectrum, which
makes it suitable for use in optoelectronic devices.

5. Processability: PVK can be easily processed into thin films by a variety of methods,
such as spin coating and inkjet printing. This makes it a versatile material that can
be used in a variety of optoelectronic devices.

6. It’s a temperature-resistant thermoplastic polymer. It is stable up to

temperatures of around 200°C, which makes it suitable for use in high-
temperature applications.

Applications of Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT):

1. Optoelectronic devices,
2. Light-emitting diodes,
3. Transistors,
4. Memory devices,
5. Sensors,
6. OLEDs and OFETs,
7. Organic Solar cells.

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Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s):

Organic Light Emitting Diodes

(OLED’s) is solid-state
optoelectronic device which
utilizes semiconducting organic
materials sandwiched between the
electrodes to emit light under the
influence of electrical energy.

Properties of OLED’s

1. OLED’s emit their own light, under the influence of electrical energy and they
don’t require a backlight.
2. The colour of light emitted by OLED’s can be tuned by varying the chemical
composition of the organic materials used.
3. OLED’s have a fast response time, and they can display fast-moving images
without blurring.
4. OLEDs have a wide viewing angle, and the images look good from almost any angle.
5. OLED’s can be made flexible, which makes them ideal for applications such as
wearable devices and curved displays.
6. OLED’s consume less power than LCDs, making them more energy efficient.

Applications of OLED’s

1. Displays: OLEDs are used in a wide variety of display systems, including

televisions, smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, head-mounted displays and
virtual reality headsets.
2. Lighting: OLEDs are used in a variety of lighting applications, including light bulbs,
lamps, and signage.
3. Sensors: OLEDs have found applications in sensors that can detect light, heat,
and other environmental factors.
4. Electronics: OLEDs are used to fabricate electronic components, such as
transistors and diodes.
5. Medical devices: OLEDs are used in a variety of medical applications, such as heart
rate monitors, blood oxygen sensors, and surgical imaging devices.

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Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QLEDs):

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s) is solid-state optoelectronic device which

utilizes Quantum dots sandwiched between the layers of a traditional LED electrodes to
emit light under the influence of electrical energy.

Properties of QLEDs

1. The quantum dots are very efficient at converting electrical energy into light
energy.
2. QLEDs can produce a wider range of colours than traditional LED displays,
resulting in more realistic and lifelike images.
3. The colour of light emitted by QLEDs can be tuned by varying the size and
composition of the quantum dots.
4. QLEDs have higher brightness levels than traditional LED displays.
5. QLEDs have better contrast ratio than traditional LED displays
6. QLEDs are flexible and lightweight.
7. QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays

Applications of QLEDs

1. Displays: QLEDs are used in a wide variety of display systems, including

televisions, smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, and other display systems.
2. Lighting: QLEDs are used in a variety of lighting applications, including light bulbs,
lamps, and signage.
3. Sensors: QLEDs have found applications in sensors that can detect light, heat,
and other environmental factors.
4. Electronics: OLEDs are used to fabricate electronic components, such as
transistors and diodes.
5. Medical devices: OLEDs are used in a variety of medical applications, including
medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines, to produce high resolution
and accurate images.

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Liquid Crystals: Liquid crystals are a state of matter

that has properties that are between crystalline phase
and liquid phase. They have some properties of crystals,
such as the ability to form a regular lattice, and some
properties of liquids, such as the ability to flow.

Classification of Liquid crystals: broadly classified into two main categories:

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals and
2. Lyotropic liquid crystals.

1. Thermotropic liquid crystals: Thermotropic liquid crystals are the organic

molecules that have a rod-like shape and orientation is dependent on the
temperature.
Thermotropic liquid crystals are further classified into,
A. Nematic liquid crystals:
liquid crystals molecules
that are aligned in parallel,
and they can freely move
around each other.
B. Smectic liquid crystals:
liquid crystals molecules
that are arranged in layers,
and the layers can slide over
each other.
C. Cholesteric liquid crystals:
liquid crystals molecules
that are aligned in a helical fashion

2. Lyotropic liquid crystals: Lyotropic liquid crystals are liquid crystals that are
affected by the concentration of the liquid crystal molecules in a solvent. They
have long, rod-like shape organic molecules with polar head group. When the
concentration of the liquid crystal molecules in a solvent is increased, the
molecules start to align themselves in parallel fashion.
A. Micelle-forming liquid crystals: liquid crystals molecules that form
micelles.
B. Lamellar liquid crystals: liquid crystal molecules that form layers and are
stacked on top of each other.
C. Columnar liquid crystals: liquid crystal molecules that form columns and
are aligned parallelly in the same direction.

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 Module 2: Materials for Memory and Display Systems (2023-24)

Properties of Liquid Crystals:

1. Liquid crystals have some properties of crystals, such as the ability to form a
regular lattice, and some properties of liquids, such as the ability to flow.
2. Liquid crystals respond to changes in temperature, light, or electric fields.
3. Liquid crystals are anisotropic, and their optical, thermal and electrical properties
are different in different directions.
4. Liquid crystals are birefringent, it possesses two different indices of refraction.
Because, molecules in a liquid crystal are aligned in a specific direction, and this
alignment can affect the way that light travels through the liquid crystal.

Applications of Liquid Crystals:

1. Displays: Liquid crystals are used in a wide variety of display systems, including
televisions, smartphones, laptops, smartwatches, and other display systems.
2. Lighting: Liquid crystals are used in a variety of lighting applications, including
light bulbs, lamps, and signage.
3. Sensors: Liquid crystals have found applications in sensors that can detect light,
heat, and other environmental factors.
4. Electronics: Liquid crystals are used to fabricate electronic components, such as
transistors and diodes.
5. Medical devices: Liquid crystals are used in a variety of medical applications,
including medical imaging applications, such as in MRI machines.
6. Data storage: Since Liquid crystals respond to changes in temperature, light, or
electric fields they can be used to store data.

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