Unit 11.

Management of Natural Resources

11.1. Concepts of Natural Resource Use
Many of the natural resources (particularly the non-renewable ones) are available in only limited or finite
quantities. Failure to wisely use natural resources results in their depletion in a short time. Lessening the number
of natural resources available in our surrounding markedly affects the fate of future generation. A proper
management of natural resources ensures its sustainability.
concepts commonly used in natural resources management are:
Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population level for which a given resource can satisfy. For example,
if a hectare of grassland can produce sufficient food for 100 sheep that is the carrying capacity of the grassland.
Keeping 150 or more sheep on this grassland is far beyond the carrying capacity of the land.
Sustainable use
Sustainable use: refers to natural resource use that creates and maintains a condition in which humans use
resources to fulfill their current social, economic and other requirements while maintain for the future generation.
Sustainability enables the continuity of the uses and availability of natural resources. It sets of processes and
techniques to handle resources to satisfy the needs and demands of the current generation without affecting the
needs and demands of the future generations.
11.2. Soil Management
The way soils managed determines how exposed they are to soil erosion and other soil degradation processes.
The magnitude of soil erosion effect on soil productivity is determined by the soil management practices applied.
Different management practices are used to reduce the effects of soil degradation on crop productivity.
Soil management practices to control soil degradation
Agronomic measures:
 Mulching
 Mixed cropping
 Contour cultivation
 Strip cropping,
 Crop rotation with legumes
 Windbreaks
These are usually soil management practices used in annual crops production. These practices is to protect the
exposure of soils to water or wind erosion - i.e., covering the soil by vegetation protects soil erosion.
Mulching refers to spreading organic materials like crop residues or inorganic materials like plastic on the soil
surface. These cover the soil and prevent direct exposure of the soil to raindrops and run off water. The mulch
absorbs the energy of raindrops and run off water. This reduces the eroding capacity of the raindrops and run off
water.
Mixed Cropping: When crops are grown in mixture, they provide better coverage for the soil. This reduces more
soil erosion than does mono cropping. Maize is grown mixed with beans in many maize producing areas in
Ethiopia. Growing beans mixed with maize protects the soil well. The maize canopy protects the soil against
raindrops and the beans provide additional canopy coverage.
Contour cropping: refers to planting long lines of plots with different crops along the contour to control soil
erosion. In Contour cropping, crops with different
canopy nature (growth habit) are usually used. Having different plant strips reduces sediments transported down
the slope. Contour cropping reduces the speed of runoff water. This usually results in reduced soil erosion.
Contour cultivation is cultivation of the soil opposite t he slope direction. This reduces the speed of runoff water.
Hence, it reduces the transport of the soil particles down the slope.
Physical soil conservation measures
 Contour farming
 terraces
 bunds
 water ways
Other soil management practices:
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  Improving the soil organic matter/adding organic matter
 Improving soil fertility
 Liming
 Leaching saline soils
Improving the soil organic matter content or improving soil fertility is another soil management practice used to
control or reduce soil nutrient depletion. Including legume crops in cereal crop plantings, applying manure,
compost or other organic fertilizers improve soil fertility. Adding inorganic fertilizers also increases soil fertility
but, the increase in the crop types in a farm increases the amount of organic matter added to the soil. When
organic matter content of soils is increased, soils have better resistance to soil erosion and structural deterioration.
Therefore, an increase in organic matter content of soils increases the fertility level of the soils and improves
plant growth and better plant growth means better canopy coverage for the soil, resulting in reduced soil erosion.
Liming is the practice of adding calcium and magnesium-rich materials such as limestone to the soil in order to
increase the pH value and reduce soil acidity. The calcium and magnesium added to the soil have the capacity to
replace acidic nutrients from soils and increase the pH value (reduce soil acidity).
Management of saline soils includes the removal of accumulated soluble salts from surface soils by washing
(leaching) with good quality water. Also, addition of organic fertilizers such as compost and animal manure can
improve the physical properties of salt affected soils and hence their productivity.
1.3. Agricultural Water Management
Agriculture is the major sector that uses water resources. In developing countries agriculture is mainly based on
water received from rainfall. Water received from the rain can be lost in different ways. For example, evaporation,
transpiration, runoff and deep percolation are ways rain water can be lost. In areas where rainfall is the only
source of water for growing plants, plants often face water shortage during critical growth stages. This problem
is observed particularly in semi-arid areas. The total rainfall is low and rainfall patterns are unpredictable semi-
arid areas. In such areas, it is important to reduce water loss through conserving water received from rainfall.

Different water management practices are used in agriculture to improve water availability for plant growth. One
method is the use of contour cultivation in slopping areas. When soils in the slopping areas are cultivated opposite
the slope, water running down the slope will be slowed down. This raises the likelihood of water entering the
soils. Water available in the soils can be used to grow plants.
Some common water management practices:
 Rain water conservation (Water harvesting, Micro basins, Improved pit )
 Reducing evaporative loss of water (Mulching, Plant cover)
 Soil conservation (contour farming, contour bunding, bench terrace and storing runoff)
 Selection of appropriate crops
 Irrigation water management (mount of water used. frequency and irrigation time)
Rain water conservation
In arid and semi-arid areas, water received from rainfall can be saved using water harvesting techniques. Soil pit
can be prepared with plastic sheets lining to store rainwater on the farm. The stored water can be used when crops
face water shortage. Excess water collected from roof tops of houses can be used for various purposes, including
irrigation in droughts of short duration.
Reducing evaporative loss of water
One of the major ways water is lost from soils is through evaporation of water. Water loss through evaporation
is particularly high when soils are either bare, with no vegetation cover or when the coverage is low. Such losses
can be reduced by spreading organic materials on the surface of the soils (mulching). Leaving some biomass
standing during crop harvest can also reduce soil loss.

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 Soil conservation
Practices that are used to conserve agricultural soils also improve water conservation. These practices include
contour farming, contour bunding, bench terrace on steep slopes and storing runoff water. For example, bench
terrace in Konso is used to reduce flooding and soil erosion and contributes to soil conservation. These activities
reduce the speed of runoff water. They allow the water to enter the soil. This reduces water loss and makes the
water available for growing crops.
Selection of appropriate crops
In dry areas, crops that tolerate drought can be used. There are crops that give adequate yield with low water
requirement and low transpiration. Selection of appropriate crops for dry areas is an important water management
method.
Proper irrigation water management
If irrigation is used, water losses linked to the efficiency of the irrigation method that is used should be minimized
as much as possible. The amount of water used, the frequency of use and the irrigation time should be adjusted
to properties of the soil, crop types and climatic conditions.
11.4. Forest and Wildlife Management
Maintaining and improving the forest cover:
 Afforestation
 Reforestation
 Enrichment planting
 Prevent wild forest fires
 Forest conservation
 Sustainable use and management
 Preventing wild forest fires
Maintaining and improving forest cover helps to:
 increases the amount of carbon store in their aboveground biomass and roots,
 reduces carbon emission to the atmosphere,
 protects soils against erosion and provides habitat for wildlife.
Forest management practices are needed to:
 provide fuel wood to meet demands sustainably
 allow for more productive use of forest vegetation
 create employment and income for rural communities
 contribute to biodiversity conservation
 reduce deforestation and desert expansion
 minimize vulnerability to climate change
 reduce carbon emission
Wildlife destruction usually occurs due to the destruction of their natural habitats. Walia Ibex and Ethiopian
Wolf are among the most endangered endemic wild animals in Ethiopia mainly due to habitat destruction.
Protection of wildlife and their habitats is an integral part of management and conservation of wildlife resources.
Wildlife management includes:
 Reducing agricultural encroachment
 Prevention of invasive plant species
 Creating buffer zone
 Controlling population growth
1.5.Environmental Management
Environment
Environment refers to the climatic, biological and chemical conditions that may affect the growth and welfare of
organisms. Humans should use the environmental resources in ways that do not harm the future use of the
resources. Practices that support such human interactions with the environment are called environmental
management practices.
Environmental management practices include:
 Reducing

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 Reusing
 Recycling
 Pollution prevention
 Adopting advanced manufacturing technology
The main objectives of environmental management are to ensure the protection of human health and wellbeing,
and conservation and preservation of all life forms and their habitats. The major goal of environmental
management is to prevent the release of harmful chemicals into the environment.
The aims of environmental management are to:
 prevent air pollution and have acceptable air quality
 minimize water pollution to meet water quality standards
 reduce health and environmental risks of agricultural pesticides by proper use
 introduce sound solid waste management practice
 identify core processes of major outputs in agriculture and their environmental impacts
 ensure that farmers meet the requirements of the environmental regulations.
1.6. Indigenous Knowledge Applicable in Natural Resources Management
Ethiopia is a land of diverse altitudes and climates. The land is covered by various types of natural resources.
Indigenous knowledge contributes to natural resources conservation. The common Indigenous Natural Resources
Management practices in Ethiopia are:
 Farmers’ soil and water conservation practices in North Shewa
 Natural resource management practice of Gumuz
 Soil and water conservation practices of Konso
 Agroforestry practices of Gedeo
 Stone bunds of Tigray
Farmers in north Shewa apply indigenous soil and water conservation practices to respond to land degradation
in their area. These practices include:
 constructing a wide water way
 Constructing traditional ditch
 constructing line of stones across the farm on slopes of up to 2%.
 planting some tree species to protect soil from erosion.
 using vegetative barriers to reduce sediments from runoff waters and reduce runoff speed
 combining traditional stone bunds and vegetation
 grasses or perennial species with stone bunds
Similarly, the community in western Ethiopia, Gumuz people use indigenous knowledge of natural resource
management. That is the Gumuz community members have special relationship with their land and the
environment. Through observation and experience the Gumuz have developed indigenous knowledge system for
management of their natural resources. Their indigenous knowledge about management of natural resources is
associated with their traditional belief systems. These beliefs include:
 vital natural resources are sacred
 natural resources are indigenous gift, blessing and creation of Yamba (God)
 Yamba (God) provided them with knowledge of proper use, management and the responsibility to pass on to
future generation
 natural resources are perceived as ancestral heritage
 ownership of natural resources is vested upon the whole community
This indigenous Gumuz knowledge of natural resource management constitutes mostly norms, values, ethics and
taboos that have been institutionalized as customary laws and conventions within the community. The elders
enforce these institutions.

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Unit 12: Concepts of Biodiversity
12.1. What is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to the range of all forms of life on earth, including plants, animals, humans, bacteria and other
organisms. It includes the different species, sub-species and communities that exist in a given habitat like a
rainforest or grassland. Biodiversity has different components:
 the number of species (i.e., plants, animals and other organisms)
 the genetic diversity of different species
 the population of each species (plants, animals and other organisms)
 the diversity of habitats and landscapes of the species (forests, grasslands and others) in an area.
The biodiversity of an area shows how rich an area is in terms of the total number of species present and their
populations and habitats. For example, Ethiopia is a country of high geographic and climatic diversity. This has
resulted in high diversity of plant and animal species inhabiting the different agro ecologies. The country
possesses a large number of plant and animal species that are not found elsewhere. These plants and animals are
called endemic plants/animals. The way biodiversity of a given area is managed determines whether or not there
is a healthy development of individual species and ecosystems.
12.2. The Scope of Biodiversity
Biodiversity deals with the diversity of:
 plant species including crop genetic resources and forest genetic resources
 animal species including farm animal genetic resources and wildlife genetic resources
Microbial genetic resources the assessment of biodiversity can be made at different scales. The scales vary from
specific sites or regions. Country or global level scales can also be considered. The scale of assessment of
biodiversity depends on the objective of the evaluation. For example, if one needs to know the level of
biodiversity of a forest area, or a water resource, they evaluate the biodiversity in that specific forest or water
body. On the other hand, if the assessment of general national biodiversity status is desired, assessment has to be
made at a country level. This constitutes assessment of biodiversity in all kinds of habitats and the different
species of plants, animals and other organisms.
12.3. Values and Services of Biodiversity
Biodiversity provides a large number of values and services for humans and the environment. For example, it
provides products and services in:
Products:
 food production (e.g., cropping, livestock, food from wild plants and animals)
 firewood, Fiber and Construction materials from various plant species,
 medicinal resources (e.g., various plant and animal species are important sources of medicines)
Regulatory services
 climate regulation - soil and forests store a large amount of carbon
 disease and pest control - some natural predators control some disease causing pests
 pollination - different organisms including bees and other insects assist in the dispersal of seeds
 purification of water and air - organisms decompose (detoxify) toxic substances
 soil erosion control by forests
 waste decomposition - various organisms in the environment decompose wastes and enhance nutrient
Cultural services
 recreation, sports, hunting
 source of foreign currency
 education and research
12.4. Threats to Biodiversity
Biodiversity faces threats from different sources.
Land use change
The conversion of forests, grasslands and woodlands to cultivated land results in the destruction of the natural
habitats of various plant and animal species. This conversion is called land use change and is usually done to
expand cultivated land for crop production. Land use change results in the loss of several plant and animal species.
Unsustainable use of resources/Over exploitation
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Unsustainable use of resources refers to overexploitation of resources including overgrazing, hunting and
harvesting of biological resources. Overgrazing exposes soils to erosion, and this, can result in the loss of plant
and animal species. Together with the species, ecosystem services can also be lost. Uncontrolled fishing, overuse
of water resources and overharvesting of tree species are further examples of unsustainable resource use.
Overharvesting of timber production has threatened the tree species Hagenia abyssinica in Ethiopia. Over
pumping of water from lakes and wetlands results in the loss of species and habitats (e.g., Lake Haramaya
disappeared for many years due to over exploitation, and only starting to come back as a result of restorative
efforts).
Invasive species
Some invasive species compete against local species for resources and habitats. This causes loss of biodiversity
and ecosystem services. Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), the shrub Prosopis juliflora L. and water
hyacinth (Eichornia crossipes L., ‘’Emboch’’) are good examples of invasive species that threaten biodiversity
in Ethiopia. Parthenium weed invades forage and croplands. This causes yield losses. Prosopis has invaded
rangelands in the Awash Valley, in Afar and Somali regions. It has caused losses of forage species in the areas.
Water hyacinth has become a major threat to the Awash river basin and Lake Tana. By establishing dense canopy,
water hyacinth limits boat traffic and recreation, it shades native aquatic plant species, preventing their growth
and negatively affecting aquatic animals that feed on these plants. It also reduces oxygen availability and can
result in reduced fish production.
Climate change
Due to climate change, the average maximum as well as the minimum temperatures have increased in Ethiopia.
There has also been a change in the rainfall distribution pattern in the country. This has shortened the crop
growing season in many areas. A substantial decrease has also been observed in crop varieties that require long
growing seasons. Change in rainfall pattern, early coming of the rain or its late coming, usually affects yields of
some crops. Climate change and its effects will be discussed in the next unit.
Environmental Pollution
Pollution in the Ethiopian context is usually related to improper management of both solid and liquid wastes.
Solid and liquid wastes often contain toxic substances. These toxic substances enter water resources, forests or
soils. Water resources, forests or soils are habitats for various organisms. Their pollution by toxic substances can
be highly harmful to living organisms in these habitats.
The pollution of habitats destroys the natural habitats of various species of plants, animals and other organisms.
This in turn leads to the reduction in the number of species, and in the population of different organisms. A total
loss of some species could even be the consequence of pollution of habitats.
Irrigation of croplands with runoff water that contains dissolved pesticides and fertilizers can affect soil and
aquatic organisms. Eroded soils that contain high nitrogen and phosphorus pollute water resources. This harms
aquatic animals like fish and could result in their extinction.
Population growth
The increase in the population of a country results in an increase in the demand for food and other basic services.
Unchecked population growth results in the expansion of agricultural lands and overexploitation of resources.
Using marginal and unsuitable lands for production can also be an undesirable consequence of uncontrolled
population growth.
12.5. Biodiversity Conservation and its Status in Ethiopia
Biodiversity conservation refers to the planned management of biodiversity in a particular ecosystem to prevent
overexploitation, pollution, destruction and to ensure biodiversity is maintained.
The major objectives in biodiversity conservation are to maintain:
 a sustainable use of species and the ecosystem
 life supporting systems
 essential ecological processes
The need for conservation of biodiversity
Human activities like habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species and harvesting of species has caused
huge losses of biodiversity. The presence of diversity in species of plants and animals enables researchers to
develop improved varieties of plants and animals for human use. Diverse plant species could be important for
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food production and as raw materials for making different medicines. Biodiversity also provides various
regulatory and cultural services. In the Ethiopian context, approximately 85% of the population lives in rural
areas. The livelihood of most of this population, directly or indirectly, depends on natural resources. Therefore,
conservation is vital for the livelihood of the population.
Biodiversity conservation in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has diverse ecosystems located in different altitudes. These ecosystems contain diverse biological
resources including plant genetic resources which include:
 Field crops,
 Horticultural crops (such as fruits and vegetables),
 Wild plants
 Medicinal plants (wild plants used for treating human diseases)
 Forests
 Rangelands and forage plants
Ethiopia has rich animal genetic resources and wildlife genetic resources. Animal genetic resources include farm
animal genetic resources (e.g., indigenous breeds of cattle and other domestic animals). As examples of animal
genetic resources, there are about 29 mammal types and 18 bird species that are endemic to Ethiopia.
Threats to biodiversity in Ethiopia
Forest resources in the country are seriously threatened by deforestation, habitat destruction and poor
regeneration. Expansion of invasive species, clearing forest for agriculture, forest fires and illegal tree harvest
are other examples of threats to biodiversity in Ethiopia. This has threatened many species of trees in the country
including medicinal plants.
Overgrazing and over-browsing of shrubby vegetation, invasive species and conversion of grazing lands to
cultivated lands are major threats to forage resources of the country. Efforts are being made to reduce the
problems. Clearing invasive species, selecting and multiplying locally adapted forage species, enclosing degraded
rangelands and banning open grazing are some examples of the effort made to reduce the threats.
Various wild animals are threatened by the expansion of agriculture and grazing areas near wildlife habitats.
Deforestation and habitat destruction also threaten wild animals. Similarly, overgrazing and overharvesting
(fish) are harmful to wild animals. Unbalanced water use and siltation of water resources are yet other forms of
habitat degradation. There are many endangered species of wild animals in the country:
 Walia Ibex (Capra walie)
 Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni)
 Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis)
Different efforts are already in place in different regions to reduce the destruction of forest resources. The efforts
involve local communities in the management of the forest resources. In some places, forests were closed to
reduce human interference. There are various protected areas in the country to reduce the risk of wildlife
biodiversity losses in the country. These are:
 National and regional parks,
 Wildlife sanctuaries,
 Wildlife reserves,
 Botanical gardens and herbariums,
 Controlled hunting centers
In general, biodiversity conservation is important to reduce the losses of vital plants, animals and microbial
resources for the sustainability of agriculture, forestry, wildlife and other similar sectors.

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Unit 13: Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation
13.1. Definitions of Climate Change and Variability
Climate change refers to a long term (e.g. decades) change in temperatures and the patterns of the weather. In
climate change, extreme weather events like unusual floods, droughts, wildfires, unusual snowfalls, intense
hurricanes and warming of the earth can become more common. Climate variability refers to the short term
variability in the climate. Climate variability does not cause fundamental changes in the ecosystem. Organisms
can adapt to the changes, as the changes in climate variability are not long-term. For example, some years can
have below average rainfall while others have average or above the average rainfall.
Climate change leads to fundamental changes in the ecosystem. Some of the changes are:
 A decrease in crop and animal productivity
 Animals and plant species may be threatened and even become extinct
 Changes in water availability
 Changes in storm patters and frequencies
 Increased flooding of coastal areas
 Changes in rainfall amount and patterns
 Increased frequency of drought
 Drying of surface water resources
 Increased soil erosion
 Increase in desertification

The major cause of climate change is the production and release of gases called greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere from different sources. Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and cause global
warming. The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The
accumulation of these gases in the atmosphere causes climate change. In addition to global warming, climate
change also causes depletion of the ozone layer and exposes the earth to harmful radiation that can cause skin
cancer in humans.
Human activities like agriculture, forest clearing, forest burning, and fossil fuel burning release these gases into
the atmosphere. Natural processes can also produce the gases. It is generally agreed that climate change is mainly
caused by human activities. When the concentration of greenhouse gases increases in the atmosphere, heat is
trapped, and this results in global warming

Figure 13.1. The impact of concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

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13.2. Climate Change and Its Effects
Climate change causes changes in rainfall amounts and patterns. Climate change causes an increase in global
temperatures and the melting of icecaps and glaciers. Rise in the sea level and droughts that cause an increase in
evaporation are consequences of climate change.
Effects of climate change on agriculture
In areas where agriculture is mainly dependent on rainfall, a decrease in rainfall, due to climate change, reduces
water availability. An increase in temperature, due to climate change, also increases water losses from soils and
surface water resources. In both cases, there will be water shortage for growing crops and for animals and human
consumption.
In some areas, climate change can also cause increased rainfall. The increase in rainfall may result in increased
soil erosion. When soils are eroded, nutrients that plants use for growth will be washed away with the soils. This
reduces nutrient availability for field crops and forages. The consequence will be a decrease in crop yields and
animal productivity. Reduction in crop and livestock productivity is particularly harmful to societies that are
dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. Increased rainfall can also lead to damages of croplands and
household properties.
In addition to reducing crop and livestock productivity, global warming could increase the incidence of some
crop and animal diseases. This results in the reduction of crop and livestock yields. Global warming and
decreased water availability also cause a marked decrease in crop and livestock productivities. Climate change
also affects animal production through reduced forage yields, heat stress from increased temperature, water
shortage and increased incidence of existing and new diseases and parasites causing reduced animal growth and
productivity.

Ethiopian agriculture is mainly small scale with very low use of production enhancing technologies including
improved seeds/breeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and agricultural machineries. Therefore, crop and animal
productivity is low compared to the potential. These characteristics of Ethiopian agriculture make it highly
vulnerable to the effects of climate change. For example, more than 90% of crop production in the country is
rainfed, with very low production under irrigation. Climate change is expected to reduce rainwater and increase
temperature. These will further reduce crop yields. Animal production will also be negatively affected by climate
change. Therefore, a strategy is needed in agriculture to reduce climate change effects and improve agricultural
production to meet the increasing demand for food production.
Effects of climate change on forestry
Global warming and reduced water availability causes reduced vegetation growth, reduced productivity and
loss of some tree species. This reduces the capacity of the forest to absorb carbon through photosynthesis.
Degradation of the environment in the form of deforestation, soil erosion and disappearance of wildlife enhances
desertification in arid and semi- arid areas. Generally, climate change results in reduced capacity of the forest
to regulate the climate through carbon storage. The forest is a habitat for various organisms - plants, animals
and microbes. Any loss of the forest or species in it causes loss of plant and animal biodiversity.
Effects on sea level
An increase in global temperature – i.e., global warming - has already caused melting of polar ice caps. This
causes sea level to rise and coastal communities become more vulnerable to flooding. Flooding destroys
communities and can damage the overall ecosystems.
Ocean acidification
Oceans absorb about 30% of carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide released
to the atmosphere due to human activities is increasing. This increase can lead to a similar increase in the amount
of carbon dioxide absorbed by oceans. When carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, it produces carbonic acid.
When the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in oceans increases, the oceans become more and more acidic.
This is harmful to organisms that live in the oceans
13.3. Strategies of Mitigating Climate Change
Climate change mitigation refers to the activities implemented to either reduce or remove the emissions of
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. These practices reduce or remove greenhouse gas emissions in two ways:
1. reducing greenhouse gas emissions
2. enhancing removal of greenhouse gases by carbon sinks
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 13.3.1 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from sources Energy
Fossil fuel burning has long been a source of energy in industries. The practice has been the largest source of
human-induced carbon dioxide emission to the atmosphere. Today, however, there is a growing need to shift to
renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind energy and hydropower in order to reduce carbon emission.
Clearing of forests results in the release of stored carbon into the atmosphere. Forests are usually cleared to get
additional agricultural land, firewood and timber. These practices release massive amounts of carbon to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This contributes to global warming. The reduction of deforestation is an important
way of reducing carbon emission from forests.
13.3.2. Enhancing carbon sinks Afforestation
Forests store a large amount of carbon, through photosynthesis, in their biomass, forest floor and in soils. Forests
play a vital role by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This helps to mitigate climate changes.
Afforestation means planting new forests and this enhances the carbon storage capacity (sink capacity) and helps
to mitigate climate change.
13.3.3. Improved soil management
Like forests, soils also store a large amount of carbon. About 2 times more carbon is stored in the soil, compared
to the total amount in the atmosphere. So, conservation and management of soils through implementing best
practices enhances the carbon storage capacity of soils. This means that a high proportion of the carbon removed
from atmosphere by plants remains in soils through implementing soil conservation practices. The practices
include crop rotation, mixed cropping, reduced soil tillage, mulching and use of terraces and other physical soil
conservation structures.
13.4. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in Ethiopia
Climate Change Adaptation
Climate change adaptation refers to the adjustments that farmers and other communities make in response to
actual or expected climate change. In order to cope with the impacts of climate change, farmers need to modify
their ways of doing crop production and animal rearing. Farmers need to implement appropriate climate change
adaptation practices to reduce the harmful effects of the changing climate.
The most common climate change adaptation practices include:
 Changing crop rotation and involving more drought adapted crops in the cropping pattern
 Intercropping, mixing legumes and cereals reduces soil erosion and reduces water loss by evaporation
 Changing the crop type to crops that are better adapted
 Changing the cropping time w (planting early or late)
 Using perennials mixed with legumes and cereals
 Using animal breeds which are better adapted and better feed conversion efficiency
 Grazing land enclosures
 Utilization of locally available, non-conventional or unusual feed resources
Some of the common climate adaptation strategies used by farmers in Ethiopia.
 Expansion of perennial crops  Selecting or breeding more suitable animals
 Change in crop varieties  Improving management practices
 Income diversification  Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)
 Mixed cropping
Expansion of perennial crops
This includes planting crops like enset and tree species that better tolerate the effects of climate change. When
field crops fail due to climate change, the farmer may have food from enset plants or sell the tree products and
purchase food. The use of these perennials reduces the risk of total yield loss.
Income diversification
Instead of depending totally on agriculture, farmers participate in off farm activities like trading, paid labor work
and other activities. These reduce the chance of total income loss for the household, particularly during climate
change.
Change in crop varieties
Certain crop varieties are more adapted to moisture shortage conditions than others. During moisture shortage
years, farmers select crop varieties that are drought tolerant. These crop varieties can tolerate the drought

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conditions through short maturity period or efficient use of the available water. Through using these crop
varieties, farmers reduce the risk of total yield loss.
Mixed cropping
This helps to use the soil resource efficiently and, during climate change, reduces the risk of total crop loss. In
mixed cropping, crops have different tolerance to drought conditions. If one crop species fails to give yield, the
other crop in the mixture provides some crop yield for the farmers.
Selecting or breeding more suitable animals
The extent of the impacts depends on the animal breed. Selecting highly productive, disease resistant and breeds
adapted to the local climate conditions and feeds is important to improve animal productivity in a changing
climate.
Improving management practices
Globally animal production is the major source of methane (CH4) emission which causes global warming.
Improving the management of animal manure for example through using it for biogas production has the potential
to reduce greenhouse gas emission from the sector. Additionally, improving animal nutrition can reduce methane
emission from the animal production sector.
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach where crop production, animal production and natural
resources are managed to address the changing climate. Climate Smart Agriculture has three aims. These are:
a. increase sustainable productivity
b. reduce vulnerability to climate related risks and improve capacity to adapt to climate change
c. reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production
In order to reduce the negative impacts of climate change, agricultural practices implemented by all farmers
should be designed in a way to address the three objectives of CSA. Therefore, integrated use of these practices
is important to achieve the triple objectives of CSA.

Figure 13.2. Some common CSA practices

13.5. Indigenous Knowledge in Climate Change Mitigation Strategies
Gedeo environmental protection
The Gedeo community have rich culture and indigenous knowledge that encourages environmental protection
and conservation. The Gedeo community have great respect for nature. Nature including mountains, trees,
hillsides and riversides are recognized as intermediates connecting the creator (God) and the creation (man).
According to elders in the community, protecting these natural resources is a way of expressing human desire
and prayers to God. Natural resources including forests, wildlife and water resources should be respected among
the Gedeo just like humans.
Indigenous soil conservation of the Konso community
The Konso community have a traditional landscape characterized by indigenous stone terraces. Indigenous stone
terraces have been used for soil conservation for hundreds of years in the community. These indigenous practices
protect soils from erosion. The stone terraces collect maximum amount of water and discharge the excess. They
create suitable spaces for agriculture. The effect of soil erosion protection is improved soil capacity. Improved
soil stores carbon. The carbon helps in the mitigation of changes in the climate.
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