Japanese particles, known as 助詞 (joshi), are short words that connect words or phrases to show

their relationship within a sentence. Here’s a list of the most common Japanese particles and their
primary functions:

1. は (wa)

- Marks the topic of the sentence.

- Example: 私は学生です (Watashi wa gakusei desu) – "I am a student."

2. が (ga)

- Marks the subject of the sentence, often used for emphasis or to introduce new information.

- Example: 彼が先生です (Kare ga sensei desu) – "He is the teacher."

3. を (wo / o)

- Marks the direct object of a verb.

- Example: 本を読みます (Hon o yomimasu) – "I read a book."

4. に (ni)

- Used to indicate location, time, direction, purpose, or goal.

- Example: 学校に行きます (Gakkō ni ikimasu) – "I go to school."

5. で (de)

- Marks the location of an action or means by which something happens.

- Example: 家で勉強します (Ie de benkyō shimasu) – "I study at home."

6. へ (e)

- Indicates direction toward a place.

- Example: 日本へ行きます (Nihon e ikimasu) – "I am going to Japan."

7. と (to)

- Used to mean “and” when connecting nouns, or to show companionship with someone.

- Example: 友達と行きます (Tomodachi to ikimasu) – "I go with a friend."

- Means “also” or “too.”

- Example: 私も行きます (Watashi mo ikimasu) – "I will go, too."

9. の (no)

- Indicates possession or attribution; connects nouns.

- Example: 私の本 (Watashi no hon) – "My book."

10. から (kara)

- Indicates the starting point of time or place, meaning "from."

- Example: ここから始めます (Koko kara hajimemasu) – "Start from here."

11. まで (made)

- Marks the end point of time or place, meaning "until" or "up to."

- Example: 東京まで行きます (Tōkyō made ikimasu) – "I go up to Tokyo."

12. や (ya)

- Used like “and” but implies a non-exhaustive list (e.g., “... and so on”).

- Example: 本や雑誌 (Hon ya zasshi) – "Books and magazines, etc."

13. か (ka)

- Used as a question marker or as “or” when listing alternatives.

- Example: これは何ですか？(Kore wa nan desu ka?) – "What is this?"

14. ね (ne)

- Often placed at the end of a sentence to indicate seeking confirmation or agreement (like “right?”
or “isn’t it?”).

- Example: いい天気ですね (Ii tenki desu ne) – "Nice weather, isn’t it?"

15. よ (yo)

- Used at the end of a sentence for emphasis or assertion (like “I tell you” or “for sure”).
 - Example: 明日行きますよ (Ashita ikimasu yo) – "I’ll go tomorrow, for sure."

16. ばかり / だけ (bakari / dake)

- ばかり implies "just" or "only" (often with a nuance of excess); だけ means "only" in a more neutral
sense.

- Example: ケーキばかり食べる (Keeki bakari taberu) – "I only eat cake."

17. くらい / ぐらい (kurai / gurai)

- Indicates approximation (e.g., “about” or “around”).

- Example: 一時間ぐらい (Ichijikan gurai) – "About an hour."

18. でも (demo)

- Means “but” or “however”; can also mean “even.”

- Example: 水でも飲みますか？(Mizu demo nomimasu ka?) – "Would you like even some water?"

19. しか (shika)

- Used with a negative verb, meaning “only” (with a limiting sense).

- Example: 水しかない (Mizu shika nai) – "There’s only water."

20. ながら (nagara)

- Means “while”; used to indicate two simultaneous actions.

- Example: 音楽を聞きながら勉強します (Ongaku o kiki nagara benkyō shimasu) – "I study while listening to
music."

The が (ga) particle in Japanese is a subject marker that introduces or emphasizes the subject of a
sentence. While similar to the topic marker は (wa), が has some unique uses and conveys a slightly
different nuance. Here are its main functions and nuances:
1. Introducing New Information

- が is often used when introducing new information, especially when the subject is something the
listener might not know yet.

- Example:

- 犬がいます (Inu ga imasu) – “There is a dog.”

- Here, が is used to introduce the subject “dog,” emphasizing that a dog exists.

2. Emphasizing the Subject

- When you want to emphasize who or what is performing an action or has a characteristic, が is
often preferred.

- Example:

- 私が行きます (Watashi ga ikimasu) – “I will go (not someone else).”

- In this case, using が emphasizes that I, specifically, will go.

3. Used in Subordinate Clauses

- In complex sentences, が is often used to mark the subject in subordinate clauses.

- Example:

- 彼が来たとき、始めました (Kare ga kita toki, hajimemashita) – “When he came, we started.”

- Here, が marks “he” as the subject of the subordinate clause (the “when he came” part).

4. Describing Attributes or Preferences

- When describing characteristics, preferences, or abilities, が is often used with certain adjectives
and verbs.

- Example:

- 彼女が好きです (Kanojo ga suki desu) – “I like her.”

- が marks “her” as the object of the feeling “to like” (Japanese often treats this as the subject of
preference).

5. Used in Existential Sentences with いる (iru) / ある (aru)

- For sentences describing existence, such as “there is” or “I have,” が marks the thing or person
existing.

- Example:
 - 猫がいます (Neko ga imasu) – “There is a cat” or “I have a cat.”

6. Contrast in Responses

- が can also express contrast, especially when responding to questions or showing an alternative.

- Example:

- これは好きですが、あれは好きじゃない (Kore wa suki desu ga, are wa suki janai) – “I like this, but I don’t like
that.”

- Here, が serves as a conjunction to introduce a contrasting idea.

Japanese verb conjugation involves adjusting the verb to indicate various grammatical nuances,
including tense, mood, and function. Here’s a breakdown of each conjugation form:

1. Indicative (Plain)
- The indicative form is the standard verb form, used to state facts or observations.

- For non-past tense (both present and future), verbs end in -u for the dictionary form (e.g., 食べる
(taberu, "to eat")) and -masu in polite form (e.g., 食べます (tabemasu)).

- For past tense, verbs end in -ta in plain form (e.g., 食べた (tabeta), "ate") or -mashita in polite form
(e.g., 食べました (tabemashita)).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -nai at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabenai). For polite
form -masen at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabemasen).

- For past negative sentence, verbs end in -nakatta at the end of the plain form (e.g.,
tabenakatta). For polite form -masendaeshita (e.g., tabemasendaeshita).

2. Progressive (て-form + いる)

- This form uses the て-form + いる (or います in polite speech). Example: 食べている (tabete iru), meaning
"is eating."

- For past sentence, verbs end in -teita at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabeteita). For polite
form -teimashita at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabeteimashita).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -teinai at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabeteinai). For
polite form -teimasen at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabeteimasen).
 - For past negative sentence, verbs end in -teinakatta at the end of the plain form (e.g.,
tabeteinakatta). For polite form -teimasendaeshita (e.g., tabeteimasendaeshita).

3. Imperative
- The imperative form is used for commands. It’s generally avoided in polite contexts but can be
used in strong or informal speech.

- In plain form: 食べろ (tabero, "Eat!") for strong orders or 食べなさい (tabenasai, "Please eat") for softer
commands.

- In polite form: Verbs don’t typically change to imperative; instead, polite requests use て-form + く
ださい (kudasai)—e.g., 食べてください (tabete kudasai), "Please eat."

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -runa at the end of the plain form (e.g., taberuna). For polite
form -naidekudasai at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabenaidekudasai).

4. Volitional
- The volitional form expresses intent or a suggestion, like saying “Let’s eat.”

- For -ru verbs: drop the final -ru and add -you (e.g., 食べよう (tabeyou), "Let’s eat"). In polite form, -
mashou is added (e.g., 食べましょう (tabemashou)).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -mai at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabemai). For polite
form -masumai at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabemasumai).

5. Potential
- The potential form indicates the ability to do something, similar to saying “can eat” in English.

- For simple -ru verbs, change -ru to -rareru (e.g., 食べられる (taberareru), "can eat"). In polite form,
the verb conjugates similarly, e.g., 食べられます (taberaremasu).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -rarenai at the end of the plain form (e.g., taberarenai). For
polite form -raremasen at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabemasen).

- For past form, verbs end in -rareta at the end of the plain form (e.g., taberareta). For polite form
-raremashita at the end of the plain form (e.g., taberaremashita).

- For past negative sentence, verbs end in -rarenakatta at the end of the plain form (e.g.,
taberarenakatta). For polite form -raremasendaeshita (e.g., taberaremasendaeshita).
6. Conditional (ば-form or たら-form)
- This form is used to express hypothetical situations or conditions, like saying “If I eat...”

- For simple, replace -ru with -reba (e.g., 食べれば (tabereba), "If I eat"). Alternatively, use the past た-
form + ら for たら-form, e.g., 食べたら (tabetara).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -nakereba at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabenakereba).
For polite form -nakattara at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabenakattara).

7. Shimau (しまう)
- This auxiliary verb expresses completion or finality, often with a sense of regret or unintended
outcome.

Simple - Combine the て-form of a verb with しまう. For example, 食べてしまう (tabete shimau) can mean
"ended up eating." Alternatively, add -tara at the end (e.g., tabetara).

- In polite form add -teshimaimasu (e.g., tabeteshiimaimasu). Alternatively, -chaimasu (e.g.,

8. Passive
- The passive form shows that the action is being done to the subject, like saying “was eaten.”

simple - For -ru verbs, change -ru to -rareru (e.g., 食べられる (taberareru), "to be eaten"). In polite form,
use られます, e.g., 食べられます (taberaremasu).

- For past tense, verbs end in -rareta in plain form (e.g., 食べた (taberareta), "ate") or -raremashita in
polite form (e.g., 食べました (taberaremashita)).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -rarenai at the end of the plain form (e.g., taberarenai). For
polite form -raremasen at the end of the plain form (e.g., taberaremasen).

- For past negative sentence, verbs end in -rarenakatta at the end of the plain form (e.g.,
tabenakatta). For polite form -raremasendaeshita (e.g., taberaremasendaeshita).

9. Causative
- The causative form is used to indicate that someone made someone else do something, like
“make someone eat.”
Simple - For -ru verbs, replace -ru with -saseru (e.g., 食べさせる (tabesaseru), "make/let [someone]
eat"). Polite form: 食べさせます (tabesasemasu).

- For past tense, verbs end in -saseta in plain form (e.g., 食べた (tabesaseta), "ate") or -sasemashita
in polite form (e.g., 食べました (tabesasemashita)).

- For negative sentence, verbs end in -sasenai at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabesasenai). For
polite form -sasemasen at the end of the plain form (e.g., tabesasemasen).

- For past negative sentence, verbs end in -sasenakatta at the end of the plain form (e.g.,
tabesasenakatta). For polite form -sasemasendaeshita (e.g., tabesasemasendaeshita).

Each conjugation changes the verb’s meaning and function, making Japanese a rich language for
expressing nuanced actions and attitudes.