BULLETIN OF THE POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MATERIAL SCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

TECHNICAL SCIENCES, Vol. 69(6), 2021, Article number: e139319

DOI: 10.24425/bpasts.2021.139319

Use of natural dyes for the fabrication

of dye-sensitized solar cell: a review
Cherry BHARGAVA 1* and Pardeep Kumar SHARMA 2*
1
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Symbiosis International (Deemed University),
Pune, Maharashtra, India-412115
2
Stratjuris Partners, Westport, Baner, Pune, Maharashtra, India-411045

Abstract. The increasing concern for worldwide energy production is the result of global industrialization and decreasing energy resources.
Despite the cost factor, solar energy continues to become more popular due to its long-term nature as a resource and growing conversion effi-
ciency. A dye-sensitized solar cell converts visible light into electricity. The efficient use of dye as a sensitizer is the critical factor in enhancing
the performance of the dye-sensitized solar cell. Natural dyes are found in abundance in leaves, flower petals, roots, and other natural resources.
Due to the advantages of natural dyes such as cost-effectiveness, the simpler extraction process, and being environmentally friendly, etc.,
researchers are working extensively to replace synthetic dyes with natural ones. This paper highlights the various types of natural dyes and
their effect on the efficiency of the dye-sensitized solar cell.

Key words: DSSC (dye-sensitized solar cell); efficiency; natural dye; performance; synthetic dye.

1. INTRODUCTION eter [4]. Thin-film solar cell based on a multinary compound

As the global population is growing, energy resources are Cu(In, Ga)Se2 has an efficiency of 20% [5].
depleting at a similar pace. Although fossil fuels are the most A dye-sensitized solar cell belongs to third-generation solar
abundant source of energy, by the next century, these fuel cells, which have higher efficiency than a thin film-based
sources will have been depleted [1]. For a green and healthy solar cell. It was introduced by Gratzel and O’Regan in 1991.
environment, renewable energy resources are emphasized. Michael Gratzel was awarded the 2010 Millennium Technology
Renewable resources such as solar and geothermal energy, Prize for his contribution in the field of solar cells [6]. The basic
wind power, etc. have been explored to satisfy the demand for structure of the dye-sensitized solar cell is made up of semi-
energy. By the photosynthesis process, the sun is proven as the conductor coated photoanode electrode, sensitizer, electrolyte,
most efficient resource of energy for all living creatures. If and counter electrode [7].
approximately 1% of the earth’s surface is covered with solar Dye-sensitized solar cells are a subgroup of photoelectrochem-
cells with 10% efficiency, then it will provide twice as much ical solar cells since they both depend on an electrolyte. They
energy as required [2]. Solar cells are widely used in small-scale have a couple of additional features like an organic or organome-
devices and power panels. tallic dye sensitizer and a nanoparticulate semiconductor rather
The photovoltaic effect was observed while inserting light on than a solid crystal semiconductor. They are a potentially signifi-
silver chloride during photography. The first photovoltaic cell cant development in solar technology, with efficiencies up to 11%
was developed in 1839 by Becquerel using a liquid electrolyte reported in the literature [8]. But later, 15% solar cell efficiency
and an electrode. Modern solar cells are very dissimilar from as a prototype was introduced [9]. When the zinc-oxide nanorods
this first cell and use a solid-state junction between p and n-type are deposited, the quantum efficiency is enhanced [10].
semiconductors to convert light into electrical power. The first While dye-sensitized solar cells do not have as high effi-
advanced solid-state solar cell was built by D.C. Chapman at ciency as their conventional silicon counterparts, there are
Bell Labs in 1954. The silicon-based crystalline solar cells are already advantages for this new technology. The first and most
fabricated by the Czochralski method. The efficiency of these obvious advantage is their low cost. Due to cheaper starting
cells is dependent on the temperature [3]. The second-gener- materials, ease of production, dye-sensitized solar cells are
ation solar cells such as Cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper comparatively much less expensive to prepare in comparison
indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) with silicon crystal solar cells. Also, their overall production is
use solar cells as thin film and powder form. Although these less detrimental to the environment than the output of conven-
cells are flexible and portable, efficiency is the critical param- tional silicon cells [11]. Furthermore, dye-sensitized solar cells
have considerable flexibility in shape, colour, transparency, and
performance also under diffuse light [12, 13]. Dye-sensitized
*e-mail: pardeep.sharma@stratjuris.com solar cells could be incorporated into massive varieties of prod-
Manuscript submitted 2020-08-28, revised 2020-10-17, initially accepted ucts, e.g. hand baggage, building assimilated photovoltaics for
for publication 2020-11-25, published in December 2021 walls of buildings or windows [14‒16].

Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci. 69(6) 2021, e139319 1

© 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 C. Bhargava and P.K. Sharma

The performance of the dye-sensitized solar cell depends

on the dye used in that cell. This article reviews various dyes
used for the fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cells along with
their efficiency.

2. WORKING OF DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL

In general, the dye-sensitized solar cells work on the pure phe-
nomena of photoelectrochemical reaction, i.e. when sunlight
or light from any source which has potential more significant
than the threshold energy of the electrons in the dye, illuminates
the cell, then the dye molecule within the cell disintegrates
to impart an electron which moves towards the cathode and
the remaining dye molecule reaches the electrolyte layer and
recharges itself [17, 18]. A deficiency is created in the elec-
trolyte, which is completed by the electron released from the
anode, and thus the circuit completes, and the current moves
within the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.

2.1. Steps to generate electrical energy from sunlight

The following steps convert photons (sunlight) to current (elec- Fig. 2. Sunlight to electrical energy conversion
trical energy) [19]. Figure 2 shows the pictorial view of sunlight
to electrical energy conversion.
1. Photo sensitizers absorb photons that are adsorbed on the 3. Consequently, the injected electron in the conduction band of
TiO2 surface. TiO2 diffused through TiO2 particles toward the back-contact
2. Metal Ligand Charge Transfer (MLCT) transition is re- glass substrate and successively reached the charged elec-
sponsible for the excitation of the photosensitizers from the trode through the external load and wiring
ground state (S) to the excited state (S¤). Oxidation of the ● Transportation of charge:
photosensitizer (S+) takes place due to the injection of the
excited electron into the conduction band of the TiO2 pho- e – (TiO2) → e – (CE).(3)
toanode.
● Excitation process: Here, CE is the charged electrode.
4. When the electron is accepted by oxidized photosensitiz-
S + hv → S ¤.(1) er (S+) from the I − ion redox mediator regeneration of the
ground state (S) takes place, and the I − is oxidized to the oxi-
● Charge Injection: dized state, I 3− (equation 4). Nevertheless, two main (undesir-
able) recombination reactions decrease the overall efficiency
S ¤ → S + + e– (TiO2).(2) of DSSC. The excited electron in titania can straightway re-
combine with the oxidized dye sensitizer or with the oxidized
iodide redox couple in the electrolyte [20] (equation (5)).
● Regeneration of dye:

2S + + 3I − → 2S + I3− .(4)

● Recombination:

S + + e – (TiO2) → S.(5)

5. After diffusing toward the counter electrode, the oxidized

redox mediator I 3− is reduced to I − ions.
● Regeneration of iodine:

I3− + 2e → 3I −.(6)

Generally transfer of an electron to I 3− can happen either

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of working of dye-sensitized solar at the boundary between titania and electrolyte or at areas
cell [16] of the anode contact (mostly TCO layer on glass) that are

2 Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci. 69(6) 2021, e139319

 Use of natural dyes for the fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cell: a review

exposed to the electrolyte [21]. The efficiency of DSSC is It depends on the temperature of the cell, quality of the illu-
governed by the following energy sections mination, and the spectral distribution of the intensity, due to
● The excited state of the dye photosensitizer. which, a standard measurement condition is used for the testing
● The ground state of dye photosensitizer. of solar cells [27].
● The Fermi level of the titania electrode.
● The redox potential of the mediator (I −/I 3−) in the elec-
trolyte [22]. 3. COMPONENTS OF A DYE-SENSITIZED SOLAR CELL
The speedy retrieval of the dye sensitizer is significant for The dye-sensitized solar cell consists of vital components such
achieving longer stability in order to maintain an enduring as conductive glass substrates, metal oxide semiconductor coat-
separation of charge which is critical for the performance of ing, the dye, the redox electrolyte, and the counter electrode [6].
the dye-sensitized solar cell. Each component is essential for the conversion of sunlight into
the current [28‒30] (Fig. 3).
2.2. Performance parameters for a dye-sensitized solar cell
When the light is switched on in a dye-sensitized solar cell con-
taining the circuit system, open-circuit voltage Voc and short
circuit current Isc may be obtained [23]. The ratio between
maximum output power received at the output to the sunlight
power is known as the overall efficiency of solar energy. The
fill factor, overall conversion efficiency are the essential per-
formance parameters of the dye-sensitized solar cell are [24]:

2.2.1. Open circuit voltage

The voltage of the cell is known as the open-circuit voltage
when the cell is stated as open-circuited, and the output current
is nil [25].
µ ¶
Isc
Voc = Vt ln + 1 (7)
Io

2.2.2. Short circuit current (Isc)

The cell is stated as short-circuited when the output voltage is
nil. The short circuit current is equivalent to the conversion of
the total number of photons to hole-electron pairs [26].
µ ¶
V Fig. 3. Components of dye-sensitized solar cell
Isc = I + Io exp ¡ 1 (8)
Vt

Here, Vt is the threshold voltage, and Io is the output current The conductive glass substrates used for the dye-sensitized
solar cell serve as a backbone of the cell. This solid surface
2.2.3. Fill factor (FF) provides structural support for the dye-sensitized solar cell, and
It is a vital parameter for the determination of the efficiency most importantly, it provides a complete path through which
of the cell. At a potential somewhere between an open circuit current can enter and leave the dye-sensitized solar cell when
and short circuit, the maximum output power (Pmax ) can be in a circuit [31]. It allows the light to pass into the cell with
obtained, where the cell delivers the highest power output with limited optical attenuation and also a surface to which the TiO2
the voltage (Vmax) and current (I max). is bonded. Various types of organic or organometallic dye mol-
ecules can be used as a sensitizer for dye-sensitized solar cells,
Vmax.Imax where incoming light interacts with the dye molecule, excit-
FF = (9)
Voc.Isc ing an electron to a higher energy state [32]. The electrolyte in
a dye-sensitized solar cell is the electron donor for the dye. It
2.2.4. Conversion efficiency (η) is composed of a redox couple that acts as a charge transport
This parameter is associated with the overall performance of medium between the dye on the electrode and the counter elec-
the cell. It is stated as the ratio of maximum power obtained trode. Finally, the counter-electrode is a second TCO coated
by the cell (Pmax) to the power of the incident radiation on the slide with catalyst deposited and heated onto the surface. It
illustrative area of the cell (Pin). helps in the transfer of electrons into the redox electrolyte, and
therefore the very little amount of catalyst is required for the
Fill Factor.Voc.Isc cell [2]. The various components of a dye-sensitized solar cell
Efficiency = (10)
Incidental Optical Power are shown in Fig. 3.

Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci. 69(6) 2021, e139319 3

 C. Bhargava and P.K. Sharma

3.1. Charge collectors tion because of its lower cost, non-toxicity, availability in the
The dye-sensitized solar cells are typically assembled with two market, biocompatibility and has excellent chemical stability
sheets of transparent conductive oxides acting as charge col- [38]. The method to prepare TiO2 nanoparticles film is very easy,
lectors and a substrate for the deposition of the semiconductor and no vacuum is needed. Generally, photoelectrode thin films
and catalyst [33, 34]. Transparent conducting oxides (TCO) encompass mesoporous structured titania, obtained after sinter-
are metal oxides coated on the soda lime (generally) glass sub- ing of a TiO2 thin film at a temperature higher than 400°C [39].
strate to make it electrically conductive. To reduce the energy Based on the annealing temperature, it is present in three crys-
loss, its electrical conductivity should be kept as high [35]. talline structures, namely anatase, rutile, and brookite [40‒42].
Generally, TCO coating is either of fluorine-doped tin oxide- Rutile is stable while anatase and brookite are metastable.
FTO (SnO2 : F, FTO) or indium-doped tin oxide-ITO (In2 O3 : Sn, As brookite is very difficult to synthesize, for photocatalytic
ITO). Nowadays, FTO coated glass is used in dye-sensitized activity, only rutile and anatase polymorphs are considered vital
solar cells in place of ITO coated glass due to its better thermal [43]. However, pure anatase displays an advanced photocata-
stability at high temperatures. The transmittance of the substrate lytic activity than pure rutile [44].
is a deciding factor to select the TCO substrate. Recently alu-
minium-doped zinc oxide (AZO) has also been explored [36]. 3.3. Dye sensitizer
Table 1 shows the difference between various TCO coatings. A dye is stated to be a substance which imparts colour and
which has a specific affinity towards the substrate it is being
3.2. Photo anode applied upon. There has been a prodigious number of dyes that
The photoelectrode (or photoanode) in a dye-sensitized solar have been used to prepare efficient polymer solar cells [45].
cell is prepared from a skinny layer of sensitized semiconduc-
tor material (usually TiO2 , ZnO, SnO2 , etc.) with an extensive 3.3.1. Characteristics of dye
bandgap, deposited onto the TCO substrate [33]. High light-har- Some of the stringent characteristics a dye should possess for
vesting efficiency (LHE) is achieved if the semiconductor layer being coated on a dye-sensitized solar cell substrate are as fol-
offers a vast surface area (high roughness) in order to get a con- lows:
siderable amount of sensitizer molecules adsorbed [37]. ● Since more than 50% of solar energy is emitted in the region
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most efficient material from 400‒800 nm, dyes that absorb in this region are pre-
among the several choices of wide-bandgap semiconductors for ferred as a broad absorption spectrum helps in capturing as
dye-sensitized solar cell and have attracted considerable atten- much of the solar radiation as possible.

Table 1
Difference between various TCO coatings

Sr. Parameter Indium-doped Fluorine-doped Aluminium-doped

No. Tin Oxide Coated Glass Tin Oxide Coated Glass Zinc Oxide coated Glass
11 Temp (°C) 350°C 600°C 600°C
UV reflectivity is high, and
12 Transparency Medium in visible light Better to visible light transparency to visible light is
better
Resistance is constant up to Ideal for temperature-sensitive
13 Resistance Resistance rises with temperature
600°C polymer substrates
14 Thermal stability Lower Excellent Excellent
15 Conductivity Moderate conductivity Good conductivity Excellent conductivity
16 Tolerance Moderate High High
ITO coated on the passivation On a glass surface, FTO is Using etching, patterning of films
17 Coating
layer of the glass surface coated directly is more facile
18 Molecular structure Cubic structure Tetragonal structure Hexagonal structure
Reflectance in
19 Lower Higher Higher
the IR zone
Specified Sheet
10 ∙10 ohms/sq ∙10 ohms/sq ∙10 ohms/sq
resistivity
11 Transmittance occurs 550 nm – ¸83% 550 nm – ¸85% 400‒1000 nm = 82‒83%
12 Film thickness 1800‒2000 Å 1800‒2000 Å 8000‒8500 Å

4 Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci. 69(6) 2021, e139319

 Use of natural dyes for the fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cell: a review

● The extinction coefficient of the dye molecule should be tures, natural synthesis, cost-effectiveness, lesser environmental
high over the whole absorption spectrum. This assists in the issues, and higher molar extinction coefficients [48]. So, they
absorption of most of the light within a monolayer of the dye can be considered a better substitution of synthetic, once they
because an increase of the optical density of the electrode attain higher efficiency.
deteriorates the photovoltage and also causes diffusion prob- Some functional groups that are present in the dyes main-
lems in the electrolyte at high current densities. tain the affinity with the electrode they have been coated on,
● The dye should be soluble in a particular solvent for adsorp- thus enhancing the charge transfer. Natural dyes are generally
tion onto the electrode and should not be absorbed by the used with titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) (nanoparticles) coating as an
electrolyte. electrode, as this material exists in abundance and shows higher
● The bonding of the dye with the substrate (affinity) should affinity with the dyes. Associativity is a significant issue with
be of remarkable strength, and it should get adsorb strongly these natural dyes, as the proper functional groups needed to
on the surface of the semiconductor to make sure that the enhance it is known as an anchoring group, which should make
electron is injected efficiently into its conduction band and bonds with the titania via surface hydroxyl groups. The carbox-
to avoid regular leakage from the electrolyte [46]. ylic group and its derivatives are generally part of this group.
● The electron released should have enough excitation energy Hydroxy groups also show the tendency of binding onto TiO2
when it moves through the cell to meet the electrode. [49]. Furthermore, sulfonate and silane have also been used.
● The dye should be able to transfer the electron to the TiO2 Structures of efficient sensitizers containing binding groups
rapidly in order to avoid undesirable recombination to the (phosphonic acid) were first established by Pechy et al. [50].
ground state of the dye [47]. The difference between natural dyes and synthetic dyes are
● A redox electrolyte may be used for regeneration of the dye shown in Table 2. Due to the stability problem and colour fad-
(such a dye should be used) [45]. Also, the oxidized state of ing issues, natural dyes are less efficient. The synthetic dyes
the dye must have a more positive potential than the redox have a maximum absorption range in the solar spectrum. There-
couple in the electrolyte. The dye should stay stable in its fore, these sensitizers produce better output than natural dyes.
oxidized form, allowing it to be reduced by an electrolyte.
3.3.3. Review of various dyes for dye-sensitized solar cell
3.3.2. Classification of dyes The different natural dyes that are used for the fabrication of
There are broadly two general classifications of the dyes nat- dye-sensitized solar cells are reviewed and summarized in tabu-
ural and synthetic (human-made). Synthetic dyes require the lar form, as shown in Table 3. The performance of the dye-sen-
usage of scarce elements in their making and are challenging sitized solar cell is evaluated by using various parameters such
in treating, while natural dyes are easily processed able and can as open-circuit voltage, short circuit current, fill factor, and
be made out of just any natural material like peels of fruits, efficiency [51]. The plant pigmentation can be understood by
barks of trees, leaves, fruit juices, fruit pulps, etc. Moreover, as maximum wavelength (λ max). The comparative performance
a substitute to the noble Ru complex sensitizers, organic dyes parameters of the natural dye-based dye-sensitized solar cell,
show many advantages like easily designable molecular struc- with semiconductor electrode TiO2 , are shown in Table 4.

Table 2
Difference between natural dye and synthetic dye

S. No Parameter Natural dye Synthetic dye

1 Fabrication Simple chemical procedure Requires multi procedures, which are costly
Process and time-consuming
2 Availability Natural dye is 100% available Long term availability of man-made dyes is a problem

3 Efficiency As the degradation of natural dye is higher, The efficiency of synthetic dyes is higher
the efficiency is lower
4 Cost Natural dyes are cheap, as they are naturally Synthetic dyes are costly due to their production process
available and require fewer chemical procedures
5 Stability Less stable due to the degradation process More stable
6 Environmental Environmentally friendly because of its natural Due to its chemical nature, its effects are harmful to the
effect occurrence environment
7 Absorption rate 400‒700 nm range of the solar spectrum up to 800nm range of the solar spectrum
8 Reproduction Reproduction of the same shades is difficult Easy to reproduce
9 Variety Limited range of colours Wide range

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 C. Bhargava and P.K. Sharma

Table 3
Review of different dyes used and their performance as a sensitizer

S.
Dye used Result obtained Reference
No
The photovoltaic performance is reduced due to dye aggregation and intermolecular energy
1 Blueberry [53‒55]
transfer. The efficiency achieved is 1.13%
Dragon fruit, The voltage and current of dye-sensitized solar cells increase with light, the efficiency of
2 [56]
cabbage and grape dragon fruit, red cabbage, and grapes are 0.015%, 0.006%, and 0.011% respectively
The basella alba seeds extracted dye is applied on nanocrystalline photoelectrode titanium
3 Basella Alba Seeds oxide, which is further deposited on tin oxide, 48.5% film factor and 0.115% efficiency is [57]
achieved
With the dye extracted from Calotropis, better visible absorption and better temperature
4 Calotropis [58]
response at an enhanced temperature range are achieved
Olive leaves, red Numerical modelling has been studied using MATLAB. It has been shown that the
5 [59]
hibiscus photovoltaic performance of olive leaves is higher than red hibiscus flowers
Efficiency is optimized (up to 50%) by using a source measure unit, due to irradiation time
6 Plant pigmentation [60]
and dye stability
Without any polymer electrolyte, efficiency is 0.076%, the efficiency increases up to 0.242% [49, 54,
7 Blackberry
when PAN liquid is used 61‒63]

The efficiency of five Chlorophyll dyes extracted are Fig (0.49%), Black Tea (0.08%), Green
8 Plant leaves dyes [64]
tea (0.03%), Henna (0.05%), Schinus terebinthifolius (0.73%)
Ziziphus jujuba The efficiency is 1.077%. It has been reported that the dye structure is highly connected with
9 [7, 64]
leaves the TiO2 surface
The efficiency reported using lemon leaves dye is 0.036%. The efficiency is low because of
10 Lemon leaves dye [65]
poor dye absorption, which inhibits charge transfer to titanium
Hibiscus enhances electron transfer, as it is ascribed to anthocyanin and adheres to TiO2 [16, 53, 61,
11 Hibiscus dye
surface. The efficiency is 1.19% 62, 66, 67]
Red Sicilian orange For optical activity, cyanine and delphinidin are the responsible pigments.
12 [49, 58]
juice dye The efficiency is 1%
Flower based dye: The dye-sensitized solar cell exhibited open voltage of 0.52 V, short circuit current
13 [68]
Luffa cylindrica L 0.44 mA cm −2, fill factor of 0.60, efficiency of 0.13% and IPCE »30% (at λ = 430 nm)
Wild Sicilian The existence of carboxylic groups similar to that of Ru poly-pyridyl complexes offers the
14 [69‒71]
prickly pear dye benefits of better interaction between the dye. The efficiency is 2.06%
Seed based dye: It has been reported that while using lithium iodide as an electrolyte, the conversion
15 [64]
Eruca Sativa seeds efficiency becomes double. 0.725% of efficiency is reported
Anthocyanins absorb long-wavelength lights and are water-soluble in nature. The 0.75%
16 Purple cabbage [53, 72]
conversion efficiency is reported using purple cabbage extracted dye
This article is focused on developing dye as a precursor. The red cabbage extracted dye is
17 Red cabbage [67, 73]
used, and the efficiency reported is 2.90%
18 Begonia Anthocyanin in Begonia dye extract was stable till 150°C. The efficiency is 1.86% [74]
ORAC and VIS technology are used to study the anthocyanin property or pomegranate seed [7, 75‒77]
19 Pomegranate
extracted dye. The efficiency is 1.15%
The efficiency reported, using spinach dye, is 4%, the visible absorption range [53, 72, 75,
21 Spinach leaves dye
is 422‒659 nm 78, 79]
22 Red rose petals dye The efficiency reported with red rose dye is highest, i.e. 0.81% [80]
23 Red turnip The efficiency reported is 1.7%, which is 50% than the N179 base cell [81]
Due to variable factors such as light intensity, and TiO2 linkage, eggplant extracted dye
24 Eggplant [64, 69, 71]
produces different results. The efficiency reported is 0.64%

6 Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci. 69(6) 2021, e139319

 Use of natural dyes for the fabrication of dye-sensitized solar cell: a review

S.
Dye used Result obtained Reference
No
Delphinidin-based dyes are more used than Cyanidine and pelargonidin-based dyes, due to the
26 Strawberry potential of embedding titania and transferring photons. Strawberries are rich in pelargonidin [55, 82, 83]
and blackberries and blueberries in cyanidin. The efficiency is 0.62%

The percentage efficiency of wormwood has enhanced from 0.524% to 0.9% due to the
27 Wormwood [72, 84]
advanced application of dyes over the substrate
28 Wakame The 4.6% efficiency is reported, and dye-substrate affinity was high [85]
Turmeric (Curcumin As compared to deprotonated curcumin dye, K2 CO3 is stabilized more and has an efficiency
29 [53, 83, 86]
Dye) of 9.9%
The efficiency of the cell is directly related to HUMO and LUMO; the efficiency reported
30 Papaya leaf dye [87]
with papaya leaf extract is 0.28%
The leaves are covered in a white powder which helps in alleviating heat by scattering
31 Calotropis leaves [88]
incident radiation and efficiency increased to 0.214% than 0.108% for cells without powder
Mexican
32 The efficiency using Mexican pre-Hispanic dyes is reported as 0.24% [89]
PreHispanic
33 Areca catechu The energy conversion rate is high, with an efficiency of 0.38%. The fill factor is 62.9% [90]

Table 4
Performance parameters of natural dye-based dye-sensitized solar cell

Dye Solution Reference Pigment λ max (nm) Isc (mA) Voc FF η (%)
Rhododendron [101] Anthocyanin 0.530 0.689 0.585 60.9 0.57
Yellow rose [101] Xanthophyll 487 0.600 0.554 57.1 0.270
Rosella (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) [102, 103] Anthocyanin 520 1.630 0.400 0.57 0.370
Erythrina variegata [48, 104] Chlorophyll 451 492 0.780 0.480 0.55 –
Hibiscus surattensis [105, 106] Anthocyanin 545 5.450 0.390 0.54 1.140
Raspberries [107, 108] Betacyanin 560 0.090 0.340 61.10 0.380
Cherries [7, 109, 110] Betacyanin 500 0.460 0.300 38.30 0.180
Wild Sicilian prickly pear [81] Betalin 465 8.200 0.380 0.38 1.190
Ivy gourdfruits [111, 112] β – Carotene 458 480 0.240 0.640 0.49 0.990
Bitterleaf [113, 114] Chlorophyll 400 0.070 0.340 0.81 0.690
Spinach [75] Chlorophyll 437 0.470 0.550 0.51 0.130
Festuca ovina [115] Chlorophyll 420 660 1.180 0.540 0.69 0.460
Red cabbage [116] Anthocyanin 537 0.500 0.370 0.54 0.130
Pomegranate [117] Anthocyanin 412 665 2.050 0.560 0.52 0.590
Shiso [101] Chlorophyll 440 600 3.560 0.550 0.51 1.010
Botuje [118] Flavonoid 400 0.690 0.050 0.87 0.120
Henna [119] Anthocyanin 518 1.870 0.610 0.58 0.660
Ficus retusa [120] Chorophyll 670 10.900 0.500 0.27 1.490
Anethum graveolens [121] Chlorophyll 666 0.960 0.570 40.00 0.220
Madder [122] Anthraquinone 540 0.540 0.389 0.69 0.100

Bull. Pol. Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci. 69(6) 2021, e139319 7

 C. Bhargava and P.K. Sharma

Dye Solution Reference Pigment λ max (nm) Isc (mA) Voc FF η (%)
Yemenihenna [123] Chlorophyll – 0.407 0.306 28.1 0.117
Sumac/Rhus [124] Anthocyanin 650 0.930 0.394 0.41 1.500
Tageteserecta [125] Xanthophyll 465 2.891 0.475 0.61 0.800
Morinda lucida [126] Anthocyanin 440 1.150 0.350 0.63 0.250
Gardenia yellow [127] Carotene 450 0.960 0.540 0.62 0.320

4. SUMMARY OF NATURAL DYES FOR DYE-SENSITIZED 5. CONCLUSION

SOLAR CELL Over the past few years blackberries, blueberry, hibiscus and
As the literature depicts, many researchers are working on spinach-based dyes were frequently used. The high anthocy-
enhancing the efficiency of natural dyes. The conversion effi- anin content of blackberry and blueberry and high chlorophyll
ciency of the dye-sensitized solar cell is dependent on many concentration in spinach is a reason for their frequent usage.
other vital parameters [52]. It should also be noted that a significant amount of research
It has been observed that, out of all plant pigments, anthocy- has been put into improving the efficiencies of red beetroot,
anins are preferred because their absorption spectrum range is red cabbage, and red turnip—this review article emphasizes
broader, i.e. gamut of red to purple [91]. Secondly, the energy natural dye and performance parameters of the dye-sensitized
absorption is enhanced in the case of chlorophyll, as it has two solar cell. The vital point for an efficient dye-sensitized solar
absorptive peaks. Another plant pigment like betalin also has cell is cost-effectiveness, abundance, and its environmentally
a good absorption range. friendly nature. Further research on natural dyes for increas-
The best results with natural organic dyes come from spinach ing the stability and efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells is
with 4% efficiency [53, 72, 75, 79], red beetroot 2.71% [78, 92] encouraged. An alternative to increase stability and absorption
and red cabbage 2.9% [93, 94]. These natural entities are rich in range is hybrid dyes, which is a mixture of natural and human-
anthocyanin, betalains, and chlorophyll, or any such strong light made dye, such as mixing of chlorophyll dye and anthocyanin
sensitizers. Currently, numerous organic dyes have been used to dye boosts up the efficiency. The sensitizer should have high
produce output as perfect as the inorganic dyes, but the result life and high extinction coefficient, which proves sufficient
seems to falter and would not achieve the maximum laid down binding between semiconductor and sensitizer. The hydroxyl
by the inorganic dyes [95]. Thence, a fair amount of research and carboxyl groups should be present in the dye. The addition
work is being inputted in determining the perfect environment of graphene with natural dye extract may enhance the efficiency
for the lasting and efficient functioning of the solar cells [96]. of nature dye-based dye-sensitized solar cell.

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