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Computer Networks (3150710) 220280116044
Vatsal Kathiriya
Experiment No: 2
AIM: Study of different types of network cables and practically implements the cross-
wired cable and straight through cable using clamping tool
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Identify different types of network cables and
Prepare own LAN Cable
Relevant CO: CO1: Familiarize with the basic taxonomy - terminologies used in networking
and the layered architecture of computer networks
Objectives: (a) To see and check various network Cables

(b) Find out usage of each in different case with advantage and disadvantage
(c) Prepare own cross-wired cable and straight through cable using clamping
tool
Equipment/Instruments: RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable
Theory
Study four different types of cables:
1. Coaxial Cable
 A coaxial cable is an electrical cable with a copper conductor and an insulator
shielding around it and a braided metal mesh that prevents signal interference and
cross talk.
 Coaxial cable is also known as coax.
 The term coaxial refers to the inner conductor and the outer shield sharing a
geometric axis.
Fig. 1. Coaxial Cable
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Structure of coaxial cable:
Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The conductor is the
point at which data transmits.
Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. It is used to maintain
the spacing between the center conductor and shield.
Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield from electromagnetic interference,
the braid provides a barrier against EMI moving into and out of the coaxial cable
Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic coating. It is used
to protect internal layers from damages.
Types of coaxial cables:
 Hard line coaxial cable.

 Flexible coaxial cable.
 Semi-rigid coaxial cable.
 Formable coaxial cable.
 Rigid coaxial cable.
 Twin axial cable.
 Triaxial cable.
Advantages:
1. Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and
durable.
2. Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
3. Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages:
1. Coaxial cables are expensive.
2. The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
3. As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
2. Twisted Pair Cable
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
• These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in
the form of a copper braid covering.
• This covering provides strength to the overall structure of the cable. It also reduces noise
and signal interference in the cable.
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• The shielding ensures that the induced signal can be returned to the source via ground and
only circulate around the shield without affecting the main propagating signal.
• The STP cables are also color-coded like the UTP cables as different color pairs are required
for analog and digital transmission.
• These cables are costly and difficult to install
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
• These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other insulation
or shielding and hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables.
• They reduce the external interference due to the presence of insulation.
• Unshielded twisted pair cables are arranged in pairs so that we can add a new connection
whenever required.
• The DSL or telephone lines in our houses have one extra pair in them.
• When UTP are arranged in pairs, each pair is coded with a different color as defined by the
25-pair color code developed by AT&T Corporation. The Electronic Industries Association
divides UTP into 7 categories based on some standards.
Advantages:
1. Twisted pair cables, especially unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, are cost-effective and widely
available.
2. Twisted pair cables are flexible and easy to work with, which simplifies the installation process.
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Disadvantages:
1. Twisted pair cables have limited transmission distances.
2. Twisted pair cables are vulnerable to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI)
3. Twisted pair cables have limitations in terms of bandwidth.
3. Fibre Optical Cable
• An Optical Fiber is a cylindrical fiber of glass which is hair thin size or any transparent dielectric
medium. The fiber which is used for optical communication is waveguides mad of transparent dielectrics.
Main Elements Of Fiber Optics
1. Core : It is the central tube of very thin size made of optically transparent dielectric medium and carries
the light transmitter to receiver and the core diameter may vary from about 5um to 100 um.
2. Cladding : It is outer optical material surrounding the core having reflecting index lower than core and
cladding helps to keep the light within the core throughout the phenomena of total internal reflection.
3. Buffer Coating : It is a plastic coating that protects the fiber made of silicon rubber. The typical diameter
of the fiber after the coating is 250-300 um.
Types Of Fiber Optics :
1. On The Basis Of The Number Of Modes :
A. Single – Mode Fiber

B. Multi-Mode Fiber
2. On The Basis Of Refractive Index
A. Step- Index Optical Fiber

B. Graded Index Optical Fiber
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Advantages:
1. Capable of transmitting large amounts of data at incredibly fast speeds.
2. Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio
frequency interference (RFI).
3. Fiber optic cables can transmit data over very long distances.
Disadvantages:
1. Fiber optic cables are more fragile than traditional copper cables.
2. Fiber optic cables, along with the equipment needed for their installation and termination,
can be more expensive than copper-based alternatives.
4. Patch Cable
• A patch cable, patch cord or patch lead is an electrical or optical cable used to connect one electronic or
optical device to another for signal routing. Devices of different types (e.g., a switch connected to a computer,
or a switch to a router) are connected with patch cords.
• A patch cord is always fitted with connectors at both ends. A pigtail is similar to a patch cord and is the
informal name given to a cable fitted with a connector at one end and bare wires (or bare fibre) at the other.
• In the context of copper cabling, these cables are sometimes referred to as blunt patch cords and the non-
connectorized end is intended to be permanently attached to a component or terminal.
• Patch cables are also called patch leads. The term patch cord is sometimes used as well, but it's often
associated more with nonnetwork types of cables such as those for wiring stereo components.
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What Does a Patch Cable Look Like?
• Patch cables can be any color and are usually shorter than other kinds of networking cables because they're
meant for "patching" devices together.
• Typically, that's accomplished over a short distance, so most are no longer than two meters.
• In fact, they can even be as short as just a few inches. Longer cables are usually thicker than their short
counterparts and often are shielded to prevent electromagnetic interference.
• A patch cable is normally made of coaxial cabling, but it also could consist of fiber optic, shielded or unshielded
CAT5/5e/6/6A, or single-conductor wires.
• A patch cable always has connectors on both ends, which means it's not as permanent of a solution as some
cables like pigtails or blunt patch cords.
Advantages:
1. Patch cables are short and flexible

2. Patch cables provide a straightforward means of establishing and modifying network connections.
3. Patch cables often adhere to industry-standard color coding for easy identification and maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1. Patch cables are typically designed for short-distance connections within network racks or between nearby
network devices.
2. Patch cables are not designed for high-bandwidth, long-distance data transmission.
Procedure to prepare cross-wired cable and straight through cable using

clamping tool
1. Startby stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable.Be
very careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing
so could alter the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check
the wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end
off, and start over.
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2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other
hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category
5 cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will
be 'out of spec'. At this point, you obviously have ALOT morethan 1/2 of an inch of
un-twisted wire.
3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-
made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install
- the crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange
the cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making
and examine the associated picture below.
Following diagram shows you how to prepare Cross wired connection
Fig. 2. Cross Wired Connections.
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Following diagram shows you how to prepare straight through wired connection
Fig. 3. Straight Through Wired Connections.
Quiz:
1. Find out the cases where above cables are used?
Answer :
Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cables are often used in cable television (CATV) systems to transmit television
signals from a central source to individual homes.
Fiber Optic Cable:
Fiber optic cables are widely used in long-distance telecommunications, including

internet backbone connections, undersea cables, and long-haul data transmission.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:
STP cables are used in situations where electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio
frequency interference (RFI) are concerns. They provide better shielding against external
interference.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:
UTP cables are the most common type of network cables used in Ethernet networks,
including the familiar CAT5e, CAT6, and CAT6a cables.
Patch Cable:
Patch cables are short cables with connectors on both ends and are primarily used for
making temporary connections within network patch panels, switches, routers, and computers.
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2. Give approximate cost of each cable with name of 2 manufactures

Answer :
The cost of cables can vary significantly based on factors like cable type, length, and brand. Here
are approximate costs for some common cable types in Indian Rupees (INR) from two
manufacturers:
Ethernet Cable (CAT6):

Approximate Cost: ₹150 to ₹300 for a 1-meter cable.Manufacturers: D-Link, Belkin.
Fiber Optic Cable (Single-mode):
Approximate Cost: ₹10 to ₹25 per meter.Manufactures: Sterlite Technologies, Finolex Cables.
USB Cable (Type-A to Type-B):
Approximate Cost: ₹50 to ₹150 for a 1.5-meter Manufavturers: Belkin, HP.
References used by the students:
Rubric wise marks obtained:
3 2 1
Ability to identify and Clear( Good) Average/partial Poor/not at all
connect networking
cables
Organization Can easily tell from Can tell with Cannot tell from
which sources difficulty from where which source
information was information came information came
drawn
Bibliography All relevant Bibliography contains Bibliography
bibliographic most relevant contains very little
information is information information
included
cross-wired cable and Cable working Cable working Cable not working
straight through cable properly with all properly with all properly
using clamping tool connections looks connections looks
proper poorly connected
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Experiment No: 3
AIM: Study of basic network command and Network configuration commands
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of network commands to

troubleshoot networking errors.
Relevant CO: CO1: Familiarize with the basic taxonomy - terminologies used in networking
and the layered architecture of computer networks
Objectives: (a) To understand the usage of various network commands

(b) Perform commands with various options on given OS.
(c) Prepare the report with screenshots/Output and analyze the usage of each
command.
Equipment/Instruments: Desktop/laptop
Theory:
The operating system consists of various built-in, command-line networking utilities that are
used for network troubleshooting. There are many various commands such as:
 Ping
 Ipconfig
 Tracert
 Hostname
 Pathping
 Route
 Nslookup
 Netstat
 ARP
 Getmac
1. Ping: -
 The ping command is also known as Packet Internet Groper.

 The ping command is used to ensure that a computer can communicate to a specified
device over the network.
 The ping command sends Internet control Message protocol (ICMP) Echo request
messages in the form of packets to the destination computer and waits in order to get the
response back. Once the packets are received by the destined computer, it starts sending
the packets back.
 This command keeps executing until it is interrupted.
 ping command provides details such as
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• number of packets transmitted
• number of packets received
• time taken by the packet to return
 ping command in generally used for the following purposes:
• measuring the time taken by the packets to return to determine the speed of the
connection.
• to make sure that the network connection between the host and the destined computer can
be established.
The ping command uses various options such as:-
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2. Ipconfig: -
IPCONFIG stands for Internet Protocol Configuration. This is a command-line application which display all
the current TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol) network configuration
Refreshes the DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) and DNS (Domain Name Server). It also
displays IP address, subnet mask and default gateway for all adapters. It is available for Microsoft
Windows, ReactOS and Apple macOS. ReactOS version was developed by Ged Murphy and licensed
under the general public License.
In Windows and ReactOS it first force refreshes the DHCP IP address of the host computer and then requests
a different IP address. In macOS, IPCONFIG is used at the command-line interface to control the bootstrap
protocol and DHCP client.
 Characteristics: -
i. IPCONFIG Provides settings for the IPv4 IP layer for TCP/IP.
ii. The maximum length for the connection request queue is specified using IPCONFIG. iii. All the
updation in IP layer of TCP/ IP is done using IPCONFIG.
iv. IPCONFIG is used to do checksum processing for IPv4 packets.
 Advantages: -
i. It displays full configuration of the system.
ii. It can be used to refresh DHCP leases, reregister the DNS names and request new IP address.
iii. It displays DNS resolver cache information and can flush them too.
iv. It can display all the class ids allowed.
 Disadvantages: -
i.It is less efficient as it uses net link socket to transfer information between kernel and
user.
ii. Implementation is difficult as it is implemented on console. iii. Memorization of
commands is required, which is a tough task.
Beginner’s may find it difficult to execute because of command line dependency
Output: -
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3. Tracert:- Vatsal Kathiriya
Traceroute command in Linux prints the route that a packet takes to reach the host. This
command is useful when you want to know about the route and about all the hops that a packet
takes.
 The tracert command uses various options such as: -
i. -4 option: use ip version 4 i.e., use IPv4.
ii. -6 option: use ip version 6 i.e., use IPv6.
iii. -F option: Do not fragment packet.
iv. -f first_ttl option: start from the first_ttl hop (instead from 1).
v. -g gate option: Routr the packet through gate.
vi. -m max_ttl option: set the max number of hops for the packet to reach the destination. Default values is
30.
vii. -n option: - Do not resolve IP Address to their domain names.
viii. -p port option: - set the destination port to use. Defult is 33434.
ix. -q nqueries option: - set the number of probes per each hop. Default is 3.
x. Packetlen option: - the full packet length. Default len is 60-byte packets.
xi. -help: -Display help messages and exit.
Output:
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4. Hostname: -
hostname command in Linux is used to obtain the DNS (Domain Name System) name and set the system's
hostname or NIS (Network Information System) domain name. A hostname is a name given to a computer
and attached to the network. Its main purpose is to uniquely identify over a network.
The Hostname command uses various options such as: -
i. -a option: - Display all aliases of the host.
ii. -A option: - This option is used to get all FQDNs (Fully Qualified Domain Name) of the host
system. It enumerates all configured addresses on all network interfaces. An output may display
the same entries repetitively.
iii. -b option: - Used to always set a hostname. Default name is used if none specified.
iv. -d option: - This option is used to get the Domain if local domains are set. It will not return anything
(not even a blank line) if no local domain is set.
v. -f option: - This option is used to get the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN). It contains short
hostname and DNS domain name.
vi. -F option: - This option is used to set the hostname specified in a file. Can be performed by the
superuser(root) only.
vii. -I option: - This option is used to get all IP (network) addresses. The option doesn’t depend on
resolvability of hostname.
viii. -i option: - This option is used to get the IP (network) addresses. This option works only if the
hostname is resolvable.
ix. -s option: - This option is used to get the hostname in short. The short hostname is the section of
hostname before the first period/dot(.). If the hostname has no period, the full hostname is displayed.
x. -V option: - Gives version number as output.
Output: -
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5. Pathping:-
The pathping command is a command-line utility tool in Windows operating systems. It is

commonly used to troubleshoot network issues, particularly the ones related to latency and
network performance. It is considered an alternative to tracert and it combines ping and tracert
commands.
The pathping command uses various options such as: -

i. -g option: - host-list Loose source route along host-list.
ii. -h option: - maximum_hops Maximum number of hops to search for target.
iii. -i address option: - Use the specified source address.
iv. -n option: -Do not resolve addresses to hostnames.
v. -p period option: - Wait period milliseconds between pings.
vi. -q num_queries option: - Number of queries per hop.
vii. -w timeout option: - Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply.
viii. -P option: -Test for RSVP PATH connectivity.
ix. -R option: -Test if each hop is RSVP aware.
x. -T option: -Test connectivity to each hop with Layer-2 priority tags.
xi. -4 option: -Force using IPv4.
xii. -6 option: -Force using IPv6.
Output: --
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6. Route: -
The IP/kernel routing table acts as a crucial map, determining how network packets are
forwarded between different hosts and networks. By utilizing the route command, Linux
administrators and users can establish static routes, enabling precise control over network
connectivity and optimizing data transmission. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the
intricacies of the route command in Linux, unravel its functionalities, and delve into detailed
examples to gain a profound understanding of its usage.
The Route command uses various options such as: -
i. -foption:: Clears the routing table.

ii. -p :The route is added to the Windows Registry and is used to initialize the IP routing
table whenever the TCP/IP protocol is started (only when used with the add command)
iii. Command: The command to run (add, change, delete, print)
iv. -4: Force using IPv4.
v. -6: Force using IPv6.
vi. Destination: Network destination of the route.
vii. mask Netmask: The netmask (subnet mask) associated with the network destination.
viii. Gateway: The forwarding or next hop IP address over which the set of addresses defined by
the network destination and subnet mask are reachable.
ix. metric Metric: Integer cost metric (ranging from 1 to 9999) for the route.
x. if Interface: The index of the interface over which the destination is reachable.
xi. /? : Command help.
Output: -
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7. NsLookup: -
Nslookup (stands for “Name Server Lookup”) is a useful command for
getting information from the DNS server. It is a network administration tool for querying the
Domain Name System (DNS) to obtain domain name or IP address mapping or any other specific
DNS record. It is also used to troubleshoot DNS-related problems.
The NsLookup command uses various options such as: -
i. -domain=[domain-name]: - allows you to change the default DNS name.
ii. -debug: - enables the display of debugging information.

iii. -port=[port-number]: - Use the -port option to specify the port number for queries. By
default, nslookup uses port 53 for DNS queries.
iv. -timeout=[seconds]: - you can specify the time allowed for the DNS server to respond. By default, the timeout
is set to a few secondsV.
v. -type=a: - Lookup for a record

We can also view all the available DNS records for a particular record using the
-type=a option.
vi. -type=any: -Lookup for any record

We can also view all the available DNS records using the -type=any option
vii. -type=hinfo: - displays hardware-related information about the host. It provides details about the operating
system and hardware platform.
viii. -type=mx: - Lookup for an mx record
MX (Mail Exchange) maps a domain name to a list of mail exchange servers for that domain. The MX
record says that all the mails sent to “google.com” should be routed to the Mail server in that domain.
ix. -type=ns: - Lookup for an ns record

NS (Name Server) record maps a domain name to a list of DNS servers authoritative for that domain. It
will output the name serves which are associated with the given domain.
x. -type=ptr: - used in reverse DNS lookups. It retrieves the Pointer (PTR) records, which map IP addresses to
domain names.
xi. -type=soa: - Lookup for a soa record

SOA record (start of authority), provides the authoritative information about the domain, the email
address of the domain admin, the domain serial number, etc.…
Output: -
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Netstat command displays various network related information such as network connections, routing tables,
interface statistics, masquerade connections, multicast memberships etc.,
The Nestat command uses various options such as: -

i. Netstat: Standard listing of all active connections
ii. netstat -a: - Displays all active ports.
iii. netstat -e: - Shows statistics about your network connection (received and sent data
packets, etc.).
iv. netstat -I: - Brings up the netstat overview menu.
v. netstat -n: - Numerical display of addresses and port numbers.
vi. netstat -p TCP: - Displays the connections for the specified protocol, in this case TCP
(also possible: UDP, TCPv6, or UDPv6)
vii. netstat -q: - Lists all connections, all listening TCP ports, and all open TCP ports that are
not listening.
viii. netstat -r: - Displays the IP routing table
ix. netstat -s: - Retrieves statistics about the important network protocols such as TCP, IP, or
UDP
Output-
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9. ARP: - arp command manipulates the System’s ARP cache. It also allows a complete dump of
the ARP cache. ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. The primary function of this
protocol is to resolve the IP address of a system to its mac address, and hence it works between
level 2(Data link layer) and level 3(Network layer).
The ARP command uses various options such as: -
i. arp -a: This command is used to display the ARP table for a particular IP address. It also shows all the entries
of the ARP cache or table.
ii. arp -g: This command works the same as the arp -a command.
iii. arp -d: This command is used when you want to delete an entry from the ARP table for a particular interface.
To delete an entry, write arp - d command along with the IP address in a command prompt you want to delete.
iv. arp -d *: You can also delete all the entries from the ARP table. This command will remove or flush all the
entries from the table
v. arp -s: This command is used to add the static entry in the ARP table, which resolves the InetAddr (IP
address) to the EtherAddr (physical address). To add a static entry in an ARP table, write arp -s
command along with the IP address and MAC address of the device in a command prompt.
Output: -
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10. Getmac:-
The “getmac” command is the simplest and easiest way to find Mac address on Windows
11 PC. It displays the mac address of enabled network adapters only. Launch the
command prompt and type the command getmac and press enter key. The getmac
command outputs a list of all your network adapters and their MAC addresses.
Output:
Getting Help
In any command mode, you can get a list of available commands by entering a
question mark (?).
Router>?
To obtain a list of commands that begin with a particular character sequence, type in
those characters followed immediately by the question mark (?).
Router#co?
Configure connect copy
To list keywords or arguments, enter a question mark in place of a keyword or

argument. Include a space before the question mark.
Router#configure ?
memory Configure from NV memory
network Configure from a TFTP network
hostterminal Configure from the terminal
You can also abbreviate commands and keywords by entering just enough
characters to make thecommand unique from other commands. For example, you
can abbreviate the show command to sh.
Configuration Files
Any time you make changes to the router configuration, you must save the changes
to memory because if you do not they will be lost if there is a system reload or power
outage. There are two types of configuration files: the running (current operating)
configuration and the startup configuration.
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Use the following privileged mode commands to work with configuration files.
• configure terminal – modify the running configuration manually from the

terminal.
• show running-config – display the running configuration.
• show startup-config – display the startup configuration.
• copy running-config startup-config – copy the running configuration

to the startupconfiguration.
• copy startup-config running-config – copy the startup configuration to

the runningconfiguration.
• erase startup-config – erase the startup-configuration in NVRAM.
• copy tftp running-config – load a configuration file stored on a Trivial File

Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server into the running configuration.
• copy running-config tftp – store the running configuration on a TFTP

server.
IP Address Configuration
Take the following steps to configure the IP address of an interface.
Step 1: Enter privileged EXEC mode:

Router>enable password
Step 2: Enter the configure terminal command to enter global configuration mode.
Router#config terminal
Step 3: Enter the interface type slot/port (for Cisco 7000 series) or interface type
port (for Cisco2500 series) to enter the interface configuration mode.
Example:
Router (config)#interface ethernet 0/1
Step 4: Enter the IP address and subnet mask of the interface using the ip address
ipaddresssubnetmask command.
Example,
Router (config-if)#ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0
Step 5: Exit the configuration mode by pressing Ctrl-Z

Router(config-if)#[Ctrl-Z]
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Quiz:
1.Give the sequence of troubleshoots commands you will perform with proper
justification if your network is not working.
 A sequence of troubleshooting commands with justifications for a network that is not working:
1. Ping (Local Device) - Verify Local Network Connectivity

2. Traceroute or Tracert - Trace Network Path to Identify Issues
3. Ping External Host - Test External Connectivity
4. Check DNS Resolution - Verify Domain Name Resolution
5. Check IP Configuration - Confirm Local IP Settings
6. Check ARP Table - Inspect Address Resolution Protocol Table
7. Check Route Table - Review Routing Information
8. Check Firewall and Security Policies - Ensure Firewall Rules Are Not Blocking Traffic
9. Check Physical Connectivity - Inspect Cables, Connectors, and Ports
10. Consult Network Logs - Review Logs for Error Messages and Network Events
Suggested Reference: https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/routers/nfvis/switch_command/b-

nfvis-switch-command-reference.html
3 2 1
Ability to understand Clear( Good) Average/partial Poor/not at all
the output of each
command
Organization Can easily tell from Can tell with Cannot tell from
which sources difficulty from where which source
information was information came information came
drawn
Bibliography All relevant Bibliography contains Bibliography
bibliographic most relevant contains very little
information is information information
included
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Experiment No: 4
AIM: Implement different LAN topologies using Network Simulator
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of network layout to connect devices

with each other to establish network
Relevant CO: CO-5 Implement different types of network using different tools and
simulators
Objectives: (a) Download network simulator – preferably cisco packet tracer

(b) Implement topologies by configuring interconnecting devices and
computing devices.
(c) Analyze the performance of connecting devices in different ways
Equipment/Instruments: Desktop/laptop, Network simulator
Theory:
What is Network Topology?

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as network topology.
There are various types of topologies and they are:
 Bus Topology
 Star Topology
 Ring Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology
1. Bus Topology:
(Give details of each topology with advantages, disadvantages and applications.)
Bus topology using Packet Tracer:
 Take 4 switches, connect them through single cable.

 Each of the switches will be connected with an end device whose IP addresses are
given.
 To configure the IP addresses of the devices “Click on the device for which you want to
configure the IP address-> Click Desktop -> IP configuration -> Provide IP of your choice
-> Press Tab for automatically having Subnet Mask which is: 255.0.0.0 for all the devices
available in the topology.
 Provide IP addresses to all the End devices only and then you can send the data among
these devices.
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Fig. 1. Bus Topology.
Fig. 2. Static IP Configuration
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 Check the network by sending messages/packets from one device to another and check the
status of the message as “Successful”. If the messages are not sent due to some reasons it
will show “Failed” as the status of the message.
Fig. 3. Bus topology configuration in simulator
Fig. 4. Bus topology simulation
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2. Star Topology:
 A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all nodes
are individually connected to a central connection point, sort of a hub or a switch.
Star Topology Using Pac ket Tracer:
 Have a single switch which will be the central node.

 All the end devices are connected with the central switch so if any of the cable fail
occurs it does not affect the whole system.
 Configure the IP address of all the connected devices.
 Send messages to other devices connected to the same Switch.
 As we can see in the below image we can send the messages from one device to
another and we can also see the status of the message as “Successful” here. If the
messages are not sent due to some reasons it will show “Failed” as the status of the
message.
Fig. 5. Star Topology.
Fig. 6. Star Topology in simulator.
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3. Ring Topology:
 In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices.
 It is a network configuration where device connections create a circular data path. In
this each device is conne tced to with its exactly two neighboring devices, like points
on a circle which forms like a ring structure.
 The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
Fig. 7. Ring Topology.
Ring Topology using Pac ket Tracer:
 Take 4 switches and connect them with each other.

 Each of the hubs is connected with an end device whose IP addresses can be configured
 After configuring the IP addresses send messages to other devices connected in the
Network.
 As we can see in the below image we can send the messages from one device to another
and also see the status of the message as “Successful” here. If the messages are not sent
due to some reasons it will show “Failed” as the status of the message.
Fig. 8. Ring Topology in simulator.
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4. Mesh Topology:
 In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular

channel.
 There are two types of Mesh topologies:
1. Fully-connected Mesh Topology

2. Partially-connected Mesh Topology
Fig. 9. Mesh Topology
Mesh Topology using Packet Tracer:
 4 network switches which are connected to each other through network cables.
 Each of the switch is connected all the other switches as well as an end device.
 Configure the end devices and then can send the message to any other device
connected to particular network.
 As we can see in the below image we can send the messages from one device to
another and we can also see the status of the message as “Successful” here. If the messages
are not sent due to some reasons it will show “Failed” as the status of the message.
Fig. 10. Mesh Topology in simulator.
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5. Hybrid Topology:
 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.
Hybrid Topology Using Packet Tracer:
 Have 4 network switches which are connected to each other through network cables
forming ring.
 Then have central switch which is connected to one of the switches used in forming
ring and also to other devices forming star, thus forming hybrid topology.
 Each of the switch is connected all the other switches as well as an end device.
 We can configure the end devices as seen before and then can send the message to any
other device connected to particular network.
Fig. 11. Hybrid Topology.
Fig. 12. Hybrid Topology in simulator (Packet Sent).
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Fig. 13. Hybrid Topology in simulator (Packet lost).
 As we can see in the below image we can send the messages from one device to
another and we can also see the status of the message as “Successful” here. If the
messages are not sent du e to some reasons it will show “Failed” as the status of the
message.
Fig. 14. Status of the sent message in simulator.
Observations:
(1) Which topology or topologies are implemented at your institute?

Answer :Star Topology
(2) If there is a small setup of your office having 10 Computers connected, which
topology you will prefer? Why?
Answer :For a small office setup with 10 computers, I would prefer a Star Topology. In a Star Topology, each
computer is directly connected to a central hub or switch.
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The Star Topology provides reliability, ease of management, and scalability, making it a
suitable choice for a small office with a limited number of computers.
(3) Interpret and analyze the output of each topology

Answer :
Bus Topology:
Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a central cable called the "bus." Data is transmitted from
one end of the bus to the other, and each device listens to the data to determine if it's the intended recipient.
Analysis: Bus topologies are simple and cost-effective for small networks. However, they can suffer from
performance issues as the number of devices increases. A single cable failure can disrupt the entire network.
Star Topology:
Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Data is transmitted from any
device to the central hub, which then forwards it to the appropriate recipient.
Analysis: Star topologies are easy to set up and maintain. They provide a high level of fault tolerance since a single
device failure doesn't affect the rest of the network. However, they can be expensive due to the need for a central
hub/switch.
Mesh Topology:
Description: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device, forming a fully interconnected
network. There can be partial mesh (not all devices connect to all others) or full mesh (every device connects to every
other).
Analysis: Mesh topologies provide high redundancy and fault tolerance. They are suitable for critical applications but
can be expensive and complex to set up and manage due to the large number of connections.
Ring Topology:
Description: In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop. Data travels in one direction around the ring
until it reaches its destination.
Analysis: Ring topologies are efficient for data transmission, but a single cable or device failure can disrupt the entire
network. Implementations like Token Ring use ring topologies.
Hybrid Topology:
Description: A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies. For instance, you could have a network
that uses a combination of star and bus topologies.
Analysis: Hybrid topologies are flexible and can be customized to suit specific network requirements. They can
balance the advantages and disadvantages of different topologies but can be complex to design and maintain.
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Quiz:
(1) Give Advantages, disadvantages of each topology

Answer :
Star Topology:
Advantages: Easy to set up and maintain, excellent fault tolerance (issues in one node don't affect others), centralized
management, scalable, suitable for small to medium-sized networks.
Disadvantages: Dependent on the central hub/switch (if it fails, the entire network is affected), may require more
cabling.
Bus Topology:
Advantages: Simple and inexpensive to set up, easy to add or remove devices, suitable for small networks, doesn't
require a central hub or switch.
Disadvantages: Prone to network disruptions if the main cable is damaged, limited scalability, not ideal for larger or
critical networks.
Ring Topology:
Advantages: Equal access to network resources for all nodes, no collisions, predictable network performance.
Disadvantages: Complicated to install and configure, network failure if one node or connection fails, not as scalable
as star topology.
Mesh Topology:
Advantages: High redundancy and fault tolerance, no single point of failure, excellent for critical networks, can
handle heavy traffic loads.
Disadvantages: Expensive due to the number of cables and devices required, complex to manage, not practical for
small setups.
Hybrid Topology:
Advantages: Combines the benefits of different topologies, providing flexibility and resilience.
Disadvantages: Can be complex to design and manage, costlier compared to some single topologies
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(2) Find out application case of each topology

Answer :
Bus Topology:
Application Case: Bus topologies are suitable for small-scale networks or temporary setups. They are often used
in classrooms, small offices, or simple Ethernet networks. They are cost-effective and easy to install in situations
where network reliability is not the top priority.
Star Topology:
Application Case: Star topologies are widely used in home networks, small to medium-sized offices, and many
modern LANs. They are excellent for environments where ease of management and fault tolerance are important.
Each device connects to a central hub or switch, making it easy to add or remove devices without disrupting the
entire network.
Mesh Topology:
Application Case: Mesh topologies are typically employed in critical communication systems where fault
tolerance is paramount. For instance, they are used in military and government networks, financial institutions,
and data centers, where network reliability is essential. Mesh topologies ensure that multiple paths exist for data
to reach its destination.
Ring Topology:
Application Case: Ring topologies have become less common with the advent of Ethernet, but they are still found
in specific applications like the Token Ring network protocol. Token Ring was used in some early enterprise
networks where deterministic network behavior was necessary, such as banks and stock exchanges.
Hybrid Topology:
Application Case: Hybrid topologies are versatile and can be tailored to meet the specific requirements of
complex networks. They are often used in large corporate networks, data centers, and industrial settings where
multiple network segments need to be interconnected. For example, a company might use a combination of star
and ring topologies in different parts of its network to balance performance and redundancy.
(3) Which topology you will implement in your campus and why?
Answer :
For a campus network, a star topology is a common choice. It's cost-effective, easy to manage, and provides fault
tolerance at a building level. However, the specific choice may depend on the campus's size, budget, scalability, and
fault tolerance requirements. Hybrid topologies can be used to balance these factors in larger and more complex
campus networks.
Suggested Reference:
1. https://www.netacad.com/courses/packet-tracer
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2. Computer Networks- A Top-Down approach, Behrouz Forouzan, McGraw Hill
Program (Excellent)(4) (Good)(3) (Fair)(2) (Beginning)(1)

Installation of Tool installed Tool executes Tool executes with Tool does not
tool Properly with a minor multiple minor execute (0-1)
error (easily fixed error)
Topology Tool displays Output has minor Output has Output is
Implementation correct output with errors multiple errors incorrect (0-1)
no errors
Analysis/Interpr Analysis and Analysis and Multiple Analysis and
etation of understanding are understanding misunderstanding understanding
output as per requirement are not as per are not proper
requirement
Documentation Practical is well Missing required Missing two or Most or all
documented comment more required documentation
comments missing (0-1)
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Experiment No: 5
AIM: Implement the concept of VLAN using Network Simulator.
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of network layout and configuration to

connect devices with each other to establish VLAN
Relevant CO: CO-5: Implement different types of network using different tools and simulators

(b) Implement VLAN by configuring interconnecting and computing devices.
(c) Analyze the performance of Network
Theory:
What is VLAN?
Virtual Local Area Networks or Virtual LANs (VLANs) are a logical group of computers that
appear to be on the same LAN irrespective of the configuration of the underlying physical
network.
Features of VLANs:
VLAN ranges:
Steps to Implement a Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN):

1) Take a switch and 4 end devices (PCs), and connect the switch with end devices using
Copper Straight-Through cable. While connecting the cables it is needed to select the
port through which you want to connect the switch to the end devices.
Fig. 1. Configuring VLAN in simulator.
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 As in the above images to connect switch to PC0 choose ‘FastEthernet0/1’ port
in the switch and then in PC0 is selected ‘FastEthernet0’ port. Similarly, connect the
entire PC with the switch.
2) Now, to configure two VLANs in which take 2 PC for each VLAN. Separate 2 PCs for
each VLAN which are numbered as VLAN 2 and VLAN 3. We cannot use VLAN 1
because it default VLAN usedby the switch. Let us assume that the VLAN 2 is being used
by the Sales Department of the organization and VLAN 3 being used by the HR Department
of the organization
Fig. 2. Configuring two VLANs in simulator.
3) Provide the IP addresses and gateways to the end devices as shown in the below image.
Fig. 3. Providing IP address and gateways to end devices.
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Note: To provide IP address and gateways click on the PC you want provide IP
address to and then click Desktop -> IP Configuration
Fig. 4. Providing IP addresses to VLANs
4) Configure the VLAN

click on the switch -> go to CLI and press “Enter” then write the following
commands to configure the VLANs andprovide the names to VLANs.
 Commands:
 en/enable: Logs you into enable mode, which is also known as userexec
mode or privileged mode.
 confi/configure terminal: Logs you into configuration mode.
 vlan number(except 1): Creates a VLAN and enters VLAN configuration mode
for further definitions of specified number of the VLAN.
 name vlan_name: Provides the specified name to the VLAN chosen by the vlan
number command. To provide name to VLAN 2 we have to write name Sales
after vlan 2 command. To provide name to VLAN 3 we have to write name HR
after vlan 3 command.
 exit: Exits from VLAN configuration mode.
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Fig. 5. Providing specific name to VLANs
5) Now, both the VLANs have been configured. To verify whether the VLANs have been
activated or not we have to write “show vlan” command. And after pressing Enterwe
can see both the created VLANs as shown in thebelow image.
Fig. 6. VLANs activation status.
Here we can see in the above image that both the VLANs (VLAN 2 & VLAN3)which
are “Sales” & “HR” are successfully configured and are active.
6) Now, to make the VLANs work properly we have to assign the devices among the manually
configured host which are “VLAN 2(Sales)” & “VLAN 3(HR)”.
 To assign devices among the VLANs we have to write series of commandswhich

are:
1. confi/configure terminal: Logs you into configuration mode.
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2. interface: Enters interface configuration mode for the specified fast ethernet
interface
3. switchport access vlan: Sets the VLAN that the interface belongs to. It means it
assigns the previously specified interface using interface command to work inthe
specific VLAN only if the device from the other VLAN tries to communicate with
the specific interface it will not be successful.
Fig. 7. Configuring interface to VLANs
Now we can see in the below image that if we send the message to the device in thesame
VLAN then the message is sent successfully, but if we send the message to the device in the
different VLAN it cannot be sent to successfully.
Fig. 8. Sending message to different VLAN
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Now to check whether the message can be sent to the device in another VLAN we will
click the PC from which we have to send the message and then click “Desktop” and then
go to “Command Prompt” and then give command “ping IP address” here the IP address
in the command specifies the destination device’s IP address
Fig. 9. Sending message to same VLAN
As we can see in the above image if we ping to the device from another VLAN it will not
give reply as it is in the other VLAN. But if we ping to the device which is in the same VLAN
as the sender is then the message will be successfully sent.
Now to check whether the message can be sent to the device in another VLAN we will
click the PC from which we have to send the message and then click “Desktop” and then
go to “Command Prompt” and then give command “ping IP address” here the IP address
in the command specifies the destination device’s IP address
Observations:
(1) Differentiate LAN and VLAN
LAN (Local Area Network):
1. LAN stands for Local Area Network, and it is a network that covers a small geographic area, typically
within a single building or campus.
2. LANs are often used to connect devices like computers, printers, and servers within a limited physical
area.
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3. LANs use Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, or other technologies to connect devices, and they typically operate
at relatively high data transfer speeds.
4. LANs are usually managed as a single network segment and share the same broadcast domain,
meaning all devices can communicate with each other without the need for routing.
VLAN (Virtual LAN):
1. VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network, and it is a network that exists within a larger physical
network but is logically segmented into multiple smaller networks.
2. VLANs are used to group devices into separate network segments, even if they are physically
connected to the same network infrastructure.
3. VLANs help enhance network security and efficiency by isolating traffic and controlling access
between different segments.
4. Devices in different VLANs typically require routing to communicate with each other, and VLANs
can be configured and managed through network switches and routers.
In summary, LANs are physical networks that cover a limited area, while VLANs are logical networks created
within a larger physical network to segment and control traffic between devices. VLANs provide flexibility and
security benefits by allowing devices to be grouped and managed independently, even if they share the same
physical network infrastructure.
(2) Interpret and analyze the output
1. Size and Scope:
LAN: LANs typically cover a small, localized area, like a single building, office, or campus. They are used to
connect devices within a limited physical proximity.
VLAN: VLANs can exist within a larger LAN or network and are a way to logically segment a network into
multiple smaller networks. They allow for greater flexibility and scalability in network design.
2. Physical vs. Logical:
LAN: LANs are physical networks that use physical connections (Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi) to connect devices
within the same area.
VLAN: VLANs are logical networks that exist within a physical network. They don't rely on separate physical
connections; instead, they separate network traffic logically.
3. Isolation:
LAN: In a traditional LAN, all devices are part of the same broadcast domain, meaning they can communicate
with each other without the need for routing.
VLAN: VLANs provide network segmentation, isolating traffic between different VLANs. Devices in separate
VLANs typically require routing to communicate.
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4. Security and Efficiency:
LAN: LANs have limited segmentation, which can make it challenging to control traffic and provide security
at a granular level.
VLAN: VLANs enhance network security and efficiency by allowing you to isolate and control traffic between
groups of devices. They are often used to separate different departments, teams, or purposes within an
organization.
5. Management and Configuration:
LAN: LANs are relatively simple to set up and manage, as all devices are part of the same network.
VLAN: VLANs require configuration on network switches and routers to define the logical segmentation
and control traffic between them. This can be more complex but provides greater flexibility.
Quiz:
1. Give Advantages, disadvantages of VLAN

Answer :
Advantages of VLANs:
1. Improved Network Segmentation

2. Efficient Use of Network Resources
3. Flexibility and Scalability
Disadvantages of VLANs:
1.Complex Configuration
2.Potential for Broadcast Storms
3.Cost and Equipment Requirements
2. Find out application case of VLAN

Answer :
1. Network Segmentation
2. Security and Isolation
3. Quality of Service (QoS)
4. Guest Networks
5. Virtualization
6. Multi-Tenant Environments
7. Compliance
8. Redundancy and Failover
9. Media and Entertainment
10. Education
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References used by the students: (Sufficient space to be provided)
tool Properly with a minor error multiple minor execute (0-1)
(easily fixed error)
no errors
etation of understanding are understanding are misunderstanding understanding
output as per requirement not as per are not proper
requirement
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Experiment No: 6
AIM: Implement the concept of static routing.
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of network routing and configuration

to connect devices to establish static routing
Relevant CO: CO-4: Design network architecture, assign IP addressing and apply various
networking algorithms

(b) Implement static routing algorithm by configuring interconnecting devices
and computing devices.
Theory:
 Static routing is a form of routing that occurs when a router uses a manually-
configured routing entry, rather than information from dynamic routing traffic.
 In many cases, static routes are manually configured by a network administrator by

adding in entries into a routing table, though this may not always be the case. Unlike
dynamic routing, static routes are fixed and do not change if the network is changed or
reconfigured.
 Static routing and dynamic routing are not mutually exclusive. Both dynamic routing and
static routing are usually used on a router to maximize routing efficiency and to provide
backups in the event that dynamic routing information fails to be exchanged. Static
routing can also be used in stub networks, or to provide a gateway of last resort.
Implementation of Static Routing:
1) Take 2 routers, 2 switches and 4 end devices and connect them as shown in below
image. Connect both the routers with each other using Serial DTE cable, and to
connect router-switch and switch-end devices use copper straight-through cables.
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Fig. 1. Static routing
2) Configure both the routers and provide them IP addresses as shown in the below images.
We need to take care that both the routers be in the same network so that they will be
accessible to each other. To achieve the same we need to give IP address to the routers as
following: click on router -> go to config -> go to serial 2/0 (in our case)and provide
IP as 192.168.1.1 and 192.168.1.2 to router0 and router1 respectively.
Fig. 2. Router configuration
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3) Now, we need to connect the router to the switch, for that we need to provide the IP address
in the FastEthernet0/0(in our case). In both the routers we will provide 192.168.2.1 and
192.168.3.1 respectively. Here after providing the IP addresses and connecting the router
with the switch there are 2 networks are separated which are 192.168.2.0 and 192.168.3.0
hence, now both the routers are connected to switches and also to the end devices via
switch.
Fig. 3. Connecting Routers with switch
Fig. 4. Providing IP address to end devices
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4) Provide the IP addresses and default gateways to the end devices, and be careful about the
network they reside in. In our case we give the IP addresses to the end devices as shown
above. And the default gateways will be the IP address of the routers they are connected
with which are 192.168.1.1 and 192.168.1.2(in our case). To provide IP address and
default gateway click on end device -> go to desktop -> go to IP configuration and provide
IP address and default gateway to all the end devices.
5) Select the static routing path from router0 to router 1 and router1 to router0 for that again
click on router -> go to config -> go to static available under ROUTING, and provide the
details as follows. In network field provide the IP address of the network you want to
communicate with which for router0 is 192.168.3.0, it means that the end devices with the
IP address containing the 3 rd digit as 3 (i.e 192.168.3.2 or 192.168.3.3in our case) can be
communicated through router0. And in next hop field provide theIP address of the router
of the network you want to communicate (i.e 192.168.1.2 IP address of router1).
Router0:
Fig. 5. Providing static routing path from router0
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Router1:
Fig. 6. Providing static routing path from router1
6) To check whether the static routing is done or not, check the routing tables of the routers
for that select the magnify icon and click on the router you wish to check the routing table
and select the routing table from the dropdown.
Routing table for Router0:
Routing table Router1:
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7) After the completion of all the above steps we can say that the static routing concept is
implemented successfully by sending the messages from 1 network to the other via the
routers.
Observations:
(1) What is the range of IP addresses given to Devices?

Answer : PC0- 192.168.2.2
PC1-192.168.2.3
PC2-192.168.3.2
PC3-192.168.3.3
(2) Interpret and analyze the output

Answer : • Packet Delivery: Data packets are being successfully transported from the source to the destination.
This indicates that the network is capable of routing packets accurately.
• No Data Loss: There is no loss of data packets in transit. All packets that are sent from one network
location are reliably reaching the other network location. This is crucial for the integrity and reliability
of network communications.
• Low Latency: The network likely has low latency, meaning that there is minimal delay in the
transmission of data packets. Low latency is important for real-time applications such as video
conferencing and online gaming.
• Successful Operation: The static routing configuration is correctly set up and is accomplishing its
purpose.It means that the defined static routes are accurately guiding data packets to their destinations.
• Stability: The network's static routing is providing network stability and predictability. It does not rely on
dynamic protocols that can adapt to changing network conditions but instead relies on predefined,
unchanging routes.
• Efficiency: The static routing setup appears to be efficient, as it is successfully delivering packets.
However, it's important to note that static routing may not be as efficient in networks with complex and
dynamic topologies.
Quiz
1. Give Advantages, disadvantages of Static routing

Answer :
Advantages:
Simplicity and Predictability:
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Static routing is straightforward to configure and manage. Network administrators manually define the routes,
making the network's behavior predictable. This simplicity is advantageous in smaller, less complex networks.
Low Overhead:
Static routing has minimal overhead on network devices because routes are pre-configured and do not change
dynamically. This results in less processing and memory usage, making it efficient for devices with limited
resources.
Enhanced Security:
Since static routes are manually configured, they are less susceptible to certain types of network attacks and
intrusions. It can be more secure in some scenarios, especially when routes don't change frequently.
Disadvantages:
Lack of Adaptability:
Static routes do not adapt to network changes, such as link failures or traffic congestion. When network topology
changes, administrators must manually update routes, which can be time-consuming and prone to errors.
Scalability Challenges:
In large and dynamic networks, static routing can become impractical as it requires constant manual intervention
to update routes. Scaling the network may lead to increased complexity and administrative overhead.
2. Find out application case of Static routing

Answer :
Static routing is typically used in specific network scenarios where its simplicity and predictability are advantageous.
Here are application cases for static routing:
Small and Simple Networks:

Static routing is well-suited for small, uncomplicated networks with a limited number of devices and routes. For
example, in a home network, where there are only a few devices and a single exit point to the internet, static routes
can be set up to direct traffic.
Isolated or Segmented Networks:

In some cases, network segments need to be isolated from the rest of the network. Static routes can be configured
to keep specific segments separate and restrict their access to other parts of the network.
Backup or Redundant Routes:

Static routing can be used as a simple means to define backup or redundant routes in the event of a primary link
failure. For example, when a primary internet connection goes down, a static route can redirect traffic to a
secondary connection.
Standalone or Embedded Systems:
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Embedded systems or devices with limited resources may use static routing because it places minimal strain
on the device's memory and processing power. Such systems often have straightforward network requirements.
Security and Control:

In situations where fine-grained control over network traffic is essential, static routes can
be employed to dictate the path that data takes. This can be useful for security or compliance reasons.
Teaching and Learning Environments:

Educational settings, like labs or classrooms, often use static routing to teach networking concepts. The simplicity
of static routes makes them a good starting point for learning about routing.
3. What is Ethernet?
Answer :
Ethernet is a widely used networking technology for local area networks (LANs). It defines the hardware and
protocols for data communication within LANs, specifying the physical medium, data framing, and addressing.
Ethernet operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and has various speed variants. It's widely
used in wired LANs, including home, office, and data center networks.

no errors
requirement
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Experiment No: 7
AIM: Implement the concept of dynamic routing (RIP, OSPF, and BGP).
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of Routing Algorithms to configure

network.
Objectives: (a) Download network simulator – preferably cisco packet tracer Configure all
workstations
(b) Implement dynamic routing algorithm (RIP, OSPF, and BGP) by
configuring interconnecting devices and computing devices.
Equipment/Instruments: Desktop/laptop, Packet Tracer Software
Theory:
What Is Dynamic Routing?

 Dynamic routing is a networking technique that provides optimal data routing. Unlike
static routing, dynamic routing enables routers to select paths according to real-time
logical network layout changes.
 Dynamic routing uses multiple algorithms and protocols. The most popular are
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
 Dynamic routing protocols allow routers to share information about the network with
other routers to allow them to select the best path to reach a destination.
About Dynamic routing :
Key characteristics and concepts related to dynamic routing include:
1. Routing Protocols: Dynamic routing relies on routing protocols, such as OSPF (Open Shortest Path First),
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol), BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), and RIP (Routing
Information Protocol). These protocols allow routers to exchange information about the network topology
and update routing tables accordingly.
2. Dynamic Updates: Routers using dynamic routing protocols send and receive routing updates to inform
neighboring routers about the reachability of networks and their associated metrics (e.g., hop count,
bandwidth, delay). When network changes occur, routers update their routing tables based on this
information.
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3. Adaptability: Dynamic routing adapts to network changes, such as link failures, topology changes, or the
addition/removal of network segments. Routers can automatically reroute traffic to ensure network continuity
and optimal paths.
4. Complex Networks: Dynamic routing is well-suited for large and complex networks where manual
configuration of routes would be impractical. It provides scalability and simplifies network management in
such environments.
5. Load Balancing: Many dynamic routing protocols support load balancing, distributing traffic across multiple
paths to optimize network performance and resource utilization.
6. Convergence: Dynamic routing protocols aim for rapid convergence, which means they work to quickly
adapt to network changes, minimizing downtime and disruptions.
7. Hierarchical Routing: Some dynamic routing protocols support hierarchical routing, where networks are
divided into smaller domains with their own routing protocols. This helps manage large networks efficiently.
8. Metric-Based Routing: Routing protocols use metrics to determine the best path for data to traverse the
network. Metrics can be based on factors like bandwidth, delay, reliability, or cost.
Examples of dynamic routing protocols include OSPF for interior routing within an autonomous system, BGP for
routing between autonomous systems, and EIGRP for Cisco's proprietary routing protocol. These protocols enable
dynamic routing in various types of networks, from small LANs to global internet routing.
Advantages of dynamic routing:

Here are the key advantages of dynamic routing:
1. Dynamic routing protocols automatically adjust to network changes, ensuring network continuity and
minimizing manual intervention.
2. Dynamic routing is well-suited for large and complex networks, dynamically accommodating new devices
and routes without extensive manual configuration.
3. Dynamic routing protocols distribute traffic across multiple paths, optimizing network performance and
resource utilization.
4. Dynamic routing protocols aim for quick convergence, minimizing downtime and reducing the impact of
network disruptions.
5. Dynamic routing selects the best path for data based on metrics, improving overall network performance by
making efficient routing decisions.
Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing:

1. Complexity: Dynamic routing can be complex to configure and manage, requiring a good understanding of
routing protocols and configurations.
2. Resource Intensive: Dynamic routing protocols consume system resources, which can be an issue on devices
with limited resources.
3. Network Overhead: Dynamic routing generates additional network traffic due to routing updates, potentially
increasing network overhead.
4. Security Risks: Dynamic routing protocols can be vulnerable to security threats, including route injection
attacks, which may compromise network integrity.
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1) RIP Routing Protocol
About RIP :
Steps To Implement RIP Routing Protocol:
1) Prepare topology as shown in below figure.
 The network PC is connected to the switch with Copper-Straight through Cable.
 Each Switch is connected to the router using Copper-Straight through Cable.
 And to connect two routers with each other add Serial ports to the router for that
turn off the router Select WIC-2T and add it to the router and turn on the router.
 Two routers are connected using serial DTE cable.
Fig. 1. Network using two switch and two routers
2) Set the IP Address of the each PC with respect to network address for example here PC0
is in the 192.168.1.0 network so the IP address of PC0 is 192.168.1.1.
Fig. 2. Setting up IP address for PC0
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3) Once the IP address of each PC is set, set the IP address of the fast Ethernet port of router
to which switch is connected. And then turn on the port. Follow the same process for
second (Router 1) router.
Fig. 3. Setting up connection with fast Ethernet port for Router0
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4) Set the IP address serial port of all routers.
Fig. 5. Setting up IP address serial port for Router0
Fig. 6. Setting up IP address serial port for Router1
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5) Add number of network in RIP routing.
 To add number of network - open the settings of router head to the RIP category.
And in there add the network address of another network to which we want toconnect
our router.
 For example in above image if we want to access network 192.168.1.0 add that network
address in network.
 Follow the same process for Router 1. And with this our routing is completed.
Fig. 7. Network using two switch and two routers
Fig. 8. Adding network to RIP
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6) Test the network. - Transfer the data packet from one network pc to other network pc.
Fig. 9. Transferring the data packet from one network pc to other network pc
2) OSPF Routing Protocol:
 Open Shortest Path First is the dynamic routing protocol used in large to very large IP
networks.
o About OSPF
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a widely used interior gateway routing protocol in computer
networking. It is designed to efficiently and dynamically distribute routing information within a single
autonomous system (AS), making it an integral part of interior routing within large and complex
networks. Here are key features and concepts about OSPF:
1. Link-State Routing Protocol: OSPF is a link-state routing protocol, which means that routers exchange
information about the state and availability of network links. This detailed link-state database allows routers
to calculate the best paths through the network.
2. Open Standard: OSPF is an open standard protocol, defined in RFC 2328. It is not tied to a specific vendor,
which promotes interoperability between different network equipment and software.
3. Hierarchical Design: OSPF supports a hierarchical network design, where networks are organized into
areas. Each area has its own routing tables, and routers within an area only exchange summary information
with routers outside their area. This minimizes routing traffic and simplifies network management.
4. Dynamic Updates: OSPF routers dynamically exchange routing information. When a network change
occurs (e.g., a link goes down or a new link is added), OSPF routers update their link-state databases and
calculate new routing tables.
5. Fast Convergence: OSPF aims for rapid network convergence, responding quickly to network changes.
This helps reduce downtime and disruptions in the network.
6. Metrics: OSPF uses a metric called "cost" to determine the best path for data. The cost is based on
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bandwidth, with higher bandwidth links having lower costs. This ensures that OSPF selects the most
efficient paths.
7. Authentication: OSPF supports authentication mechanisms to secure routing updates and prevent
unauthorized access to the network.
8. Type of Service (TOS): OSPF can prioritize traffic based on type of service, allowing for Quality of Service
(QoS) implementations in the network.
9. Scalability: OSPF is highly scalable and suitable for large and complex networks. Its hierarchical design
and efficient routing algorithms make it well-suited for such environments.
10. Areas and Backbone: OSPF networks typically have one backbone area (Area 0) and other areas connected
to it. The backbone area serves as the core of the OSPF network.
11. Neighborship: OSPF routers establish neighbor relationships with other routers in the same area to
exchange routing information. These relationships are essential for OSPF to function effectively.
OSPF is widely used in enterprise networks, Internet Service Provider (ISP) networks, and various other
networking environments. Its open standard nature, scalability, rapid convergence, and efficient use of
network resources make it a popular choice for interior routing within autonomous systems.
o Advantages of OSPF
Here are the main advantages of OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) as a routing protocol:
1. Efficient and Scalable: OSPF is highly efficient in terms of routing updates and bandwidth utilization. It
dynamically adapts to network changes and scales well, making it suitable for large and complex
networks without significant overhead.
2. Fast Convergence: OSPF is designed for rapid network convergence. It responds quickly to changes in
the network, minimizing downtime and disruptions. This is crucial for maintaining network availability
and reliability.
3. Hierarchical Design: OSPF supports a hierarchical network design with the use of areas. This reduces
the size of routing tables and minimizes the propagation of routing information, making network
management and troubleshooting more manageable.
4. Flexible and Fine-Grained Control: OSPF provides fine-grained control over routing. Network
administrators can prioritize certain types of traffic, set policies, and influence path selection based on
defined metrics, ensuring that specific traffic receives preferred treatment.
5. Open Standard and Vendor-Neutral: OSPF is an open standard protocol, defined by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF). It is not tied to a specific vendor, promoting interoperability and allowing
organizations to use a variety of network equipment and software without vendor lock-in.
o Disadvantages of OSPF
Here are five main disadvantages of OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):
1. Complex Configuration: OSPF can be complex to configure and manage, especially in large networks with
multiple areas and complex topologies. Proper design and configuration require expertise.
2. Resource Intensive: OSPF can consume significant CPU and memory resources on routers, which can be a
concern on devices with limited resources, potentially affecting their overall performance.
3. Large-Scale Networks: In extremely large-scale networks, OSPF's link-state database can become large and
may introduce scalability challenges. Managing and maintaining the database can be resource-intensive.
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4. Security Considerations: While OSPF supports authentication mechanisms, its complex configuration can
lead to security risks if not implemented properly. Misconfigurations can compromise the integrity of the
routing information.
5. Route Aggregation: OSPF does not naturally support route summarization or aggregation within an area. As
a result, in large OSPF networks, the routing tables may become large and difficult to manage, leading to
inefficient memory and CPU utilization.
o Applications of OSPF
Here are the main applications of OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) routing protocol:
1. Enterprise Networks: OSPF is commonly used in enterprise networks to efficiently route traffic within
an organization, connecting various departments and network segments.
2. Internet Service Provider (ISP) Networks: OSPF plays a crucial role in ISP networks, managing routing
between customer networks, backbone networks, and peering connections, ensuring efficient data
transfer.
3. Data Centers: OSPF is utilized in data center networks to optimize routing between servers, switches,
and networking devices, contributing to fast and reliable data center performance.
4. Telecommunication Networks: Telecommunications providers employ OSPF to route voice and data
traffic between service regions and manage complex network topologies efficiently.
o Steps To Implement OSPF Routing Protocol:
1) Add Network Devices in Network As Following:
 Here in the network PC is connected to the switch with Copper-Straight through

Cable. Each Switch is connected to the router using Copper-Straight through Cable.
 To connect two routers with each other we have to add Serial ports to the router for
that turn off the router Select WIC-2T and add it to the router and turn on the router.
 Three routers are connected using serial DTE cable.
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Fig. 10. Network using two switch and two routers through OSPF
2) Set the IP Address of the each PC with respect to network address for example here PC0
is in the 192.168.1.0 network so the IP address of PC0 is 192.168.1.1.
Fig. 11. Setting up the IP Address
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3) Once the IP address of each PC is set, set the IP address of the fast Ethernet port of router to
which switch is connected. And then turn on the port. Follow the same processfor second
(Router 1) router.
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4) Now we will have to set the IP address serial port of all routers.
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5) Our network is ready only one thing is left to do which is to add number of network
through OSPF Command.
Fig. 17. Setting up connection with Router0 through OSPF
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6) Test the network. Transfer the data packet from one network pc to other network pc.
Fig. 20. Testing the network
3) BGP Routing Protocol:
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the postal service of the Internet. When someone
drops a letter into a mailbox, the postal service processes that piece of mail and chooses
a fast, efficient route to deliver that letter to its recipient. Similarly, when someone
submits data across the Internet, BGP is responsible for looking at all of the available
paths that data could travel and picking the best route, which usually means hopping
between autonomous systems.
 BGP is the protocol that makes the Internet work. It does this by enabling data routing
on the Internet. When a user in Singapore loads a website with origin servers in
Argentina, BGP is the protocol that enables that communication to happen quickly and
efficiently.
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o Steps To Implement BGP Routing Protocol:
1) Draw BGP Topology Diagram:
Fig. 21. BGP Topology Diagram
2) Assign ip address on each device as mentioned in Diagram:
Fig. 22. Assigning IP address to PC0
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Fig. 23. Assigning IP address to PC2
3) BGP configuration on Router 1:
R1(config)#router bgp 1
R1(config-router)#neighbor 172.16.0.2 remote-as 71
R1(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 mask 255.0.0.0
R1(config-router)#exit
R1(config)#do write
Building configuration...[OK]
R1(config)#
4) BGP configuration on Router 2:
R2(config-router)#exit
R2(config)#do write
Building configuration...[OK]
R2(config)#
5) BGP Configuration on Router 3:
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R3(config-router)# exit
R3(config)#do write
Building configuration...[OK
R3(config)#
Fig. 23. Testing the Network
Observations:
(1) Find out the algorithms/ protocol used in your network
In a network that uses the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), the specific algorithm or protocol
employed is RIP itself. RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol that uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm
to calculate the best path for data packets based on hop count. RIP has two main versions, RIPv1 and
RIPv2, with RIPv2 offering enhancements, including support for classless interdomain routing (CIDR)
and variable-length subnet masks (VLSM). RIP is used for exchanging routing information and
maintaining routing tables in routers that participate in the network.
(2) Give name of protocol of which the packets sent for testing
In network testing and diagnostics, the primary protocol for sending packets to test network reachability
and measure response times is the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). ICMP is commonly used
for tools like "ping" and "traceroute" to assess network connectivity and identify issues.
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Quiz: Vatsal Kathiriya
1. Differentiate static and dynamic algorithm
Static Algorithm:
1. Predefined Behavior: Static algorithms have a predetermined, fixed behavior. Their logic and
calculations do not change during the course of their execution.
2. Deterministic: They produce the same output for the same input every time, making them
deterministic and predictable.
3. No Adaptation to Changes: Static algorithms do not adapt to changes in the input data or external
factors. They provide consistent results regardless of the circumstances.
4. Examples: Sorting algorithms like bubble sort or insertion sort are typically static algorithms, as
they follow a fixed set of rules to sort data.
Dynamic Algorithm:
1. Adapts to Changes: Dynamic algorithms can change their behavior during execution based on the
input data or other factors. They adapt and make decisions as the algorithm progresses.
2. Non-Deterministic: Their output may vary for the same input, depending on the context or state of
the algorithm at runtime.
3. Versatile and Flexible: Dynamic algorithms are versatile and can handle various situations and
conditions, making them suitable for scenarios where the input or requirements are not fixed.
4. Examples: Dynamic programming algorithms, like those used in optimizing problems with
changing constraints, are examples of dynamic algorithms.
In summary, the key distinction between static and dynamic algorithms lies in their adaptability and
behavior. Static algorithms have fixed, unchanging behavior, while dynamic algorithms can adjust their
actions based on the evolving circumstances and input data.
2. What is the approximate cost of establishing the network of 10 devices? (Take devices
as per your requirements and choice) give details.
Total Approximate Cost:

 Router: INR 2,000
 Switch: INR 1,000
 Ethernet Cables: INR 500 (for 10 cables)
 Devices (10 devices at INR 40,000 each on average): INR 4,00,000
 Wireless Access Point (if needed): INR 2,000
 Miscellaneous: INR 750
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no errors
requirement
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Experiment No: 8 Vatsal Kathiriya
AIM: Packet capture and header analysis by wire-shark (TCP, UDP, IP).
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of Network protocols and header

using wireshark tool
Relevant CO: CO3: Examine work of protocols of TCP/IP protocol suite.
Objectives: (a) Download Wireshark.

(b) Capture the Packet
(c) Perform header analysis
(d) Answer the given questions with screenshots
Theory:
What is wireshark?
 Wireshark is an open-source packet analyzer, which is used for education, analysis,software

development, communication protocol development, and network troubleshooting.
How to capture Packet in Wireshark?
 Connect to Router from which you want to capture packet.

 Next step is to launch wireshark in your pc.
 Click on capture to start capturing the packets with optional filter option.
Fig. 1. Wireshark Network Analyzer
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Capture Different Types of packets and analyze them:
1) TCP Packets:
Fig. 2. Capturing TCP packet from Wireless Network
2) UDP Packets:
Fig. 3. Capturing UDP packet from Wireless Network
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Observations:
Use Wireshark tool and explore the packet format and content at each TCP/IP layer
Answer following questions for one packet
(1) What is the source and destination IP address?
 Source IP address is 192.168.29.15
 destination IP address is 192.168.29.255
(2) What is the MAC address of source and destination?
(3) What is the port address of source and destination?

 Source port is 45825
 Destination port is 5775
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(4) What is the TTL fields value in IP layer of the packet
 Time to live (TTL) is 64
Quiz:
1. Explain various planes or windows shown in user interface of Wireshark tool
Wireshark's user interface is organized into various planes or windows, each serving a specific purpose to
help you capture, analyze, and dissect network traffic. Here are some of the key planes or windows in the
Wireshark interface:
1. Packet List Pane:

 The main window of Wireshark displays a list of captured packets. Each row represents a
single network packet and includes information like the packet number, time, source and destination
addresses, and protocol used. You can click on a packet to view its details in other panes.
2. Packet Details Pane:
 This pane provides a detailed breakdown of the selected packet. It shows the packet's structure
and headers, with hierarchical tree views that you can expand to explore the contents of each
protocol layer. You can see the Ethernet frame, IP headers, transport layer headers (TCP/UDP),
and payload data.
3. Packet Bytes Pane:
 This pane displays the raw hexadecimal and ASCII data of the selected packet. It provides a
byte-by-byte view of the packet's content.
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4. Packet Header Pane:
 This pane offers a high-level summary of the selected packet, including source and destination
addresses, protocol, and other key details in a more readable format.
5. Filter Expression Field:
 You can enter filter expressions in this field to narrow down the displayed packets based on
specific criteria (e.g., IP address, protocol, port). Wireshark will only show packets that match
the filter.
6. Capture Options:
 This window allows you to configure and start packet captures on specific network interfaces.
You can set various capture options, such as capture filters and buffer size, before initiating a
packet capture.
7. Statistics Windows:
 Wireshark offers several statistics windows that provide various insights into captured traffic,
including endpoint statistics, protocol hierarchy, and conversations. These windows help
analyze network traffic patterns.
8. Toolbar:
 The toolbar provides quick access to common functions, such as starting and stopping packet
captures, opening capture files, and applying display filters.
9. Coloring Rules:
 Wireshark uses coloring rules to highlight packets based on specific criteria. You can customize
these rules in the "View" menu to make it easier to spot important packets.
10. Status Bar:
 The status bar at the bottom of the interface displays summary information about the selected
packet and provides real-time statistics about the capture.
These planes and windows in Wireshark offer a comprehensive set of tools for capturing, analyzing, and
troubleshooting network traffic.
2. What is the use of Wireshark tool?

Wireshark is a tool used for capturing and analyzing network traffic. It helps diagnose network problems,
detect security threats, debug protocols, and optimize network performance. It's valuable for education,
compliance, QoS monitoring, and data capture.
3. Explore various important options available in Wireshark tool
Various important options available in Wireshark:
1. Capture Options
2. Display Filters
3. Coloring Rules
4. Statistics and Reports
5. Follow Streams
6. Preferences and Settings
7. Export Options
8. Profiles
9. Packet Marking and Annotations
10. Conversations and Endpoints
11. Tools and Utilities
12. User and Developer Documentation
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Suggested Reference: https://www.wireshark.org/

Correct Tool displays Output has minor Output has Output is
commands correct output with errors multiple errors incorrect (0-1)
usage no errors
Analysis of Analysis and Analysis and Multiple Analysis and
output understanding are understanding are misunderstanding understanding
as per requirement not as per are not proper
requirement
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Experiment No: 9
AIM: A Visit to Server Room at LDCE
Date:
Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of computer network to build

private Network.
CO-5: Implement different types of network using different tools and
simulators
Objectives: (a) Visit the Server Room and network in Institute

(b) Understand the configurations and equipments
(c) Prepare Detailed report of Institute network with proper diagrams
Observations:
(1) The type of switch used in network =

• Managed Switch
• Unmanaged Switch
• Layer 2 Switch
• Layer 3 Switch
• PoE (Power over Ethernet) Switch
• Gigabit Ethernet Switch
(2) The list of equipments used in network =

• Routers
• Switches
• Access Points (for wireless networks)
• Firewalls
• Modems
• Network Cables (Ethernet, Fiber optic, etc.)
• Network Adapters (for connecting devices)
• Servers
• Network Storage Devices (e.g., NAS)
• Network Printers
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• Network Security Appliances (e.g., Intrusion Detection Systems)

• Patch Panels
• Network Hubs (less common in modern networks)
(3) IP Address given to departments =

• Department A: 192.168.1.x
• Department B: 192.168.2.x
• Department C: 10.0.0.x
• The actual IP addresses assigned will depend on your network's subnetting and addressing scheme.
Quiz:
1. Which actors are involved in networks?
Ans In computer networks, various actors or entities play different roles to enable network communication and
functionality.
Here are some of the key actors involved in networks:
• End Devices or Hosts: These are the devices used by people and applications to access the network. Examples
include computers, smartphones, tablets, servers, and IoT devices.
• Routers: Routers are networking devices that connect different networks together. They determine the best path for
data to travel between networks and facilitate data routing.
• Switches: Switches are used to connect devices within the same network.
They operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) and help in forwarding data frames to the appropriate devices within a
local network.
• Firewalls: Firewalls are network security devices that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined security rules. They help protect the network from unauthorized access and cyber threats.
• Gateways: Gateways are devices or software that enable communication between different networks using different
protocols. They act as translators between networks with different communication standards.
• Access Points: Access points (APs) are used in wireless networks to provide connectivity for wireless devices.
They enable Wi-Fi access and connect wireless devices to the wired network.
• Modems: Modems (short for modulator-demodulator) are used to convert digital data from computers into analog
signals for transmission over analog communication channels and vice versa
• Network Hubs: While less common in modern networks, hubs are simple devices that connect multiple devices in
a network. Unlike switches, hubs do not have the intelligence to selectively forward data to specific devices and
simply broadcast data to all connected devices.
• Network Service Providers (ISPs): ISPs provide network connectivity to homes and businesses. They are
responsible for connecting end users to the broader internet and managing the infrastructure required for internet
access.
• Network Administrators: These are the individuals responsible for managing and maintaining the network. They
configure devices, monitor network performance, and troubleshoot issues to ensure the network runs smoothly.
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• Network Security Personnel: These professionals are responsible for ensuring the security of the network. They
implement security measures, configure firewalls, and monitor for and respond to security threats and breaches.
• Network Architects: Network architects design and plan the overall structure and layout of a network, including
selecting the appropriate hardware and software components to meet specific requirements.
• Network Users: End users of the network, such as employees, customers, and individuals, who access network
resources and services
2. Who is your internet service provider?

Ans:
3. What is the cost involved in configuration of network
Size and Scope: The physical size and scope of the network, including the number of devices and users, can impact
the cost. Larger networks with more devices and users may require more hardware, which can be costly.
• Hardware and Equipment: The cost of network switches, routers, access points, firewalls, servers, and other
network hardware can vary widely depending on the brand, capacity, and features. High-performance equipment
tends to be more expensive.
• Cabling: The cost of network cabling, such as Ethernet cables or fiber optic cables, can add to the overall expense.
The length and type of cabling needed will affect the cost.
• Software and Licensing: Network configuration often requires software, including operating systems, network
management tools, and security software. Licensing fees for commercial software can contribute to the cost.
• Labor Costs: Labor costs include the wages or fees paid to network administrators, engineers, or consultants who
configure and maintain the network. Complex configurations and specialized expertise can increase labor costs.
• Security Measures: Implementing security measures like firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and encryption can
add to the cost of network configuration.
• Scalability: If the network needs to be scalable to accommodate future growth, the initial configuration may include
planning and provisions for expansion, which can increase the initial cost.
• Redundancy and High Availability: Building redundancy into the network to ensure high availability can be
costly. This may involve duplicate hardware and failover mechanisms.
• Internet Connectivity: The cost of internet service from an ISP can be a significant part of the network's operating
expenses, depending on the required bandwidth and service level.
• Training and Documentation: Costs related to training staff and creating documentation for network operation
and maintenance.
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• Upgrades and Maintenance: Ongoing costs for network upgrades, software updates, and routine maintenance.
• Consultation and Planning: If you hire network consultants or architects to plan and design your network, their
fees will contribute to the overall cost.
• Compliance and Regulatory Costs: Depending on your location and industry, there may be regulatory
requirements that necessitate specific security measures and reporting, which can affect costs
Fig. 1. Network equipment at server room
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Fig. 2. Rack in the server room
Analysis of Analysis and Analysis and Multiple Analysis and

output understanding are understanding are misunderstanding understanding
as per requirement not as per are not proper
requirement
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Computer Networks (3150710) 220280116044

Objectives: (a) To see and check various network Cables

Equipment/Instruments: RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable

Study four different types of cables:

Fig. 1. Coaxial Cable

Structure of coaxial cable:

Types of coaxial cables:

 Hard line coaxial cable.

2. Twisted Pair Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

• These cables are costly and difficult to install

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

• They reduce the external interference due to the presence of insulation.

3. Fibre Optical Cable

Main Elements Of Fiber Optics

Types Of Fiber Optics :

1. On The Basis Of The Number Of Modes :

A. Single – Mode Fiber

2. On The Basis Of Refractive Index

A. Step- Index Optical Fiber

What Does a Patch Cable Look Like?

1. Patch cables are short and flexible

Procedure to prepare cross-wired cable and straight through cable using

Following diagram shows you how to prepare Cross wired connection

Fig. 2. Cross Wired Connections.

Fig. 3. Straight Through Wired Connections.

Fiber Optic Cable:

Fiber optic cables are widely used in long-distance telecommunications, including

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:

2. Give approximate cost of each cable with name of 2 manufactures

Ethernet Cable (CAT6):

References used by the students:

Rubric wise marks obtained:

AIM: Study of basic network command and Network configuration commands

Competency and Practical Skills: Exploration of network commands to

Objectives: (a) To understand the usage of various network commands

 The ping command is also known as Packet Internet Groper.

The ping command uses various options such as:-

 The tracert command uses various options such as: -

i. -4 option: use ip version 4 i.e., use IPv4.

ii. -6 option: use ip version 6 i.e., use IPv6.

iii. -F option: Do not fragment packet.

v. -g gate option: Routr the packet through gate.

vii. -n option: - Do not resolve IP Address to their domain names.

xi. -help: -Display help messages and exit.

The Hostname command uses various options such as: -

i. -a option: - Display all aliases of the host.

x. -V option: - Gives version number as output.

The pathping command is a command-line utility tool in Windows operating systems. It is

The pathping command uses various options such as: -

ii. -h option: - maximum_hops Maximum number of hops to search for target.

iii. -i address option: - Use the specified source address.

iv. -n option: -Do not resolve addresses to hostnames.

v. -p period option: - Wait period milliseconds between pings.

vi. -q num_queries option: - Number of queries per hop.

vii. -w timeout option: - Wait timeout milliseconds for each reply.

viii. -P option: -Test for RSVP PATH connectivity.

ix. -R option: -Test if each hop is RSVP aware.

x. -T option: -Test connectivity to each hop with Layer-2 priority tags.