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● The input signal flows through the resistor (𝑅) to the inverting input,
producing a current (𝐼 ).
𝑅
● This current charges the capacitor (𝐶), creating a voltage across it.
The mathematical relationship is given by:
where 𝑉 is the output voltage, 𝑉 is the input voltage, and 𝑅𝐶determines the time
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
constant of the integration.
Practical Limitations
Ideal conditions are frequently difficult to achieve because of factors such as
input bias currents, offset voltages, and the limited gain of actual OP-AMPs.
These constraints result in:
1. Drift and Saturation: Minor DC offsets at the input can lead to

continuous charging of the capacitor, ultimately saturating the output.
2. Frequency Response Limitations: The circuit functions as an integrator
only within a defined frequency range.
Modifications
To address these issues, a resistor is often added in parallel with the capacitor. This
creates a path for DC currents, stabilizing the output and preventing drift.
CONSTRUCTION/CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Components
1. Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP): A high-gain amplifier with differential

inputs.
2. Resistor (𝑅): Controls the current flowing into the inverting input.
3. Capacitor (𝐶): Stores and discharges charge to produce the output voltage.
4. Parallel Resistor (optional): Mitigates drift and enhances stability.
Circuit Diagram
Figure 1: Ideal circuit diagram of integrator using OP-AMP
Figure 2: Practical circuit diagram of integrator using OP-AMP

Working Description
The input voltage 𝑉 is applied through the resistor, producing a current (𝐼 )

that
charges the capacitor. The capacitor integrates the input signal, and the
output voltage
𝑉 is developed across the feedback loop. The negative feedback ensures that
the
circuit maintains stability while performing the integration operation.
OPERATION PRINCIPLE:
The principle of operation of the integrator circuit lies in the

relationship between the current and voltage across the feedback
capacitor. The capacitor’s charge (𝑄) is related to the input current as:
➢ Differentiating this equation with respect to time yields:
➢ By Kirchhoff' Current Law (KCL), the current flowing through

the resistor is equal to the current charging the capacitor (𝐼
= 𝐼 ):
➢ Integrating both sides gives:

Key operational characteristics include:
1. Phase Shift: The output is inverted by 180 degrees relative to the

input.
2. Frequency Response: The circuit effectively functions as an
integrator at high frequencies, while at low frequencies, it behaves
like a low-pass filter when a parallel resistor is incorporated.
3. Time Constant (𝑅𝐶): This parameter determines the rate of
integration.
APPLICATION:
Integrator circuits utilizing OP-AMPs play a vital role in numerous applications:
1. Signal Processing:
● Transforming square waves into triangular waves.
● Generating ramp signals.
2. Waveform Generation:
● Producing precise signals in oscillators.
3. Active Filters:
● Functioning as low-pass filters to eliminate high-frequency noise.
4. Control Systems:
● Implementing integral control in PID
(Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controllers.
5. Analog Computing:
● Executing mathematical integration for real-time calculations.
6. Audio Applications:
● Introducing echo and reverb effects in sound systems.
These applications highlight the integrator's adaptability in both traditional and
contemporary electronic systems.

PRACTICAL CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS
Challenges
1. Saturation: Continuous integration of DC inputs can result in the

output saturating at the supply limits of the OP-AMP.
2. Drift: Input offset voltages can cause unintended charging of the
capacitor.
3. Frequency Response: The circuit may not function as an integrator
outside a certain frequency range.
Solutions
1. Parallel Resistor Across Capacitor: This allows DC currents to

bypass the capacitor, helping to prevent saturation.
2. High-Quality OP-AMPs: Utilizing OP-AMPs with low input bias
currents and offset voltages helps reduce drift.
3. Frequency Compensation: Designing the circuit for a specific
operating range improves overall performance.
CONCLUSION:
The OP-AMP integrator is a crucial and adaptable circuit in the realm

of analog electronics. Its capability to execute mathematical
integration has made it essential for a variety of applications,
including signal processing and control systems. Although there are
practical challenges such as drift and saturation, straightforward
modifications, such as incorporating a parallel resistor, can
significantly improve the circuit's stability and performance. This study
has explored the construction, theoretical foundations, operational
principles, and various applications of the integrator circuit,
underscoring its significance in contemporary technology.
REFERENCES:
❖ "Op amp integrator," Wikipedia, [Online]. Available:

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op_amp_integrator. [Accessed:
Nov. 24, 2024].
❖ D. Chattopadhyay and P. C. Rakshit, Electronics Fundamentals And
Applications, 18th ed., New Age International Publishers, 2025.
STUDENT SIGNATURES
SUPRIYO PRAMANIK ______________
SURISETTY SAI AKHILESH ______________
TRISHA JAISWAL _______________
VISHAL PAL _____________
YUVRAJ DEY _______________
SIGNATURE OF THE CONCERNED FACULTY MEMBER
(Dr. S.N. Mishra)

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● The input signal flows through the resistor (𝑅) to the inverting input,

The mathematical relationship is given by:

constant of the integration.

Ideal conditions are frequently difficult to achieve because of factors such as

These constraints result in:

1. Drift and Saturation: Minor DC offsets at the input can lead to

1. Operational Amplifier (OP-AMP): A high-gain amplifier with differential

Figure 1: Ideal circuit diagram of integrator using OP-AMP

Figure 2: Practical circuit diagram of integrator using OP-AMP

The input voltage 𝑉 is applied through the resistor, producing a current (𝐼 )

The principle of operation of the integrator circuit lies in the

➢ Differentiating this equation with respect to time yields:

➢ By Kirchhoff' Current Law (KCL), the current flowing through

➢ Integrating both sides gives:

1. Phase Shift: The output is inverted by 180 degrees relative to the

Integrator circuits utilizing OP-AMPs play a vital role in numerous applications:

● Transforming square waves into triangular waves.

● Generating ramp signals.

● Producing precise signals in oscillators.

● Functioning as low-pass filters to eliminate high-frequency noise.

● Implementing integral control in PID

● Executing mathematical integration for real-time calculations.

● Introducing echo and reverb effects in sound systems.

These applications highlight the integrator's adaptability in both traditional and

contemporary electronic systems.

1. Saturation: Continuous integration of DC inputs can result in the

1. Parallel Resistor Across Capacitor: This allows DC currents to

The OP-AMP integrator is a crucial and adaptable circuit in the realm

❖ "Op amp integrator," Wikipedia, [Online]. Available:

SUPRIYO PRAMANIK ______________

SURISETTY SAI AKHILESH ______________

TRISHA JAISWAL _______________

VISHAL PAL _____________

YUVRAJ DEY _______________

SIGNATURE OF THE CONCERNED FACULTY MEMBER

(Dr. S.N. Mishra)

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