PublishedArticle

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 156 (2022) 111965
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Hybrid power and propulsion systems for ships: Current status and
future challenges
Omer Berkehan Inal a, *, Jean-Frédéric Charpentier b, Cengiz Deniz a
a
Istanbul Technical University, Maritime Faculty, Marine Engineering Department, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
b
Research Institute of the French Naval Academy (IRENav), CC 600, 29240, Brest, France
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Increasing environmental concerns are driving the shipping industry to take strict measures to deal with
Hybrid propulsion greenhouse gas emissions. International Maritime Organization drives the industry to find more efficient and
Electric ship environmentally friendly power systems. To mitigate harmful emissions, researches on marine alternative fuels,
Emission reduction
operational improvements like slow steaming or predictive maintenance, and additional emission abatement
Hybrid propulsion architecture
Energy management system
technologies are not sufficient. The use of electricity as the main energy vector is one of the ways to improve the
Hybrid propulsion selection shipping propulsion system’s efficiency. In this study, power generation technologies, energy storage compo
Hybrid propulsion optimization methods nents, energy management systems, and hybrid propulsion topologies are reviewed. Diesel engines, fuel cells,
solar and wind power as renewable energy sources are discussed as power generation units. On the energy
storage side, batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels are presented and described. Three common hybrid pro
pulsion configurations, serial, parallel, and serial-parallel architectures are detailed with their pros and cons by
highlighting commonly used energy management systems and optimization methods. Lastly, criteria for hybrid
system selection are defined according to eight different ship types and assessed by providing a generic meth
odological approach. It is shown that electrical components and architectural design should be elaborated ac
cording to operational and architectural characteristics for ships. In short term, it is concluded that internal
combustion engines are still the major hybridization element with different energy storage systems. New reg
ulations on the mitigation of harmful emissions will accelerate the transition to hybrid power which is an
important option for the ultimate zero-carbon shipping goal.
72% of fossil fuel consumption is heavy fuel oil (HFO), 26% is marine
diesel oil (MDO), and 2% is liquefied natural gas (LNG) [4]. Despite the
1. Introduction
LNG shows better performance of higher energy efficiency and lower
GHG emission compared to HFO and MDO, disadvantages like methane
Maritime transportation is one of the economic development pro
slip, and difficulties onboard storage weakened the position in the
moters for countries by being the major agent of trade between nations
market [5]. For instance, a study on the comparison of LNG with HFO
for many years. More specifically, 80–90% share of global trade is made
concludes that LNG may reduce SOx, NOx, and CO2 emissions by 98%,
by sea transportation [1,2]. Being an energy-efficient way compared to
86%, 11%, respectively [6].
road and air transportation is an important reason for the massive use of
Amount of consumed fuel directly causes well-known climate-
shipping. As a consequence of this massive use, the biggest fuel con
changing air polluting greenhouse gases (GHGs), and regulated emis
sumer in the transportation industry is international shipping [3]. In
sions like nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), the volatile organic
ternational Maritime Organization (IMO) states that ships
compound (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
approximately consume 300 million tons of fossil fuels annually. The
particulate matter (PM). According to the Fourth IMO GHG Study 2020,
high amount of fossil fuel consumption leads to a high amount of
total shipping (international, domestic, and fishing) emitted 1076
emissions. Although other transportation modes also mainly use fossil
million tons of greenhouse gas (including CO2, CH4, and N2O) which
fuels, since the content of the fuel is heavy, the amount of GHG emis
means a 9.6% increase compared to emissions in 2012. According to
sions in the shipping industry is significant. Ship sourced harmful
European Energy Agency (EEA), maritime transportation was
emissions are mainly caused by the use of fossil fuels. Approximately,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: inalo@itu.edu.tr (O.B. Inal).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111965
Received 18 March 2021; Received in revised form 2 November 2021; Accepted 27 November 2021
Available online 1 December 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O.B. Inal et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 156 (2022) 111965
Abbreviations IMO International maritime organization

LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
AC Alternative current LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
ACOA Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
AFC Alkaline fuel cell MDO Marine Diesel Oil
ANN Artificial Neural Network MEPC Marine Environment Protection Committee
DC Direct Current NMC Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
DG Diesel Generator OSV Offshore Supply Vessel
DPA Dynamic Programming Algorithm PAFC Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
DEA Differential Evolution Algorithm PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
DFDE Dual-fuel diesel engine PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
ECMS Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy RES Renewable Energy Source
EEDI Energy Efficiency Design Index SAA Simulated Annealing Algorithm
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation SC Super Capacitor
EMS Energy Management System SCR Selective Catalytic Reactor
ESS Energy Storage System SEEMP Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan
FC Fuel Cell SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
FWE Fuel Water Emission WHR Waste Heat Recovery
GA Genetic Algorithm
GHG Greenhouse Gas Symbols
HFO Heavy Fuel Oil I Moment of Inertia
HPS Hybrid Propulsion System m Mass of the Disc
ICE Internal combustion engine r Radius
IEM Internal Engine Modifications ω Rotational Velocity
responsible for 1.94% of carbon monoxide (CO), 20.98% of nitrogen maintenance processes that increase the capital and operational ex
oxide (NOX), 11.80% of sulfur oxide (SOX), 4.63% of particulate matter penditures and procedures [24,25].
(PM10), and 8.57% of particulate matter (PM2.5) emission in 2019. The second approach is the marine alternative fuels. Currently,
Maritime transportation is responsible for around 3.1% of the total CO2 methanol, biodiesel, ammonia, biogas, hydrogen, and LPG can be
emissions worldwide, and which corresponds to the sixth most CO2 accepted as promising marine alternative fuels owing to their energy
emitter country in the world [7]. Furthermore, the share in the global capacity [25–28]. Methanol as being the simplest alcohol can be ob
anthropogenic emissions of shipping increased from 2.76% in 2012 to tained from natural gas, coal, and different agricultural products [29].
2.89% in 2018. If any measure is not taken for mitigating shipping High flammability and 20,000 MJ/t calorific value are promising but
emissions, it is expected to increase by 150–250% of emissions by 2050 still challenging due to high toxicity [30]. Methanol is under investi
[8]. By the way, CO2 reduction is an important research area not only for gation to be used in internal combustion engines to reduce CO2 emis
shipping but also for other industries by using different capturing sions [31]. Hydrogen and ammonia are also important alternative fuels
techniques or renewable fuels [9–11]. for shipping with their zero-carbon structure. Using renewable energy to
Mitigating harmful exhaust gas emissions of shipping is still a chal produce hydrogen and ammonia is the greenest way instead of sepa
lenge for the industry. In this perspective, the International Maritime rating from fossil fuels like HFO or coal [32]. Hence, biogas is obtained
Organization (IMO), the rule-maker of the industry, is bringing more from agricultural products and organic waste. Methane is the primary
rigorous regulations for the future of shipping [12,13] in the framework energy carrier and the bio form is the most environmentally friendly
of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from version. The approximate CO2 content of the biogas is determined as
Ships (MARPOL). The Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) and the 25–45% with a 20,000 MJ/t calorific value [33]. Biodiesel is the most
Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) are key modifica mature biofuel in terms of the production process and supply chain.
tions to MARPOL ANNEX VI which fix some limitations to the air Biodiesels can be obtained by converting oils and fats into chemicals
polluting emissions [14]. The harmful emissions are inevitable in the called Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) with an esterification process.
current situation, which still sees the use of fossil fuels such as Heavy They have similar properties to diesel fuels by producing low SOx
Fuel Oil (HFO) and Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) as a primary energy source emissions. LPG is another alternative marine fuel but being explosive
[15]. Therefore, more efficient and alternative solutions to internal and relatively expensive seems like the biggest barrier for ships.
combustion engines should be found for the future of the maritime in Lastly, the adoption of hybrid-electric for powering the ships both for
dustry. At this point, the maritime industry has mainly three different propulsion and other electrical loads can lead to decrease harmful
approaches to eliminate or reduce airborne emissions such as using new emissions by reducing fuel consumption with other advantages as seen
emissions abatement technologies, marine alternative fuels, and lastly, in Fig. 1 [34–36]. In this regard, power generation and power storage
electrification of the propulsion with the possible use of hybrid power options have to be well analyzed to find more effective solutions. An
systems (HPS) [16]. This las solution is the main scope of this paper. optimal and sustainable design according to the ship’s operation profile
The first approach, emission abatement technologies include many requires a holistic point of view by maritime stakeholders. Hence, the
different techniques. Internal engine modifications (IEM), exhaust gas approaches in the literature for the hybridization technologies for ships
recirculation (EGR) [17–19], fuel water emissions (FWE), waste heat are generally focused on the use of batteries, supercapacitors, and fly
recovery system (WHR) [20,21], sulfur scrubbers [22], and selective wheels as electric storage by combining them with internal combustion
catalytic reduction (SCR) [23] are the significant technologies devel engines and fuel cells as power generators [37–40]. Using a multi-source
oped to cope with ship sourced GHG emissions. It is obvious that these energy system allows to optimize and improve ship power generation.
new technologies are effective in reducing GHG and regulated emissions While the combination of alternative energy sources increases the cap
however, they require additional installation, operation, and ital expenditures, thanks to the ability to reach higher efficiencies the
2
most common and promising systems. Hybrid propulsion architecture

and energy management systems are presented in sections 4 and 5,
respectively. Section 6 discusses the methodologies for system and
technology selection and criteria for different ship types. At last, the
concluding remarks with the future scope are highlighted in section 7.
2. Energy storage systems suitable for electric and hybrid ships
Energy storage systems (ESS) integration is a key point for hybrid

ships. On a first hand, integration of ESS allows an internal combustion
engine to be operated at the most efficient range to minimize fuel con
Fig. 1. Advantages of electric and hybrid propulsion. sumption and so harmful emissions. This load-leveling technique is
extremely important for the vessels which have an operation profile with
transient load variations. Generating the major part of the required
operational expenditures decreases.
power using energy storage systems is necessary and it allows the diesel
To be more specific, marine diesel engines are the prominent hybrid
engine to operate at its high efficiency operating zones instead of low
combination element with batteries. For instance, diesel-battery hybrid
loads where the fuel consumption and emissions increase. ESS choices,
propulsion is investigated for an oceangoing bulk carrier and it is shown
combinations, sizing, and global system design and its control should be
that 2%–3% reduction in fuel consumption and 5%–7% CO2 and NOx
done in order to respond to operational demands with maximum effi
emission by increasing the system efficiency can be reached [41]. Bou
ciency considering mission constraints and mission profile. Appropriate
mann et al. [8] estimate that hybrid power/propulsion can diminish CO2
roles of ESSs are shown in Fig. 2.
emissions by 2–45%. In another research on the diesel-fuel cell hybrid
The most common ESS used in vessels is batteries. However, different
system for an offshore supply vessel, a design is studied to ensure
combinations of ESS technologies for onboard usage should be carefully
emission regulations [42]. A study presented by Baccioli et al. [43] fo
considered as a function of their technical characteristics, costs, weights,
cuses on the hybridization of conventional marine diesel engines with a
and sizes [50]. For this reason, batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels
molten carbonate fuel cell system by using the CO2 emission of the diesel
are reviewed in this section according to their different advantageous
engine to operate in the fuel cell. According to two different system
operational characteristics. A summary of their characteristics is shown
configurations, 4.9% and 0.8% efficiency gain is reached. Sciberras et al.
in Table 2.
[44] studied hybrid propulsion for a Ro-Ro type ship and a 45%
reduction in fuel consumption and emission is projected.
On the other hand, various renewable energy resources and non- 2.1. Batteries
renewable energy resources should be considered to reach the final
multi-energy hybrid solutions according to ship operating modes. Multi- Batteries are the leading energy storage technology due to their
energy hybrid systems are very attractive and promising alternatives for relatively higher energy density, lower cost than other technologies at
the shipping industry because this kind of configuration allows fuel the same energy level, and already acquired experiences from other
flexibility and electrical propulsion system integration compared to transportation sectors. Structurally batteries are formed from electrodes,
conventional systems [45]. Despite that the hybridization of energy electrolytes, and separators, while the performance depends on the
storage and energy generation technologies makes the system more electrode material [52]. Since there are various types of batteries that
complex, there are several advantages in terms of efficiency, emissions, can be commercially applied in the transportation sector, for the mari
maneuverability, maintenance, and fuel consumption [46,47]. There time industry selection of battery type is an important process for reli
fore, hybridization or electrification of the shipping industry seems like able, efficient, and proper application. Even if other kinds of batteries
a good option to fit into the predicted IMO framework. It should be can be used in the future, reviews on the ESS suggest that Li-ion batteries
noted that the use of hybrid power in ships increases the system are favorable for shipping considering their high energy densities and
complexity, and cost. However, the way on the decarbonization and the high lifetime (cycle) thanks to their industrial maturity level and
new regulations make them viable and necessary. Hybrid propulsion availability [53–55]. Furthermore, the cost of Li-ion batteries is signif
systems are quite new for maritime compared to the automobile in icantly reduced in recent years [56]. Therefore, the properties of the
dustry [48,49] however, experiences from other industries increase the Li-ion battery are considered for the further steps in the paper as can be
development speed of hybrid energy solutions in shipping. noticed in Table 1. All battery types have pros and cons, for instance; the
The motivation for this paper is to ensure a comprehensive review of
the state of the art of ship hybrid propulsion technologies and the cor
responding architectures via presenting strategies and methodologies
used for the control and the design of these systems. Additionally, the
study develops a generic methodology by defining criteria for hybrid
system selection according to ship types and their behaviors. Eight
different ship types are selected as the benchmark and possible power
generation and energy storage techniques are evaluated for different
hybridization topologies. Although there are many ship-based analysis
and review papers on hybrid propulsion systems, a state of the art that
includes a system selection and classification according to ship types are
found as a gap in the literature. Furthermore, an up-to-date review of the
current propulsion technologies, energy management systems and
optimization techniques are summarized in the same study by assessing
the possible ship types in which the hybrid system can be applied.
In this scope the paper is structured as follows; energy storage and
power generation technologies that can be used in ship energy/pro
pulsion systems are presented in sections 2 and 3 via summarizing the
Fig. 2. Roles for an ESS on board (adopted from Ref. [51]).
3
Table 1
Characteristics of popular battery types [37,39,54,60,61].
Battery Type Energy density (kWh/kg) Power density (kW/kg) Efficiency Lifetime (Cycle) Capital Cost ($/kWh)
− 3 − 3
Lead - Acid 30–50 × 10 75–300 × 10 70–90% 500–1000 70
Nickel–Cadmium 50–75 × 10− 3 150–300 × 10− 3 60–65% 2000–2500 300
Nickel Metal Hydride 60–100 × 10− 3 200–1500 × 10− 3 65–90% 750 300–500
Lithium – Ion 100–200 × 10− 3 80–2000 × 10− 3 85–90% 600–2000 200–700
of 1 MWh. Recharging is done from shore connection during short

Table 2
breaks of unloading and loading at the port and overnight [66]. The
Comparison table of energy storage options [37].
results of the project were fascinating by reducing 1 million liter diesel
ESS Energy Power Capacity Efficiency Cycle Life so more than 8 thousand tons of CO2 since the ferry has been put into
Density Density (kW)
service in 2020 [51].
(kWh/ (kW/kg)
kg)
2.2. Supercapacitors
Battery (Li- 75–200 200–315 Up to 85–90% 1000-
Ion) × 10− 3 × 10− 3 100 10,000+
Supercapacitor 2.5–15 500–5000 Up to 90–95% 100,000+ Supercapacitors are technologically developed versions of conven
× 10− 3 × 10− 3 300 tional capacitors in the meaning of higher capacitance, higher power
Flywheels 10–30 × 400–1500 Up to 93–95% 20,000+
density, and cycling capability due to higher electrode surface area and
10− 3 × 10− 3 2500
thinner dielectrics. The rapid charging and discharging ability of
supercapacitors make them a good option for buffering the load fluc
most widely used lead-acid batteries are well-known for their low-cost tuations in the power system [67]. In contrast, limited energy density
but they suffer from low energy density [57,58]; in contrast, shows up as an important disadvantage, and so this kind of solution
nickel-metal hydride batteries can reach to high energy density, how requires another ESS or power generation system for a long-term sus
ever, their self-discharge rate is over 28% [59]. The most important and tainable operation. Meanwhile, in case of the need short time for power
popular battery types for ships are summarized in Table 1. deliverance, power density gains importance, so supercapacitors and to
Since the batteries offer a great hybridization solution for ships, a lesser degree flywheels emerge as solutions compared to batteries
many analyses were carried out with multiple different strategies. As an [50]. Therefore, supercapacitors can have a key role to optimize the
example, the hybridization of Li-ion batteries with PEMFC is analyzed hybridization of a ship power system according to operation profile. For
for a coastal ship in terms of feasibility and benefit while taking into instance, Nebb et al. showed a reduction in fuel consumption for an
account several constraints such as power and energy density, lifetime, offshore supply vessel for different operation profiles and supply the
and cost [62]. A proposal on the identification of parameters to estimate load changes with a hybrid supercapacitor-battery energy storage sys
the state of charge and capacity of the battery in use onboard ship is tem [68]. In another study on the techno-economic analysis and opti
studied in Ref. [63]. The effect of a hybrid battery-diesel electric pro mization of the use of supercapacitor for an electric ferry is elaborated
pulsion system on the exhaust gas emissions for the global dry bulk and a 6% decrease in cost is reachable compared to the conventional
carrier fleet is analyzed and a potential of 14% reduction of GHG design with an estimated lifetime of 20 years [69].
emission is found [41]. Alternatively, different configurations of hybrid A commercial application on the usage of supercapacitors as an en
battery-diesel generators have different effects on emissions. The anal ergy storage device for fully electric propulsion has been implemented
ysis on the arrangement according to diesel-battery power distribution is on the passenger ship Ar Vag Tredan (Fig. 4) [70]. The 22 m catamaran
studied and specific configurations adapted to mission profile can ach ferry serves as a short transportation trip in the Bay of Lorient in France
ieve better results in terms of emission reduction [64]. On the other at a maximum speed of 10 knots and it is recharged from shore
hand, all-electric ship propulsion projects with full batteries are also connection during the passenger loading and unloading [71].
under investigation. For instance, MF Ampere is an important project
and considered as a milestone on the way through zero-emission fully 2.3. Flywheels
electric ships, see Fig. 3 [65]. The vessel is the world’s first all-electric
car ferry and has been operating in Norway since 2015. The 80 m Flywheels are electromechanical devices that store energy in the
long vessel is equipped with 10 tons of lithium nickel manganese cobalt kinetic energy form by a spinning rotor. The rotating speed of a flywheel
oxide (NMC) battery, a subtype of li-ion battery, with an energy capacity is related to an energy-storing capacity. The kinetic energy amount for a
Fig. 3. World first all-electric car ferry “MF Ampere”. Fig. 4. “Ar Vag Tredan” supercapacitor driven ferry.
4
flywheel is expressed with formula (1), where I is the moment of inertia Although diesel engines’ CO2 emissions are lower than Otto cycle
and ω is the rotational velocity [72]. engines thanks to their higher efficiency, they have higher NOx emis
sions due to their higher compression ratio and higher burning tem
1 2
E= Iω (1) peratures [80,81]. Moreover, on the purpose of reducing CO2, NOx, SOx,
2
and PM emissions, liquefied natural gas (LNG) is a very promising so
If the rotating object is a disc, the stored energy can be expressed lution for LNG carriers by adopting dual-fuel diesel engines (DFDE)
with formula (2), where the m is the mass of the disc, and r is the radius using the boil-off gas which occurs in pressurized tanks due to the heat
of the disc [72]. transfer of cryogenic storage. The DFDE operates with both classical
1 fuels; marine diesel oil (MDO) and heavy fuel oil (HFO), and relatively
E= mr2 ω2 (2) new fuel LNG. The possibility of LNG for shipping is highly in demand
4
after revision of the regulations on NOx, and SOx limits in MARPOL
Flywheels are offering an average solution using a trade-off by Annex IV by the IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee
providing higher energy density than batteries and higher power density (MEPC). As can be noticed, just by calculating the carbon conversion
than supercapacitors as given in Table 2 [72,73]. Although the power factor - the equivalent of the emitted CO2 per mass of the consumed fuel -
density is higher than other ESSs, energy density is lower [74], therefore of LNG approximately 14% reduction of CO2 can be reached in com
the main usage area of flywheels is for tempering load fluctuations such parison to diesel fuel, as seen in Table 3. For instance, an Energy Effi
as uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) [67,75]. The friction losses are ciency Design Index (EEDI) analysis for LNG carriers is made by
the main disadvantages, however, magnetic bearings are substantial Ref. [82] considering unburned methane. In another paper economic
developments that significantly reduced the friction and the system ef analysis of LNG using dual-fuel engines is studied according to the
ficiency can reach more than 90% [60]. Flywheels offer a longer lifetime cost-effectiveness of different projects [83]. However, there are still
compared to batteries thanks to their very high cycling capabilities in a some problems for LNG usage other than LNG carriers, such as the high
wider temperature range without capacity and performance degradation cost of onboard storage tanks and safety risks [84]. Meanwhile, five
[72,73]. Furthermore, flywheels are scalable technology with short dimensions are identified as environmental, social, infra
recharge time and using environmentally friendly materials. Optimiza structure/technology, economic price, and maritime demand for marine
tion of long-term operation of flywheels is still under investigation to use transportation market development of LNG as fuel [85].
in vehicles [53]. However, safety reasons can limit their implementation On the other hand, biofuels are significantly effective in the transi
in ships but still, they can be used to supply pulsed load in military ships tion to clean energy for the shipping industry [87]. The main and the
[76]. Indeed, due to high-speed disk velocity, specific protecting hous major driving advantage of biofuels is the availability of current ship
ing is necessary, and specific qualifications are required for ship oper infrastructures like marine diesel oil or heavy fuel oils [88]. Considering
ating engineers [77]. the emission reduction, biofuels have a substantially lower impact on
The common energy storage methods; batteries, supercapacitors, the environment compared to fossil fuels like marine diesel oil or heavy
and flywheels are explained and details are given in this section. The fuel oil [89].
power generation technologies will be the third section. Although, there are several options to control and eliminate harmful
emissions such as; scrubbers, exhaust gas recirculation system, selective
3. Power generation technologies catalytic reduction, variable injection timing, and exhaust gas cleaning
systems [90] high investment cost regarding ship lifetime and limited
Onboard power generation technology choices for the shipping in fossil fuels prepare the alternative fuels and hybrid propulsion to the
dustry are limited. Although the devastating majority is Internal com stage as attractive solutions [31,91,92]. However, marine diesel engines
bustion Engines (and particularly marine diesel engines), fuel cells and have an important role in the hybridization of propulsion systems thanks
renewable energy sources also have several examples thanks to their to their advantages at the cost of fuel oil and higher reliability [93].
clean energy generation capacities and global environmental concerns. Marine diesel engines are inefficient during partial loads operations so,
As an advantage, hybrid systems are more flexible than conventional their fuel consumption and emissions increase. In terms of satisfying
propulsion systems due to their multiple powering options, so, in this emission limitations and keeping competitiveness at sea trade, mini
section commonly used power generation technologies in hybrid sys mizing fuel consumption is the major objective. By the way, as funda
tems are reviewed. mental operating characteristics of the diesel engines; most of the engine
builders recommend operating their engines above 60% load of the
3.1. Internal combustion engines maximum continuous ratio [78]. However, engine loads frequently
change particularly during berthing, maneuvering, and departing op
The most conventional and most common way to generate power on erations. Therefore, this led to the emergence of the technique of
board for propulsion and electric loads are the internal combustion providing the demanded power with energy storage systems such as
engines. Over the 19th and 20th centuries, the driving engines for ships batteries and supercapacitors which allows the operation of diesel en
are switched to diesel engines from steam engines and steam turbines gines at more efficient loads.
[40]. But also, there are several examples of gas turbines instead of
diesel engines, especially for warships and very high-power generation.
However, from an economical perspective, diesel engines are the major
Table 3
driving engines currently used in vessels. The leading driver of using
Conversion factor between fuel consumption and CO2 emission [86].
marine diesel engines is higher efficiency compared to high-pressure
steam turbines which can reach 35–37% where diesel engines operate Fuel Type Reference Carbon Conversion
Content Factor
around 48–52% [78,79]. The major advantages of marine diesel engines
are being well-experienced, and so, their well-known operational pro Diesel/Gas Oil ISO 8217 Grades DMX 0.8744 3.206
through DMB
cedures, highly accessible spare parts, and also advanced global fuel
Light Fuel Oil (LFO) ISO 8217 Grades RMA 0.8594 3.151
bunkering nets put them at the top of the market of marine power through RMD
sources. However, especially environmental concerns start to shake Heavy Fuel Oil ISO 8217 Grades RME 0.8493 3.114
their power in the market in recent years. Harmful emissions from diesel (HFO) through RMK
engines are tried to be controlled by IMO but, it seems difficult to stay Liquefied Natural – 0.75 2.750
Gas (LNG)
below limits using today’s technology and diesel fuels.
5
3.2. Fuel cells
Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy of the fuel into DC
electricity which is fed into the cell unit [94]. Since there is only one step
of energy conversion by eliminating combustion processes of internal
combustion engines, total efficiency is relatively higher than marine
diesel engines [95]. Fuel cells use often hydrogen as a primary fuel
option and so they can operate more cleanly than diesel engines [96]. In
this manner, regarding strict emission regulations, fuel cells are very
promising with their low environmental impact for powering future
ships [97]. The major difference between fuel cells from other energy
storage systems is their ability to operate without any need for
Fig. 5. “Viking lady” OSV in FellowSHIP project.
recharging, so they can generate electricity as long as the fuel is
supplied.
Fuel cells are classified according to the type of the used electrolyte SOx, or PM [105].
and commercially five types of the fuel cell are available in the market:
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), alkaline fuel cell (AFC), 3.3. Renewable energy sources and other carbon-free sources
phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and
solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The most popular type is the PEMFC due to The design and strategy of renewable energy sources (RESs) apply to
its high technological maturity and widespread applications both in both conventional and hybrid-electric propulsion ships. Technological
maritime and other energy applications [98]. Technological maturity improvements and readily available solutions call the shipping indus
comes with an advantage on the cost side, and also in operational try’s attention to RESs on the way to zero-emission and carbon-free ship
experience. However, as a major drawback, the PEMFC needs hydrogen transportation. RESs for the shipping industry is mainly focused on solar
in high purity, otherwise, the cell unit stops working due to poisoning energy [106,107], wind energy [108–111], wave energy [112] and
from carbon monoxide [99]. biofuels [92] are carried out in hybrid systems [113].
The main changes in the operation properties of different fuel cell The purpose of photovoltaic cells is to supply additional electric
types arise from the working temperatures; the high and low tempera energy for the propulsion system or electrical loads of the ship. Solar
ture working fuel cells show different characteristics. MCFC, PAFC, and energy is beneficial considering the auxiliary power demand of the ship,
SOFC are the high-temperature types. By the way, there is also a high- but considering the driving system, the output power is very limited
temperature version of PEMFC (HT-PEMFC); switching the membrane because it is directly related to the available surface where the PV can be
material perfluorosulfonic acid (Nafion) with polybenzimidazole (PBI) implemented and a low power level by the square meter (a few hundred
allows to operate at higher temperatures [100]. The HT-PEMFC ad W/m2). The power production depends on the atmospheric and
dresses some problems of PEMFC like water management at the cathode geographical conditions such as the latitude, angle, solar radiation,
side and high sensitivity to fuel impurities [101]. The high-temperature convection-conduction heat losses, or position of PV panels [114]. This
fuel cells are less sensitive to fuel content and much more flexible in fuel causes power fluctuations whereas it is a necessity to supply stable
selection; for instance, both hydrogen and hydrocarbons such as diesel power to the system. For these reasons solar energy needs an energy
oil, methanol, and LNG are the fuel options for SOFC and MCFC via a storage device and it is generally discussed as a complementary element
reforming process [42]. Besides the fuel flexibility, increase in the power of a hybrid system for ships. For instance, the design of a combination
capacity, and efficiency are the direct results of high operating hybrid PV, diesel, and battery system is elaborated by Lan et al. to
temperatures. optimize the size of the system and maximize the energy efficiency of
Fuel cells are modular so, their physical properties such as weight or diesel engines by considering environmental effects [115]. Furthermore,
size change according to required power by the system. In general, the ship’s physical movements are also affecting the hybrid PV-ESS
power output capacity is in kW levels, however, for high-temperature system efficiency, for instance, the swinging effect is studied by Wen
versions, MW levels are also reachable [102]. Indeed, exhaust gases et al. [116]. Stable power generation is hard for PV panels under
from high temperatures can be used with a combined turbine system so maritime conditions. Environmental disturbances such as salt spray and
the total system efficiency and power output increase [103]. Selecting seawater are heavily affecting their efficiency. The combined effect of
the most promising fuel cell type for hybridization is highly dependent both can cause to 6% power reduction is found by Zhang and Yuan
on the operation profile of the ship. However, from the handled projects, [117]. The limited capacity of solar panels and high cleaning re
it seems that PEMFC, MCFC, and SOFC show better performances quirements for efficiency restrict the consideration for ship application
compared to other types. They have different advantageous specifica to auxiliary and complementary power sources.
tions; if the power requirement is high, and difficulty at the onboard On the other hand, wind energy has various forms to assist the
storage of hydrogen occurs, SOFC and MCFC are preferable. Though, propulsion power by reducing the load of the main engine. Typical
from the emission side, high power density, and technological maturity techniques to convert the kinetic energy of the wind are Flettner rotors,
are the strong sides of the PEMFC. However, the need for high purity kites, wind turbines, and wing sails. Flettner rotors’ invention dates back
hydrogen as a fuel is still not economical for long seas. Therefore, to the 1920s. Theoretically, it uses the Magnus effect and when the wind
zero-emission is achievable with PEMFC if the case is inland and/or passes across the rotor a thrust force is produced perpendicular to the
short sea shipping with limited propulsion power requirements. wind direction [118]. The Flettner rotors can generate power even ship
Various research and development projects have been investigated speed is greater than the wind speed and it is affected by wind direction
for different types of fuel cells in shipping. One of the pilot projects; rather than speed. Also, the simulation results show that Flettner rotors
FellowSHIP aimed to investigate the use of hybrid and separated can diminish fuel consumption by up to 20% [119]. A recent application
battery-fuel cell technology on an Offshore Supply Vessel (OSV) “Viking of the rotors is studied at the E-Ship1 project was built in 2010 and the
Lady”. This ship is shown in Fig. 5 [104]. The project is carried out from vessel is equipped with two 3.5 MW diesel and four Flettner rotors, the
2003 to 2018. The main focus of the project was the on-board testing produced energy by this hybrid system allows the ship to sail 17.5 knots
and measurement of the fuel cell by the installation of a 320 kW LNG [120] as seen in Fig. 6 [121]. In contrast, soft sails and kites are simple
fueled MCFC system for the auxiliary power needs of the ship. The seem as much more historical by direct use of wind power. Mainly, the
system is operated for 18,500 h at constant load without emitting NOx, performance is related to wind power and direction while the system
6
application in merchant ship context [124–127].
4. Hybrid propulsion system architectures
In hybrid energy configuration, the energy distribution is mainly

done using electric systems. hybrid propulsion systems for the ship can
be classified under three different configurations depending on the en
ergy distribution from the energy sources to the propeller; serial, par
allel, and combined serial-parallel architectures according to the power
transmission technique which is used for propulsion power. The ma
jority of the shipping industry uses an AC grid with fixed frequency for
all-electric ship systems [49]. However, the development in power
electronics and higher system stability allow DC systems to spread [128,
129]. This is why the DC distribution grid is considered for illustrating
the topologies in this paper. Generally, a hybrid power supply consists of
a combination of several power sources and energy storage systems from
Fig. 6. E-Ship 1 with 4 Flettner rotors. the ones which are described in previous sections of this paper. The
different architecture topologies are presented in the following sections,
applies to almost all vessel types without the need for any extra space. and methodology according to the selection of the system and their
Fig. 7 shows an application of kite usage for an oceangoing vessel [122]. comparison are given at last.
The gain of the kite system can reach 50% at Beaufort 7 depending on
the air and sea state [123]. Another option is the wind turbine, and a 4.1. Serial configuration
very detailed analysis according to the horizontal and vertical configu
ration of the wind turbine’s axis is done by Ref. [119]. Vertical axis wind The serial configuration of the hybrid propulsion for ships is rela
turbines have various advantages compared to horizontal ones such as tively mature compared to other configurations [130]. In this system, all
less complex structure, lower operational and capital costs, ease of power generators like fuel cells, renewable energy sources (RES), or
installation on a ship in the meaning of stability thanks to lower mass diesel generators and energy storage sources (ESS) like batteries or
center. Although these advantages for the marine industry, horizontal supercapacitors and the corresponding converters are connected to a
axis turbines have higher efficiency with higher power production main electrical grid, as shown in Fig. 8 (blue rectangle). The propellers
capacity. are driven with variable frequency supplied AC motors so, connected to
In conclusion, it should be noted that wind and solar-assisted pro DC main electrical bus bar by a DC/AC drive while the battery and fuel
pulsion applicability for ships is limited. By the way, solar and wind cell are connected through a DC/DC converter and can be used directly
energy usage requires some structural changes on the shipboard, and in the DC bus. The other distributed electric power consumers such as
specifically, solar panels require a large surface for installation. On the air-conditioning, hotel loads, navigation equipment, and other systems
other hand, the relative immaturity for ships and very high dependence are also connected to the main grid. Many combinations of power
on environmental conditions make it difficult for RES to be the main sources and energy storage systems can be used with this configuration
power source. Also, their low power density makes them a comple and depend on the specifications of the ship. In this paper, all applicable
mentary power source. options are illustrated to show different alternatives which can be used
It can be also noted that nuclear microreactors are under study for during the design process.
high power ship application. These kinds of sources have been devel The major advantage of the serial configuration is sourced from
oped for military ships; for example nuclear submarines and aircraft having various operation modes. Since the total electrical energy of the
careers and some particular civilian ships as icebreakers [124–127]. system is collected and uses a common bus bar for distribution of the
They can also be associated with RE sources and ESS in hybrid config energy [131], multiple working modes can be used especially by using
urations [125]. Even if some study investigates the possibility to use just one (e.g. only battery power) or a combination of power supply (e.g.
these systems for civilian ships and underlines their high performance fuel cell-battery, ICE-supercapacitor, or other adapted combinations to
and carbon-free energy production potential, safety, integration, social the ship and the operating point). On the other hand, the other energy
acceptability, and ethics (nuclear dissemination) constraints limit their sources on the system like ESS, FC, or RES allow diesel engines to work
in their range of high-efficiency operation zone by assisting at the low
load region where the diesel engine suffers from the low efficiency
Fig. 7. Kite assists to propulsion. Fig. 8. Serial hybrid power topology.
7
[132].
4.2. Parallel configuration
The main difference of parallel configuration is the keeping a part of

direct mechanical connection between internal combustion engines and
propellers. Practically, the electric generation and storage side of the
system is very similar to the serial configuration, however, it differs at
the propulsion and load side. Thus, the energy storage system, other
energy sources, and the additional electric motor which is connected to
the gearbox are aiming to improve the performance by assisting the
propulsion, as seen in Fig. 9 [133]. In another saying, the assisted
electric motor reduces the thermal load of the internal combustion en
gine and so, decreased load causes less fuel consumption and emission. Fig. 10. Serial – parallel hybrid power topology.
The major advantage of the parallel configuration is containing both
electrical and mechanical propulsion characteristics and their benefits.
Table 4
For instance, limited maneuverability due to mechanical propulsion is
Comparison table of hybrid propulsion system architectures [16,39,40,78,130].
removed thanks to electrical propulsion. As another example; the diesel
engine can work at the high efficiency and low fuel consumption spec Architecture Benefits Challenges
trum without having any trouble due to thermal load thanks to auxiliary Serial • Relatively long operational • Multiple energy
electric motor supply. However, the balance between mechanical and Configuration life conversion
electrical links to the propulsion unit should be elaborated on carefully. • Mature technology, precise • Loss of energy during
control conversions and
Hence, the control strategy for this configuration gains importance and • Engine downsizing and relatively lesser
allows to find an optimum point to high efficiency for different power modular system efficiency
demands [40]. As another advantage, the size of electrical components • Zero noise and emission • Only electrical
can be reduced in power capacity thanks to ICE’s ability to supply the availability propulsion is available
• Less fuel consumption and
transient higher power demands.
emission
Parallel • Zero-emission operation • Complex propulsion
Configuration availability • Power and torque
4.3. Serial-parallel configuration
• Both mechanical and repartition rules
electrical propulsion • Additional mechanical
The hybrid serial-parallel propulsion system is a combination of both availability links
configurations that support specific features of each system [134]. This • ICE can operate at a higher • Hard dynamic switching
efficiency zone and reduced according to operational
unique configuration allows the system to operate in many different
fuel consumption need
ways; e.g. directly mechanical, fully electric, only serial hybrid, only • Sizing optimization • Need of robust control for
parallel hybrid, or both. Although the propulsion side is similar to par available higher efficiency
allel configuration, the mechanical link has another connection with the • Reduced electrical chain
electrical bus bar via a different gearbox before powering the propeller and motor size
Serial-Parallel • Relatively flexible control • Complex system
motor as seen in Fig. 10. The architecture of the hybrid system is rela
Configuration • Increase of DOF in architecture
tively complex compared to other configurations. In return, it consists of operation modes • Higher cost
advantages from both configurations such as containing different • Zero-emission operation • Same challenges as for
operation modes by using more flexible energy flow controls and opti option the serial configuration
mization of energy consumption [45]. • Higher efficiency at lower
loads and higher loads
A benefits and challenges summary for hybrid propulsion architec • Both mechanical and
tures is given in Table 4. Both systems have pros and cons and the choice electrical propulsion
of the configuration should be considered according to ship properties to availability
find the optimum propulsion system.
System suitability is highly dependent on the compromising of
configurations offer better solutions for a great number of ships. The
CAPEX, OPEX, and other specifications. But from the general perspec
three hybrid propulsion configurations; serial, parallel, and serial par
tive, despite its complexity and higher cost, serial-parallel
allel are explained in this section. Their advantages and disadvantages
are revealed and compared. The next chapter will be about the energy
management system and control strategies of hybrid ship propulsion
systems.
5. Energy management systems
Implementing a real-time energy management smart strategy is

extremely important for hybrid-powered and propulsion ships to
maintain higher efficiencies of the system and components, and
economical, safe, and reliable operations. Since the hybrid power sys
tems contain multi-energy sources and also several consumers, different
dynamic characteristics can occur during different kinds of operations.
Hence, the energy management system (EMS) should be well organized
and applied to give a clear response to changing dynamic requirements
of the system to ensure a safe power supply to ship auxiliary loads and
Fig. 9. Parallel hybrid power topology.
8
propulsion systems. An appropriate EMS can improve energy efficiency generation scheduling of an all-electric ship by using DPA, concerning
and reduce fuel consumption by controlling each power source to ach operational constraints like GHG emissions or travel schedule, and while
ieve optimal operational conditions. In the main, there are two types of it is assumed that the ship load changes can be forecasted, a decrease in
EMS that can be reviewed for ships; rule-based, and optimized control operational costs and GHG emissions is achievable [141]. The GA has
strategies [45,135]. good versatility and a wide range of feasible applications with low al
gorithm complexity. For example, Ancona et al. proposed a GA-based
5.1. Rule-based control strategy optimization to minimize the fuel consumption by optimizing the load
allocation with different energy source configurations for a cruise ship.
The rule-based control system is a static control strategy that shows As a result, hybrid systems showed the best performance among all
good robustness and strong real-time performance by providing prac analyzed parameters, such as economic and environmental [142].
tical control rules which are obtained from previous experiences and Another optimization strategy; the application of ACOA with ECMS on a
expert knowledge, however, optimization capacities are limited because diesel-electric hybrid ship is analyzed by Xiang and Yang where the aim
of the weak dynamic response to changes. The rule-based control is was to reduce fuel consumption and state of charge fluctuation on the
commonly used with logic thresholds [136], and different control stra battery [145]. The ACOA based optimized energy management system
tegies with the same approach are proposed for multi-energy hybrid almost doubled the rule-based optimization version in fuel consumption
systems. For instance, a hierarchical energy management system for a by 6.9%–12.1% reduction, respectively. Another research on the
hybrid system composed of solar panels, wind turbines, batteries, and optimal sizing of solar panels, ESS, and diesel generators is conducted by
fuel cell systems is presented by taking into account economic aspects Divyajot et al. using the two different variants of PSO for an oil tanker
[137]. In this research, EMS is constituted by master and slave control and it is found that without an ESS, hybrid solar and diesel configuration
strategies, where the master defines major and vital reference points to is not feasible economically [144].
maintain the system efficiency at desired values, and the slave control The second kind of optimized control strategy is RTO. This is an
modifies the subsystems operating points to satisfy the master’s com online optimization strategy that focuses on the instantaneous condi
mands. The use of cascade control which is composed of PI controllers to tions of the energy demand of the system by establishing a real-time
generate the master control reference points is an example of how to use model on the energy consumption. Pontryagin Minimum Principle
logic thresholds in a rule-based control strategy. (PMP) and Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) are
On the other hand, since the rule-based control strategy highly de two popular RTO techniques. The PMP uses the strategy of minimizing
pends on experience, it becomes hard to find the optimal point for more global optimization problems by separating to local sub-problems to
complex and dynamic systems. Due to the maritime environment having improve response time to the calculations of the system. Although PMP
unpredictable conditions and being open to outsourced manipulations is mostly used for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) [148], it is rare
like sea and wind effects, the smartest control strategies gain importance for shipping. For instance, a real-time PMP application to minimize the
when a multi-model and multi-purpose control is required with dynamic fuel consumption for a fuel cell HEV is investigated [149]. Simultaneous
time-varying nonlinear problems. The fuzzy logic control is one of the updating of energy management function according to unpredicted
based artificial intelligence control systems and does not require an daily driving cycles such as starting and stopping, dynamic loading, and
accurate mathematical model with a tolerable error. A fuzzy-based low or high-power output performed better than rule-based and DPA.
control method is developed for energy management of the PV, bat The results show that the proposed system has superiority compared to
tery, diesel hybrid RORO ship [138]. As a result of the research, a both rule-based and DP-based EMS by improving fuel cell durability.
decrease in fuel consumption, and emissions by improving the total ship The ECMS aims to calculate optimum power management set points and
performance are reached by comparing the real ship data and simulation optimal control formulation to minimize the fuel consumption of the
results. Another comparison between fuzzy logic and engine [130]. For an unknown operational profile of an HEV, ECMS
proportional-integral control-based EMS has been carried for medium shows the best performance in fuel consumption compared to various
voltage DC all-electric ship power systems [139]. Although both EMSs control strategies [150]. As a result of the demonstration of the ECMS on
supply the ship power system successfully in different power demands, a hybrid ferry, a reduction of 10% in fuel consumption is reached by
fuzzy logic control showed better performance on the state of charge optimizing the power balance between power sources [40].
management of the batteries by changing charging and discharging This section has reviewed the energy management system of hybrid
rates. However, establishing the fuzzy rules requires strong expertise in propulsion with control strategies. The next section discusses the
system management and behavior prediction. methodology for architectural design and hybrid system selection for
The ships are dynamic systems and it is hard to fit into a stable linear different ship types.
mathematical model. Consequently, optimized control strategies are
much more effective for multi-energy ships than rule-based control 6. Discussion
strategies thanks to their sensitivity to different operational aspects and
convenience to complex systems [140]. 6.1. Methodology of architectural design
5.2. Optimized control strategy The hybrid propulsion system architecture is designed respecting
ship specifications and mission profiles since there are a large variety of
The optimized control strategy can be categorized under two sec ships having different routes, missions, and functions. Designing hybrid
tions; global optimization (GO) and real-time optimization (RTO). configuration and corresponding EMS is a multicriteria problem. So,
Firstly, global optimization uses all system models and conditions with there are many different power supply options to configure the pro
the theoretical basis and accurate mathematical equations to perform pulsion system of ships. This is why; according to the operation profile of
offline an overall optimization within a given period. The GO can the case ship, the power generation methods and propulsion technique
include dynamic programming algorithm (DPA) [141], genetic algo gain importance. Hence, it should be noted that there is no specific type
rithm (GA) [142], artificial neural network (ANN) [143], particle swarm of perfect fit of hybrid propulsion for a specific type of ship. Therefore,
optimization (PSO) [144], ant colony optimization algorithm (ACOA) engineers need several criteria to assess the most suitable propulsion and
[145], simulated annealing algorithm (SAA) [146], and differential power supply system for the ship. For instance, a passenger ship and an
evolution algorithm (DEA) [147] or other advanced optimization algo oceangoing cargo ship have different power requirement characteristics
rithms. The DPA requires entire information about the optimization which constrain the hybridization technologies choices. Therefore,
problem in advance. In a research on the optimization for the power criteria for the assessment of the power trains for ships should take the
9
operation profile into account [78]. The aim should find the optimum operation location is close to ports, using shore power for electric
solution for the case ship by modeling and simulation the ship’s stan storage affects positively ship-based emissions. On the one hand,
dardized operation [151]. The methodology for selecting the architec approximately 35% reduction in GHG emissions and fuel consump
tural design is related to various parameters and concerning literature tion can be reached with hybrid and battery-powered industrially
knowledge and systematic assessment, the main criteria and constraints proven tugs [155]. On the other hand, according to an examination
were defined in Table 5. on the use of the hybrid diesel-electric concept for a tugboat,
The criteria for the assessment of the hybrid power supply and pro charging using a public grid shows much more cost-effective per
pulsion systems are not strictly unchangeable. As a result, some of the formance in payback time compared to charging with diesel engines
criteria could be gathered under one title according to further studies, [156]. Hybrid power systems are superior compared to all-electric
also, changes in the systems are essential to finding the different sub systems thanks to the flexibility in power generation during critical
stantial results. For instance, for a cargo ship crew comfort may not be as operations.
important as for a cruise ship, in contrast, the size and weight of the • Ferries are considered as both passenger and car ferries that can
system become more important due to the limitations of cargo tanks. operate at sea and river in this paper. Fully battery-powered or
Therefore, system design and selection are situation-specific and change hybrid propulsion has already been practiced since their operations
according to ship type and operational characteristics. are predictable, short, and determined fixed-route almost for a year.
As given in the second and third sections, there are different avail In terms of energy storage, batteries are feasible compared to other
able energy storage and power generation methods for hybrid systems. alternatives with their higher energy storage capacity. In case of
For instance, fuel cells can use hydrogen and ammonia as alternative limited battery capacity regarding route else, if the battery cannot
fuels and so, a hybrid battery-fuel cell system needs additional re provide sufficient range, hybridization is also an option with a diesel
quirements for storage and bunkering. It is important to use compatible engine or fuel cell. Battery and fuel cell combination or all-electric
materials at the tanks and fuel lines since the ammonia is corrosive and ferries seem like a strong option for zero-emission and 100% fuel
can react with brass, copper, and zinc alloys [152]. Also, ammonia has savings. Both hybrid topologies are acceptable depending on the
very high toxicity for human and animal life and can cause a quick death total engine room volume and propulsion design. The major chal
when exposed to more than 5000 ppm [153]. Hydrogen is showing lenge for ferries is the limited port stay for charging the batteries. So,
better performance in this manner as being neither corrosive nor toxic. for long-range operation hybrid power generation seems preferable
However, wide flammability and high flame speed cause higher risk instead of relying totally upon an energy storage system. As an in
compared to ammonia. From this perspective, different fuel types or dustrial example, the MS Color Hybrid ferry is a good representative
cold ironing opportunities from ports pose different requirements than of using a plug-in diesel-electric hybrid with the ability of full battery
conventional ship fuels. power option during parts of its journey with zero-emission [157].
• Hybrid and electric power supplies appear very promising for
yachting thanks to increasing comfort and reduction in noise and
6.2. Methodology for system selection vibration. Yachts are not commercial ships and so, they do not need
to generate income for further operations. Yachts are feasible for
Finding the proper power source and hybrid configuration requires a hybrid propulsion and power generation but, since they are limiting
comprehensive analysis in terms of ship type. The systems depend on the the total voyage distance, all-electric powering does not seem
different power demands and integration constraints; hence their ar acceptable for yachting with the current energy storage capability of
chitecture is also formed to ensure their operational characteristics. ESSs. In general, their operation profile does not require high power
Therefore, each system has a different role varying from the ship type. densities and it is hard to estimate the potential fuel and energy
As a result of reviewing power generation, energy storage, and propul savings. Mainly, they stay at ports and sail at low and economical
sion topologies, a ship-specific approach is prepared to provide general speeds respecting the sense of yachting. In the meaning of ESS,
guidance on how different energy storage, power generation systems, batteries serve well to yachts but, since the need for high power
and propulsion architecture can be useful. Table 6 summarizes the sys density is low, SC and FW are not attractive as batteries.
tems regarding the ship type and general operation profiles. It should be • Fishing vessels are potentially viable for electric and hybrid pro
noted that each ship is characterized by specific operations, so the table pulsion. The main issue is the size of the vessel, and according to
gives an overview of availability by generalizing it according to ship power requirements all-electric with serial configuration is possible,
types. but also, in case of higher power demands hybridization is the
stronger option. Regarding the operational profile of the fishing
• Tugboats need a high power density due to their operational char vessels, travel at economic speeds and often auxiliary equipment
acteristics. In general, tugs work at the port area to help during the such as cranes work during the fishing, cargo handling, or prepara
maneuvering of big vessels. This is why the working frequency of tion procedures. By the way, during the fishing operations, the
tugs depends on how busy the port is, and so generally tugs mission strategy of supplying energy from ESSs is like in the case of tugboat
profile includes repetitive peaks of high power for a short period during maneuvering helping the key approach to reduce emissions
which correspond to the maneuvering of the helped ship [154]. and increase energy efficiency. Furthermore, the reduction of radi
Electrical storage is an interesting option for tugboats to shave these ated noises and vibrations is another important advantage for hybrid
peaks of power demands and to maintain a relatively low power of and electric propulsion and power generation. The possibility of
ICE. Reducing the diesel generators and using ESSs would improve renewable energy seems weak due to the architectural design and
the fuel consumption and emissions, furthermore, since their operations of the ship.
• Short sea ships are considered as small container vessels, bunker
Table 5 vessels, small tankers, and general cargo vessels sail in national or
Criteria for the HPS selection. coastal waters. Short sea shipping has relatively short voyages and
Assessment Criteria more frequent port stays compared to oceangoing shipping. This is
1. Fuel Consumption 6. Maintenance and Operation
why shore connection and ESS charging becomes a useful and
2. Emission 7. Life cycle attractive solution to use batteries or other energy storage devices for
3. Maneuverability 8. Efficiency all-electric and hybrid propulsion [158]. Otherwise, cargo handling
4. Comfort due to noise and vibration 9. vol/wt equipment (e.g. cranes, high-pressure hydraulic systems) and other
5. Cost 10. Bunkering/Cold Ironing
electrical loads (navigation, HVAC, etc.) are important consumers
10
Table 6
System assessment according to ship types.
Ship Type Energy Storage System Power Generation System Propulsion Architecture
BAT FW SC ICE FC REN S P S/P
Tugboat þþþ þþ þþþ þþþ þþ þ þþþ þþþ þþþ

Ferry þþþ þþ þþ þþþ þþþ þþ þþþ þþþ þþþ
Yacht þþþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþþ þþ þþ
Fishing Vessel þþþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þ þþþ þþ þþ
Short Sea Ship þþ þþ þþ þþþ þþþ þþ þþ þþþ þþþ
Oceangoing Ship þþ þ þ þþþ þþ þþ þþ þþ þþþ
Cruise Ship þþ þ þ þþþ þþþ þþ þþ þþþ þþþ
OSV þþþ þþþ þþþ þþþ þþþ þþ þþþ þþþ þþþ
BAT: Battery, FW: Flywheel, SC: Supercapacitor, ICE: Internal Combustion Engine, FC: Fuel Cell, REN: Renewable Energy, S: Serial, P: Parallel, S/P: Serial-Parallel,
OSV: Offshore Supply Vessel.
þ /þþ /þþþ: Low/Moderate/High Availability.
regarding total ship power capacity, so, instead of using diesel gen efficient engine loads. Renewable energy can be used in OSVs to
erators, batteries can supply the demanded power during sailing or at charge ESSs such as batteries, supercapacitors, or flywheels.
the port. Fuel cells are also feasible for short sea shipping with hy
bridization ESSs. In this case, zero-emission is achievable especially 7. Conclusion
during inland sailing. Parallel and serial hybrid propulsion configu
rations are reliable to be used in these vessels. This paper has reviewed the state-of-the-art various energy storage
• Energy storage for oceangoing ships is very challenging with current systems, power generation techniques for different topologies of hybrid
technology and seems not feasible commercially in near future due to propelling technologies, and their popular control strategies. HPS is an
long and steady voyages and high-power requirements. However, effective solution considering the environmental concerns and regula
hybrid power generation and propulsion are feasible for certain tive pressures on national and international shipping. HPS is promising
operational modes [34]. Fuel cells and renewable energy sources are to reach higher efficiencies with lower environmental impacts. Emis
applicable for deep-sea shipping. The capability to use alternative sion, noise, vibration, maintenance frequency, and cost reduction can be
fuels in ICEs and fuel cells or renewable energy are the major drivers reached with high efficiency by increasing comfort, so they can be listed
for emission reduction. The hybridization of both systems is an as the major advantages offered by HPS. Different levels of hybridization
attractive solution, specifically for steady-state and fixed-speed are applicable for ships by setting different topologies and using
voyages. Hybrid and parallel configurations offer a great advan different ESSs, therefore various options have been investigated in this
tage in the meaning of reliability and alternative propulsion options paper. The main practical approach for hybridization of the ICE is
(e.g. mechanical or electrical drive). Moreover, hybrid and electrical improving the effective working scale by supplying additional energy
propulsion can increase the maneuvering capacity and efficiency of with other energy sources and ESSs. Therefore, energy storage capacity,
the ship by offering higher control and fast responses to commands. efficiency, charging-discharging speed, lifetime, cost, and several other
• Cruise ships are one of the very high energy demanding ship types characteristics are critical during the selection and applying the system.
due to their huge hoteling requirements such as air conditioning, In the discussion section, different ESSs, power generation techniques,
lighting, heating, etc. Moreover, propulsion and auxiliary naviga and propulsion architectures are assessed for different ship types
tional systems also need high power to enhance the comfort, speed, regarding their characteristics, operational profiles, and criteria which
and maneuvering capability of the ship [159]. Unlike other ship are defined before.
types, the cruise vessels sail towards city centers, so ship sourced It is obvious that ICE is the best option for all types of ships with
emissions are gaining importance, therefore alternative energy today’s technological maturity for providing the required power. Fuel
sources are under investigation to reduce these emissions for public cells seem also feasible for short sea shipping with hybridization ESSs
health. Theoretically, electric storage seems like an option however, and then zero-emission is achievable especially during inland sailing.
as can be noticed, supplying this high energy demand is often not Short sea shipping has relatively short voyages and more frequent port
feasible economically. Besides, it is hard to reach a worldwide stays compared to oceangoing shipping. Diesel-electric propulsion is
appropriate voltage, frequency of both ship and shore side [160]. As already proven on cruise ships and hybrid power generation is the
a result, hybrid propulsion becomes a pleasing solution with less further step to optimize the use of diesel generators or minimize the
emission and affordable technology. Besides, diesel-electric propul emissions as much as possible. The limited power capacity, hard mari
sion is already proven on cruise ships and hybrid power generation is time conditions, and high dependence on environmental influences are
the further step to optimize the use of diesel generators or minimize the biggest obstacles to establishing RES onboard ships in short term. To
the emissions as much as possible. Biofuels are advantageous for sum up, power requirements and the mission of the ship have a major
cruise ships in diesel engines but other renewable energy sources are influence on the system selection. From the storage point of view, lead-
difficult to apply on board due to architectural characteristics. acid batteries haven’t been considered for large-scale present and future
• OSVs are highly suitable for electric and hybrid propulsion with applications due to limited power and energy density capacity. Indeed,
hybrid power supply, indeed they have been already proven in Li-Ion batteries are a reference solution for hybrid ship ESS. Super
numerous projects with batteries and fuel cells. OSVs have critical capacitors are effective to supply power fluctuations for a limited period.
missions and highly variable load frequency, so any excess power Flywheels are also motivating solutions but technological maturity for
generation happens in their typical operation against any failure risk shipping applications is relatively weak and additional safety re
[42]. All-electric seems hard for current technology, but hybrid quirements are not elaborated in the literature. On the other hand,
systems are feasible and well-proven in R&D projects [101]. The limited lifetime compared to conventional ICEs is another demotivating
diesel-battery and diesel-fuel cell combinations are concluded suc cause for ESSs. For this reason, current researches are separated mainly
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 156 (2022) 111965

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Abbreviations IMO International maritime organization

most common and promising systems. Hybrid propulsion architecture

2. Energy storage systems suitable for electric and hybrid ships

Energy storage systems (ESS) integration is a key point for hybrid

of 1 MWh. Recharging is done from shore connection during short

3.2. Fuel cells

application in merchant ship context [124–127].

4. Hybrid propulsion system architectures

In hybrid energy configuration, the energy distribution is mainly

Fig. 7. Kite assists to propulsion. Fig. 8. Serial hybrid power topology.

4.2. Parallel configuration

The main difference of parallel configuration is the keeping a part of

5. Energy management systems

Implementing a real-time energy management smart strategy is

BAT FW SC ICE FC REN S P S/P

Tugboat þþþ þþ þþþ þþþ þþ þ þþþ þþþ þþþ

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