Applied Ethics

Philosophy Three Class

2022/2023 Academic Session
Course Outline (Tentative)

1. The Use of Stimulants, Drug Abuse and Addiction

The use of stimulants and drugs leads to addiction. Aside this, they have also contributed to the
destruction of many youths and part of society. Their effect confronts us in daily life. We shall examine
their rapport with violence and crime in society, marriage and life
2. Attempts Against Life
These include “murder”, “suicide”, “euthanasia”, and “abortion”. All of these contribute to violence
against life (which includes physical, spiritual (metaphysical), social and political). It is proper to reflect
on them as man’s attempts to destroy human life.
3. The Duty to Preserve Life
We shall examine a lot of issues under this subheading. First, we shall look at the morality of Self-
defense, which stems from natural law of self-preservation. This has become necessary in Nigeria where
we confront, on daily basis, insurgency, arm-robbery, kidnapping and the likes. Self-defense has its limits
within the ambit of ethics and law. Second, owing to want of time, we also shall explicate some of the
following: “Artificial Insemination”, “Invitro Fertilization”, “Surrogate Motherhood”, “Organ Transplant,
Cloning”, and “operations in cases of difficult pregnancy”. Though, they are ways some people enhance
their lives, they are not completely morally permissible.
4. The Morality of Self-Defense
5. The Politics of Population Control
i. Methods of Birth Control
ii. Sterilization
6. Research involving Human Beings
i. Genetic Medicine
ii. Genetic Research
iii. Genetic Engineering (Eugenics)
iv. Genetic Defects
7. Recent Issues
i. LGBT
ii. Sexual Re-assignment
iii. COVID-19
iv. Bestiality, et c.
Bibliography
APPLEYARD B., NOMSPAN Paper Presentation, 1999
APTHROP S., Alcohol and Substance Abuse, Morehouse, Harrisburg Pa 1990
BASTERRA Francisco Javier Elizari, Bioethics, St Paul’s, UK 1994.
EHUSANI George, The Politics of Population Control, Ahmadu Bello University Press, Zaria.
GOLDING Michael, All Kinds of Family Planning, African University Press, Ibadan 1981
HOLDEREGGER A., Il suicidio, Cittadella, Assisi 1979
ODINIYA Charles E., Evaluation of Eugenics: Modern Atheism in Contemporary Society, Unpublished
Undergraduate, St. Thomas Aquinas’ Major Seminary, Makurdi 2002.
OKWUOSA Jerry, “Contraception: The Bitter Pill for Some”, pp. 18-20.

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PESCHKE Karl Henry, Christian Ethics. Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, vol. II, Theological
Publications, India, Bangalore 2004
SINGER Peter, Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1993
The New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 1, The Catholic University, Washington DC 1967

A. Stimulants, Abuse of Drugs and Addiction (daily life)

Stimulants
These include: drinks that intoxicate, tobacco, coffee, tea, cola nut, et c. They aid
relaxation once they are used in little quantity. At the same time, we need to guard against their
misuse. In other words, we use them with temperance in view. This requires moderation on the
part of those who consumed them. Temperance is not only required when we eat foods. It is also
required in the use of stimulants. Thus, “Temperance in the use of these stimulants is still a
stronger obligation than temperance in eating, as they damage health more readily and can lead
to addiction”1
Health Hazards
There are health hazards associated with excess use of stimulants. For instance, there are
health hazards in tobacco smoking. Studies on this indicate that, smoking causes “heart attacks
and cancer of the lungs, chronic bronchitis and strokes. Smoking poses great risk to infants
during pregnancy. Babies of smokes weigh an average of 200g less than others and manifest
slower rates of physical and mental growth. Maternal smokers show an increased risk of
miscarriage and premature delivery”2. Aside the risk factors, there could be others.
Abuse of Alcoholic Drinks
“Ab-use” is abnormal use of a thing. Anything can be abused. Most often, we only think of
abuse in terms of substances or drugs. But food or alcohol can also be abused. Alcoholism is
central to socio-medical problem of modern society. The illness that stems from it, not only
affects human bodily organs. It also affects families and individuals who, most often are worse
hit. For instance, “the children of drunkards often live in perpetual anxiety. They do not know
what to expect from a drunken parent. It destroys individual and collective happiness. It also
leads to death. The effect of drunkenness often leads to the many regular traffic and industrial
accidents3. It behooves on all to be responsible in their consumption.
Drug Abuse
Drug abuse is simply an abnormal use of drugs, the use of medication, or the use of drugs
without doctor's prescription. It poses “great danger to physical and psychological health in our
age”. The most common drugs are marijuana, cocaine, heroin and the more recent one is
tramadol. In distinction to tobacco and alcohol, these drugs destroy one's health more rapidly.
They are also more expensive especially cocaine and heroin. These drugs do not cause physical
addiction but the possibility of their psychological experiences (“bad trips”). 4 Among the most
1
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics. Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, vol. II, Theological Publications,
India, Bangalore 2004, 257.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid., 257-258.
4
Ibid., 258.

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commonly used drugs in our age are “marijuana, cocaine, amphetamines, barbiturates, Opium
derivatives, heroin,”5 and in our time, tramadol.
Marijuana and Hashish
Marijuana is an admixture of dry leaves while hashish is a resin. Both are smoked and
produced from cannabis or Indian hemp plant. Despite its bad reputation, many experts seem to
view them as neither harmless in nature, nor addictive. It is not as habit-forming as tobacco and
alcohol nor does it lead to crime and violence. Though, others observed that “the habitual use of
marijuana has a sluggish pattern of life in its train: typically passive, lethargic, unproductive,
slothful, sedentary and completely lacking in drive and ambition” 6. Based on these, studies in
recent times have it that “the drug damages cells and promotes cancer. The many findings of cell
damage caused by cannabis explain all the other damaging effects of the drug on the lungs, sex
organs, brain, immune system”.7 In contrast with heavy drinking, “it takes years of heavy
drinking to reach the same point of psychological impairment that marijuana can induce in a
matter of months”8. Thus, the devastating effect of these substances are better imagined. That is
not to say that one can justify the abuse of alcohol because its effect is than that of marijuana or
substances in the same category with marijuana.
Cocaine
It “is an extract from the coca bush or crack. It is usually sniffed up the nose in the form
of powder in general terms, it is said not to create or cause physical addiction but others argue
that it does. The effect of cocaine is in three phases as follows: ‘a phase of euphoria’, or
‘happiness in motion’ in which the intellectual and physical possibilities of the user seem to
increase, followed by a phase of hallucinations and phobias of persecution, seeing enemies
everywhere”9. Cocaine addicts have the tendency towards violence. They also constitute danger
to others. In the final analysis, depression accompanies its users which, in five to ten years,
results in atrophy and total intellectual incapacity. Cocaine also constitutes serious dangers to the
unborn child, which include: “The babies are likely to be born prematurely and may weigh as
little as two pounds; they are likely to have hydrocephaly (water in the brain), they will also
experience poor brain growth, coupled with kidney problems and apnea (babies stop breathing),
and eventually, suffer an infarct of the brain similar to a stroke”10.
Amphetamines
These were originally developed as medicants. They stimulate and invigorate. But
contrary to earlier assertions, they are also addictive. The withdrawal of their leads to contrary
effects of tiredness and depression. Their use ordinarily results in ecstasy in that it animates,
increases positive sensations, which are cheerfulness and sociability. Frequent after, effects are
lasting damages to the central nervous systems and to the inner organs: heart, kidneys and liver.
5
Ibid., 258-261.
6
Ibid., 259.
7
Ibid.
8
Cf. P. MANN, I. c. 19. To the same conclusions comes S. APTHROP, Alcohol and Substance Abuse, Morehouse,
Harrisburg Pa 1990, 108-111, in PESCHKE, 259.
9
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics. Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, vol. II, 259.
10
Ibid., 260.

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Barbiturates
These are membutal, Seconal, Luminal, et c. are usually administered as sleeping pills.
Although, they have other medical utility (like when it is used to treat high blood pressure or
epilepsy), when prescribed by physicians. They are not as harmful as they appear. When they are
taken without medical advice or in an accidental overdose, their effect can be lethal or
dangerous. Many of their users react to the same dosage distinctly especially when they take
them without doctor’s prescription. Besides barbiturates creates physical addiction. For users to
achieve the effect of its use consistently, they have to increase dosages. There are symptoms
associated with discontinued use of the drug, which are: cramps, nausea, convulsion, etc. Many
doctors recommend that withdrawal from use should take place over a long period of time in safe
hospital. It is harder to withdraw from barbiturates than it is to withdraw from narcotics. Thus,
the advice would be, physicians should be more cautious and slower to prescribe them for
patients due to their adverse effect. We wish to add that, there is need for more restraint in the
use of different energizers (mostly amphetamines) and tranquilizers (‘up’ and ‘down’ pills) to
which people are accustomed, due to their ephemeral benefits.
Opium Derivatives
These include morphine and heroin. There are others with a synthetic nature, such as
Demerol and Dolophine. They have this nature because they are made from chemical synthesis
like narcotics. Addiction is involved for those who toy with them. The body continually craves
for them and if denied, it punishes the addict with unbearable pains and nausea. Narcotics
addiction is expensive and most times consumes more money that any job can make. Most
addicts steal constantly, beginning from their home. They cause suffering to their families
without end. Their action of addicts drains and ruins their families financially. It is also a threat
to health and life.
Causes and Remedies
There are dangers of alcoholism and the devastating character of hard drugs. There are
reasons: “Some seek pleasure, others want to be one of the parties, others are addicted because
they love to experiment. Psychic problems play a role in addiction- feeling of insecurity, sexual
insufficiency, real or behaved incapacity to live up to the expectations of others. Despair over
depressing life conditions, such as family conflicts, unemployment or social isolation. Single
men and women are most often among the addicts. One of the major causes of addiction in our
age is a materialistic outlook on life that lacks true ideals and is unable to give deeper meaning to
a person’s existence. Amidst economic success and a comfortable life, people are unable to find
purpose in their lives- the implication is that, for such people, they resort to addiction.” 11.
To curb their effect, it requires a (a) thorough reorientation of a person’s entire life. This
must be given new and deeper meaning by a commitment to true ideals. (b) Family members of
the addict will also have to examine the basic attitudes that govern their conducts and relations
with each other. (c) Once people are addicted, their liberty is limited in that they cannot help
themselves alone any longer. The unselfish service of those who come to the assistance of those

11
Ibid., 261-262.

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who want to get out of merits high praise. At the same time addicts cannot be helped until they
accept help, and at least this is moral obligation on both parts; the addict and his community. (d)
Alcoholics anonymous” has led the way to the most successful methods of therapy for chemical
dependency, has always stressed that the addict cannot recover unless he/she reaches out to a
higher power. In conclusion, the problem of addiction is a challenge to society at large to fight
dehumanizing social conditions and to reform its outlook in life. Addiction has many sides to it.
This is not just limited to the use of drugs. It extends to foods and drink, cell phones, et c.
B. Suicide
Suicide is “the direct taking of one’s life based on one’s free will or authority” 12. It is not
strictly suicide if a person is ordered by civil authority to carry out a legitimate death sentence
upon himself. For instance, Socrates in Athens did not commit suicide. By this, a distinction has
to be made between what accounts for suicide and what cannot be regarded as suicide (non-
suicide). There are reasons for suicide. Among them are: (i) “One’s inability to cope with
problems. (ii) Social isolation. (iii) The feeling of being useless and merely a burden to others.
(iv) Meaningless pain in illnesses without hope” 13. We can establish from the last point
(meaningless pain in sickness) that the most common reason for suicide is despair, which is the
act of losing hope of recovering from illness. Though, suicide can be permitted based on other
motives with altruistic nature. For instances, (i) “a father who kills himself because he endangers
the existence of his family (e. g. by a long lasting, costly illness); (ii) prisoners (especially spies)
kill themselves to prevent the danger of betraying secrets and other persons. (iii) members of
resistance movements die in hunger strikes for the aid liberties and rights of their country” 14.
Arguments Against Suicide
Some people have defended suicide based on altruistic motive which tends towards
higher good. While others reject suicide. For instance, while “Socrates, Aristotle, Hegel, Kant
and Fitche rejected suicide, the Stoa (Stoics), Arthur Schopenhauer and Hume defend it as a right
of self-determination based on one’s liberty. Today, suicide is defended as a right of the human
person among Humanists and especially by the euthanasia movements”15.
The first reason advanced against suicide, is valid for all manners of direct killing (suicide) of
oneself or of another (murder, euthanasia and abortion). This reason is based on the truth that
God is the owner of life. This implies that, people do not possess the right of ownership of their
bodies and their lives. They only have the right of responsible administration. Thus, they should
live their lives so as to maintain them in unity with the author of life, inherent in the Divine plan.
Suicide is a direct violation of God’s sovereign right of ownership over human life.
Second, suicide is a crime against man’s obligations towards his community and people who
depend on him, such as family members and friends. Man’s orientation involves rending a lot of
services on the one hand, and expenditures and sacrifices on another-on the part of his family
members and the bigger community. His life is a sign of great investment of the community. By
12
Ibid., 317.
13
Ibid.
14
Ibid., 318.
15
Ibid.

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this, he is bound to let it yield fruit. Thus, life cannot just be discarded by suicide without
offending the community or family members. It is more offensive if the one who commits
suicide has dependents towards whom one ought to be responsible.
Third, suicide is a violation of one’s duty to love oneself and to strive after perfection. People
who kill themselves deprive themselves of the possibility of any further growth. They refuse to
bring themselves to full perfection, to which they have been called by God. Nonetheless, there is
an exception to this, the sacrifice of one’s life, especially since the indirect sacrifice of one’s life
for a higher good is allowed and is sometimes demanded, like in few cases.
Panacea for Suicide
First, religious faith. There are proofs that a living faith and religious convictions are the
best protections against suicide. Religion is of significance for the prevention of suicide. Second,
intervention by authority and tradition. In critical situations, especially when people who attempt
suicide cannot be helped, they need the restraints of authority and tradition on discovering that
their ability to decide fails. In the final analysis, suicide attempts, most times, are “a last cry for
help by people who see no way out of their problems or find themselves abandoned and socially
dead. These attempts are matters of conscience for close relations, whether they have offered the
concern and assistance to the person in trouble that was expected from them. It is medically and
morally irresponsible to bring a suicide back to life without at least an initial effort to offer help
on a personal level” 16.
C. Murder/Indirect killing
Murder is a “disallowed/unlawful killing”, or the direct and voluntary killing of an innocent
person”17. Murder does not involve war and execution of a criminal by force of a judicial
sentence. “Criminal law distinguishes between murder as a premeditated form of killing and
unpremeditated form of (culpable) homicide, which is due to a sudden fit of passion. Though, in
the second case, the crime is less grave, it is also a grave crime against love. The moral notion of
murder constitutes both forms of killing” 18. Terrorism, insurgency, et c. are forms of killing, and
are also to be viewed as crimes against human life, and humanity in general. In addition to these
are suicide, euthanasia and abortion. “Every direct and illegal killing of a fellow man is murder
and a great moral offence. “Illegal” implies every killing of an innocent, even if by authorization
or order of the state authority and the killing of a criminal outside the legal order by lynch law” 19.
It is in view of this that many sanction capital punishment today. Even when authority resorts to
use of lethal injection as a form of punishment for the criminal, it is still within capital

16
Ibid., 321.
17
Ibid., 325.
18
Ibid., 324.
19
Ibid. The history of Lynch law dates back to 1881, when Captain William Lynch claimed that the phrase,
“Lynch’s Law” already famous, actually came from a 1789 compact signed by him and his neighbours in
Pittsylvania County, Virginia, to uphold their own brand of law independent of legal authority. It is from this that we
have “Lynching” today, which is an extra-judicial killing by a group of people, so to say, it is an informal execution
by mob in order to punish the criminal. It is what we referred to as “jungle justice” in Nigeria. It is improper for
people to take laws into their hands to execute a criminal or a thief.

6
punishment, which should not be endorsed. This is one of the modern arguments against capital
punishment. Some are of the opinion that capital punishment should be abolished.
Clarification on Indirect Killing
There is also need to clarify the indirect killing of an innocent person is not murder in two
different instances. The first instance is that, this can be allowed if it is for the sake of
“safeguarding a proportionately higher good especially as it concerns common welfare, which
could not be defended or preserved. For instance, an innocent man can be handed over to a tyrant
for the sake of safeguarding the city or the majority. In the second instance, indirect killing can
be viewed as murder, on the ground of culpable homicide. In all, either of the cases has to be
proven beyond reasonable doubt. Thus, “the more certainly an action will result in the indirect
death of an innocent, the graver the reasons must be which justify the action” 20. The only time we
can only justify indirect killing is based on “the rule of proportionate reason” 21. For instance, the
indirect sacrifice of innocent life, or the rescue of other lives or values can only be justified when
the lives or values to be saved are of greater or at least equal importance than those to be
sacrificed.
Reasons for the Criminality of Murder
In the first place, many peoples and cultures abhor killing. This is because they regard life as
the most fundamental good. This is the reason for prohibiting killing in any form. From this we
can advance two arguments against murder, thus:
First, the owner and master of life is God alone – refer to the argument on suicide. There is
no earthly right that would be higher than a person’s right to be protected from any direct assault
against his life. Not even the demands of the common weal. This is because the person does not
exist on behalf of the state, but rather the state exists on behalf of the person. The person and the
state alike exist for the sake of common good. Both are called to serve God’s plan. And this plan
not only aims at a transcendent but it also includes the unfolding of God’s plan and creation in
the world.
Second, the welfare of society demands the protection of human life; if people were allowed
to kill each other on private authority, there would be no safety in society. Neither would the
human person be safe. The common weal ceases to be.
D. Euthanasia
Euthanasia is derived from two Greek words, Eu and thanatos- “good or happy death”22. It is
the killing of those persons who are seriously sick and found to be in great pain or frustration.
Because of this, they are killed to spare them from further suffering or distress 23. Following from
this, we can say that euthanasia or mercy killing is “the intentional killing of a tormented,
incurable patient by lethal agents or means”24.
20
Ibid., 236.
21
See the issue on the possibility of permitting an indirectly willed murder in, K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics, Vol.
I, Alcester 1997; Bangalore 1996, 265-276.
22
Cf. C. E. ODINIYA, Evaluation of Eugenics: Modern Atheism in Contemporary Society, Unpublished
Undergraduate Project on Applied Ethics, STAMS, Makurdi 2002, 19
23
Ibid.
24
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, Vol. II, 328.

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Types of Euthanasia
The last definition of euthanasia (the intentional killing of…) brings to the fore, two of types
of euthanasia. Viz: (i) “direct or active euthanasia-is the use of lethal injection or other means to
instantly kill the patient. (ii) Indirect or passive euthanasia- is the relief of sufferings by means of
sedatives and narcotics with the shortening of life as a side effect. It is the lightening of death
through omission or discontinuation of life – prolonging measures” 25. This also includes the use
of sedatives and narcotics. The aim of their use is the intention to shorten the life span of the
patient. To avoid any ambiguity, the notion of euthanasia is always its direct or active form.
Peter Singer26 and others divided euthanasia into voluntary, involuntary and non-voluntary
euthanasia. We synthesize the divisions of euthanasia as follows: “voluntary” is the same as
active euthanasia. “Involuntary” is the same as passive euthanasia. Thus, we need to distinguish
between “active” killing (active or direct euthanasia) and “passive” renunciation of life (passive
or indirect) – prolonging measures is vital or key. In the first instance, the active cause of the
patient’s death is the intervention of the physician and not the sickness of the patient. This
involves the responsibility of the physician. In the second instance the active cause of the
patient’s death is the illness inherent in him. The physician has an obligation to halt what is
responsible for the fatal illness in the patient save he has a charge to help in some way and as
long as he has this charge, it depends on the will of the patient or his representatives. It also
depends on the hope of the real benefit in the patient because the physician has no mandate to do
what is useless27. Non-voluntary euthanasia is a condition under which a patient can neither
decide for euthanasia, nor a decision be made for him. Thus, under non-voluntary euthanasia, it
is neither “active” nor “passive”.
Social Euthanasia
First, euthanasia is not be confused with social euthanasia. There is a difference between
them. Euthanasia in our earlier discussion, is based on “reasons of compassion and liberation
from extreme suffering” (kindly refer to it). This is the view of every modern advocate of
euthanasia. Social euthanasia is “a systematic extermination of ‘life not worth living’, i. e. of
patients with serious mental disorders or serious incurable deformities” 28. Social euthanasia was
perpetrated by the Nazi regime in Germany. Adolf Hitler’s action triggered the Second World
War (I encourage you to carry out further research on social euthanasia and Second World War).
Social euthanasia is an impetus for proponents of eugenics.

Justification of Euthanasia

25
Ibid.
26
Cf. P. SINGER, Practical Ethics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1993, page required.
27
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, Vol. II, 328-329.
28
Ibid., 328.

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 First, many experienced physicians argue that a patient’s wish for euthanasia most often
is not to be taken in literal terms but rather it is to be seen as “a call for better help” 29.
Nonetheless, there are examples of “total pain” where under the most favourable conditions of
good nursery aid and intensive personal care, the sufferings cannot be mastered and the wish for
assistance to die does not remain silent. The advocates of euthanasia sustain their argument thus:
“death is preferable to uncontrollable pain without hope and senseless misery. It is on this basis
that some authors conclude that active euthanasia can be justified in certain circumstances which
is “for the preservation of a person’s freedom and dignity which are threatened by an
excruciating illness, either for reasons of a human death, or of common and fraternal love. So,
the reason for justifying euthanasia in the present argument “is the liberation for sustained,
excruciating suffering of patients beyond hope of recovery” 30.The reasons we advance against
suicide and the killing of innocent people also apply to euthanasia. Although, they are modified
to fit euthanasia.
Reason(s) “for” and “against” Euthanasia
(i) Argument from the exclusive right of disposition by God over life and death of a human
being. It proves the responsibility of one’s life before God. Though, this argument cannot stop
the legitimacy of an active sacrifice of one’s life if it should result that this stands in the service
of God’s plan with man and the world. We can add that, “euthanasia transgresses the supreme
authority which God has over human beings. It denies the notion of Christian suffering and its
supernatural value implicitly”31.
(ii) Argument for the common weal- for thinkers who do not regard the first argument (argument
from “the property rights” of God over man) arrive from the argument of the common weal or
self-love to a rejection in principle of active euthanasia. It is based on this that they raised three
objections32: First objection: admitting in principle, euthanasia, can easily lead to the crevasse
effect. Thus, a step to endorsing euthanasia will create a precedent that will also extend the
practice of euthanasia to handicapped and sick individuals who do not suffer much but are rather
a burden to society. Against this, we can argue that, for many ethical principles, exceptions have
been admitted, which have not led to the feared crevasse effect (e. g. food, theft, professional
secret). This is as long as the exceptions have been clearly defined. Second objection: the
fundamental value of trust between physician and patient would seriously suffer and perish, if
physicians practice euthanasia. Against this, we can argue that such loss will only arise if
euthanasia can be practiced against the will of a patient who is in principle competent a position
no held by anybody today. Third objection: an indispensable condition for euthanasia as we have
earlier noted, – as is the free consent of the patient. But the issue is, how can we discern,
ascertain or verify this consent? This is because we have already mentioned that the wish of the
sick person for euthanasia is “often only a hidden plea for more help and personal care, a result

29
Ibid., 329.
30
Ibid., 331.
31
Cf. C. E. ODINIYA, Evaluation of Eugenics: Modern Atheism in Contemporary Society, 20
32
Ibid., 331-333.

9
of temporary depression or a disturbance caused by heavy medication, of an imagined or real
social pressure of the environment…”33
(iii) Argument from Self-love-responsible self-love condemns euthanasia. Although, “the
disposal of oneself seems justified as a gift and sacrifice for the life of another, while the direct
causation of death because of a situation of privation is not justified”34.
Abortion
Abortion “is the removal of the non-viable embryo or fetus from the mother’s womb by
human intervention, whether by killing the human being before removal from the womb, or
whether by exposing the same to a certain death outside the womb”35.
Types of Abortion
The notion of abortion raises two issues. The first is “human intervention” which appears
in the definition. This raises the issue of techniques of abortion. Thus, techniques bring to the
fore, the two types of abortion. These are: (i) Direct abortion: is when the ejection of the non-
viable fruit or the destruction of the offspring in the womb is intended as the aim of an action or
as a means to achieve this aim. For example, abortion in order to save the reputation of an unwed
mother. (ii) Indirect abortion: is when the death of the fetus is merely permitted as a concomitant
effect of a directly willed end, e. g. the death of a fetus caused by the removal of the cancerous
uterus of a pregnant mother36. We also have a case of still birth or premature expulsion of fetus.
This is not willed by the mother, but a result of biological complications. Like Peschke, other
writers divided abortion into induced and spontaneous. Their division align with Peschke’s.
Thus, it is also correct to say that direct abortion can also be known as induced abortion. While
indirect abortion is also spontaneous abortion, or in some cases, therapeutic abortion.
Direct or induced abortion is subdivided into three methods: salting, suction and D&C
methods… (read more about these methods). This is based on what other medical researchers
discovered on the techniques of abortion.
When Does Life Begin?
The second issue raised by the notion of abortion is the “non-viability” of fetus. Thus, it
is apt to ask, when does life begin? This poses a problem of the beginning of human life.
Therefore, a special problem is posed as to when “the animation of the fertilized ovum by a
spiritual soul”37 occur, and thus, when the embryo “is to be considered a human being in the
strict sense”?38.
Theory on the Beginning of Life
The question on when does life begin, gave rise to the theory of immediate animation
propounded by Aristotle and further developed by Saint Thomas Aquinas. They are of the view
that “the rational soul is infused into the body only after the fetus reaches a certain stage of
development. Before this happens, the embryo is solely animated by a life of vegetative and
33
Ibid., 321-322.
34
Cf. A. HOLDEREGGER, Il suicidio, Cittadella, Assisi 1979, 436.
35
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, Vol. II, 334.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid., 335.
38
Ibid.

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animal nature. The influence of new medical insights further inspires the process of
generation…. stage of development of the fetus poses the third issue, how do we know a
developed fetus? The question is also linked with the fourth issue is on the viability of fetus.
Therefore, “the time of animation by the spiritual soul was generally set at approximately six
weeks after conception (40 days for boys and 80 days for girls). The theory of immediate
animation is not completely convincing without biological or medical evidence. Thus, “the more
acceptable explanation is that, there must be a form of development of the material before the
infusion of the spiritual soul, a position adopted by most recent scholars. Though, others
continue to push for the theory of immediate animation at the period of birth or conception”39.
The Morality of Abortion
A lot of people advocate for abortion because of varied complications and dilemmas in
which they find themselves. The conditions they uphold in different contexts are their justifying
reasons for procuring abortion. But these reasons are only “indications”, recognized by civil law
which render an abortion legal or under which it is tolerated and exempt from sanction.
There are three major issues on the justification of abortion. The first bothers on the four
indications40:
(i) The Eugenic Indication
it calls for abortion in places where, based on evaluation of the physician, the expected offspring
will be affected by serious defects caused by genetic disorders, or by acquired sicknesses. The
issue is that if it is licit to kill a defective baby prior to conception, it is also difficult to see why it
should be illicit to do so after conception. Thus, justifying abortion for eugenic reason is not
tenable.
(ii) The Criminological or Ethical Indication
It is the result of a pregnancy due to rape. Many justify abortion on this ground since the child is
an undue burden forced on the mother against her will, who will have great difficulty to love the
child. The child’s existence exposes the mother to great moral strains and social shame. Some
writers include incest as part of this indication.
(iii)The Social Indication
Occurs if a child is considered to be a great social or economic burden for the mother or the
family41. Among the many reasons for abortion are: (i) Conflicts with a woman’s life plan. Many
of them are alone and full-time workers. They don’t want a child because of what the presence of
the child will do to their work or plan (ii) Married couples may consider an additional child as
great financial burden (iii) The ultimate reason for abortion decision is not grave financial
pressure. Rather, it is fear of the living standard of the family. Though, experience shows that
abortion is prevalent among people who enjoy greater economic security than among the poor.
Although, dire poverty does not actually contribute to the trend. We can argue against financial
burden that it is an attempt to look for scapegoat for abortion that many tie their reason to

39
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, Vol. II, 335.
40
Ibid., 341-342.
41
Cf. B. CLOWES, The Facts of Life, Front Royal, HLI, Va 1997, 325.

11
financial burden. (iv) Motives of shame can also play significant role for an unmarried girl or her
family, especially in rural areas.
(iv) Medical/ Therapeutic Abortion
Is warranted if the health of the mother is seriously threatened or her life is endangered due to
pregnancy. What has a link with medical or therapeutic is the indication for reasons of mental
health or psychiatric indication. Though, the number of therapeutic abortions has reduced but the
number of abortions granted for psychiatric reasons is on the rise. There is no agreement among
psychiatrists on need and justification of psychiatric abortions. Their reactions range from
rejection of any abortion for psychiatric reasons to great permissiveness.
The second issue is on “intrinsic reasons for rejection of abortion”. These reasons also
apply, in general, to those that militate against the killing of innocent person. They add to the
frequent consequences of abortion for woman42:
(i)Psychological health of the woman –in the course of the suction and scraping of the uterus,
perforations of the uterus wall occur, coupled with subsequent inflammations which often cause
sterility and complications.
(ii) Induced abortion increases spontaneous abortion- ectopic and extra-uterine pregnancies and
premature births. This is accompanied by an increased number of children born handicapped. “A
man is more likely to have a sterile wife or a stillborn or defective child if he marries a girl who
has had an induced abortion.
(iii) Worse still for many women, are the psychological complications. Post-Abortion Syndrome
(PAS) is a term coined for women who have aborted. There are symptoms are associated with
them: “anxiety reaction, severe guilt feelings, lowered self-esteem, nightmares and depression”.
These symptoms are due to the (iv) negative feelings they experience after abortion. Though,
they masquerade their hurt due to abortion but inside they mourn. The problems are intensified
during the anniversary of the abortion.
Therapeutic Abortion
The third issue is on the problematic nature of therapeutic abortion. Catholic Ethics
rejects any kind of abortion for eugenic, criminological and social reasons; and considers them as
murder of the innocent. Thus, giving legality to abortion is null. Although, Catholic Ethics does
not permit abortion in general, it has always admitted of the lawfulness of indirect abortion in
cases of serious danger to the mother’s life 43. This is controversial. Though, medicine was able to
lessen the number of hard cases more than ever, but they still occur. Tertullian (ca. 220) seems to
approve therapeutic abortion as a “cruel necessity”. He rejects abortion in general as murder, but
speaks of therapeutic abortion as a special case: “But sometimes by cruel necessity, while yet in
the womb, an infant is put to death, when lying awry in the orifice of the womb he impedes
parturition, and kills his mother if he is not to die himself” 44. From the 19th Century, this issue
was re-examined. This was due to the progress of new medical aids and techniques. We leave
this aspect to Moral theologians and recent thoughts of Church Fathers on therapeutic abortion.

42
Cf K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, vol. II, 343-344.
43
Ibid., 346-348.
44
De Anima, 25, 4 cited by K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics, 346.

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Artificial Insemination45
It is defined as “an attempt to further the chances of and facilitate the encounter between
the female germ-cells, the ova, and the male see, the semen, by artificial means” 46. Artificial
insemination “consists of artificially placing the human semen into the woman’s body and not by
means of coition. It can be homologous- when the semen used is that of the husband of the
inseminated woman, or heterologous, when the semen used is that of the third-party donor, who
is not the husband of the inseminated. As soon as fertilization takes place, the remaining process
happens naturally.
There are procedures of Artificial Insemination. First, the couple must be examined to see
if the reason for infertility can be verified. Second, the fresh or stored human semen must be
available. Third, the collection of the sperm is done through masturbation. This raises moral
questions. Fourth, before the semen is finally tested, it has to be diagnosed and carefully
prepared in the laboratory. Fifth, after the procedures are fulfilled, the semen is placed in the
body, cervix or uterus according to medical directives.
Moral Evaluation
(i) It is an adulterous act on the part of the mother if it is practiced heterogeneously. (ii) The child
becomes an illegitimate one (iii) Artificial Insemination is against the principles of natural
reproduction
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)47
There are two techniques of Invitro fertilisation: The first is fertilisation takes place in a
test tube and not in the woman’s body. The second is the transfer of the embryo(s) to the uterus.
Stages of IVF. These are: First, human gametes (sperm (for male) and ova (for female). Second,
the method that is used to collect the sperm in AI is also used for IVF, to obtain sperm. Third, the
ova have to be extracted from the ovaries. Modern scientific and technical advances do not tell
us exactly when ovulation is imminent. Fourth, when the gametes are prepared, they are placed
in a glass dish. Fifth, fertilisation takes place at the observation of a cellular cleavage. Fifth,
fertilized ova are kept in a medium uterus, at a point introduced through the cervix. It was
generally agreed upon by the medical experts that the ova should be transferred in the period of
24-28 hours after fertilization. As early contact with cervical mucus increases, there is every
hope of success.
Surrogate Motherhood48
This is a practice in which woman bears a child for a couple unable to produce children
in the usual way. This need arises as a result of women who produced healthy ova, but who for
any of a number of reasons are unable to carry a child. After the services of a woman to bear a
child for her has been employed and the nurturing exercise is over, she hands over the child to
the biological father. Surrogate motherhood comprises two parties. These are the genetic parents
who donated the sperm and ova, and the woman carrying the baby whose job is only to give birth
45
Cf. C. ODINIYA, Evaluation of Eugenics: Modern Atheism in Contemporary Society, 14-15.
46
Cf. The New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 1, The Catholic University, Washington DC 1967, 927.
47
Cf. C. ODINIYA, Evaluation of Eugenics: Modern Atheism in Contemporary Society, 16.
48
Ibid., 17-18.

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to the child. The moral implications of surrogate mother are: (i) the surrogate mother would want
a fess for the job of nurturing the child (ii) children who are born under surrogate conditions are
reduced to mere commodity (iii) the rights of the parties involved could be
The Morality of Self-Defense49
Self-defense is the violent resistance against an actual and unjust threat to life or to a third
person. The defense may include killing of the unjust aggressor, if he or she threatens vital goods
of a person. Aggression threatens human survival. Whenever it is found it triggers survival
instinct.
Conditions for self-defense
a. The aggression must be unjust, i. e. not justified from the side of the aggressor. (it would be
justified, for example, in the case of distress emergency, which would warrant theft of food).
It is sufficient if the assault is at least materially unwarranted, and it does not matter whether
the aggressor is also subjectively guilty. Therefore, one may also resist an insane or
intoxicated person in self-defense.
b. The aggression must be actual, i. e. imminent or present or still lasting. One may strike in
preventive defense as soon as it is evident that an unjust attack against oneself or one’s own
is both certain and inescapable. After the aggression has taken place, killing is no longer self-
defense but revenge.
c. The defense must limit itself to means that are proportionate to the gravity of the danger.
Severely, hurting or killing the aggressor is only allowed in defense of great values, such as
life, integrity of one’s members, bodily integrity in attempts of rape, temporal goods of great
value.
d. The resistance must be confined to that minimum of violence that is necessary and sufficient
to obtain the justified purpose of defense. Among possible means, the least harmful to the
aggressor must always be chosen.
The Justification of Self-Defense
The right to self-defense is rooted in the judicial convictions of nations in cases of aggression
against one’s life. In modern times, this right is acknowledged by virtually all the criminal laws.
a. The arguments of reason: there exists a natural order of law, which assures every individual
and every community the rights necessary to their existence and connatural development.
This order also obliges one to respect the rights of other people and communities. The
existence and inviolability of such a natural order of law follows from the fact that without it,
well-ordered human life and successful development would be impossible. Because of its
strict necessity this natural order must permit and demand its safeguarding and defense even
by means of force, to the extent of requisite for its preservation. The body guards who protect
are measures of self-defense.
Note that citizens defending their own or other people’s rights only try to safeguard a natural
order still intact. They do not inflict punishment. Punishment is inflicted after the violation of the
law has been completed. The right to punishment is reserved to the public authority, because this
is a sufficient and even safer means to restore the broken order.
e. The evil consequences of the contrary- it is implicitly already present in the first. If those
attempting robbery or murder were inviolable before a private person, the latter would be
exposed to all forms of ruthless violence without sufficient protection. This inviolability
would encourage brutal individuals to commit even more crimes and thus multiply them.
49
Cf. K. H. PESCHKE, Christian Ethics: Moral Theology in the Light of Vatican II, vol. II, 352-355.

14
 Christian love may refrain from taking the life of an unjust aggressor and choose to suffer
injustice. But one would be obliged to disable an aggressor in self-defense if one’s life were
necessary for the support and protection of one’s family or of a community. A duty of charity
can oblige to defend others (wife, children, parents, or those committed to one’s care).
Officers of the law, policemen and watchmen are often obliged by reason of their office to
defend others against unjust aggression.

Critique of Kant

I hope we have looked at the the Kant transcendental Analytic,

transcendental method
Please confirm
Transcendental idealism is based on the the distinction of
appearance and thing in itself. That is the relationship between the
objects and our mode of cognition. Note that 1.
Kant means objects are given to us in human sensibility as
appearance 2. However when it considered transcendentally that is
as beyond us it is called things in themselves that is as
transcendental real
3. Human sensibility Kant holds. Is distinguished by spatio-
temporality by which all objects of our intuition are either temporal
or spatial temporal objects
All objects are transcendental ideals, they are the objects given to
us as appearance. 4. Kant also distinguish between transcendental
ideals with empirical reality. The empirical reality stands for
human standpoint it is also based on sensitivity that is from the
standpoint of object and subject
Kant used this position that is subject/object dichotomy to examine
his concept of space and time. 6 space and time for Kant are
spatio- temporal objects based on human stand point. They are
based on human stand point, they are empirical real, they are real,
they are also ideal objects based on human data. The data includes
mental images, hallucinations and mental phenomenon 7.space and
time are also empirical real because they are forms of human
intuition and are necessary for us to have experience of objects.
That is space and time are necessary and are a form of human
sensibility and appearance
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