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Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana
11 Years’
SOLVED PAPERS
2019 - 2009
Stream SA
Included
5 Practice
Sets
11 Years’
SOLVED PAPERS
2019 - 2009
Stream SA
Authors
Lakshman Prasad (Mathematics)
Deepak Paliwal, Mansi Garg (Physics)
Neha Minglani Sachdeva (Chemistry)
Sanubia Saleem (Biology)
ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT

ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (Series), MEERUT
All Rights Reserved
© Publishers
No part of this publication may be re-produced, stored in a retrieval system or distributed in
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ABOUT THE EXAM

KVPY i.e. Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana is a National Level Fellowship (scholarship) Program in
Basic Science (Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics & Biology) upto Pre-Phd Level, run by Department of
Science & Technology, Government of India and Conducted by IISC (Indian Institute of Science)
Bangalore, Karnataka Annually.
It Was Started in 1999 to Encourage Basic Sciences Students to take up Research Career in Sciences.
The Objective of the Exam is to Encourage Talented Students for Research Career in Sciences.
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA
KVPY scholarships are given only to Indian Nationals to study in India. There are three
streams in KVPY; SA, SB & SX. Eligibility criteria for different streams is discussed below;
Ÿ For SA Class 11 Students who passed class 10 with minimum 75% (65% for SC/ST/PWD)
marks in Mathematics & Science.
The fellowship of students selected in SA will be activated only if they pursue
undergraduate courses in Basic Sciences (B.Sc./B.S./B.Stat./B.Math/Integrated M.Sc. or
M.S.) and have secured a minimum of 60% (50% for SC/ST/PWD) marks in science
subjects in class 12th.
Ÿ For SX Class 12 Students aspiring to pursue undergraduate program (B.Sc. etc ) with
basic sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics & Biology) who passed class 10 with
minimum 75% (65% for SC/ST/PWD) marks in Mathematics & Science.
The fellowship of students selected in SX will be activated only if they pursue
undergraduate courses in Basic Sciences (B.Sc./B.S./B.Stat./B.Math/Integrated M.Sc. or
M.S.) and have secured a minimum of 60% (50% for SC/ST/PWD) marks in science
subjects in class 12th.
Ÿ For SB B.Sc. Ist year Students who passed class 12 with 60% marks in Maths & Sciences
(PCMB) & class 10 with minimum 75% marks in Mathematics & Science.
In order to activate fellowship, in the first year of undergraduate course they should
secure minimum 60% (50% for SC/ST/PWD) marks.
Those students who are intending or pursuing undergraduate program under distance
education scheme or correspondence course of any university are not eligible.
SYLLABUS OF KVPY
There is no prescribed syllabus for KVPY aptitude test, it aims to assess the understanding &
analytical ability of the students than his/her factual knowledge. However questions are
framed from syllabus upto class 10/12/Ist Year of Undergraduate Courses in basic sciences, as
applicable. There are two Questions Papers in KVPY; one for stream SA & Other for SB/SX
(Question Paper is same for SB & SX).
QUESTION PAPERS PATTERN

There are two Questions Papers in KVPY; one for stream SA & Other for SX/SB
(Question Paper is same for SB & SX).
Ÿ Question Paper for SA Stream caries 80 Questions for 100 marks. There are Two Parts in
the Question Paper; Part I has 15 Questions of 1 mark each for Mathematics, Physics,
Chemistry & Biology while Part II has 5 Questions of 2 marks each for Mathematics,
Physics, Chemistry & Biology.
Ÿ Question Paper for SB/SX Stream caries 120 Questions for 160 marks. There are Two
Parts in the Question Paper; Part I has 20 Questions of 1 mark each for Mathematics,
Physics, Chemistry & Biology while Part II has 10 Questions of 2 marks each for
Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry & Biology.
MODE OF EXAM
KVPY is conducted in Online Mode in English & Hindi Medium.
TIME OF EXAM
Ÿ Normally the notification or advertisement for KVPY appear in National Newspapers on
May 11 (Technology Day) and Second Sunday of July every year.
Ÿ Generally the exam is conducted in the month of November.
SELECTION PROCESS
After scrutiny of application forms on the basis of eligibility criteria for various streams all
eligible students are called for Aptitude Test conducted in English & Hindi Medium at
different centers across the country. On the basis of performance in aptitude test shortlisted
students are called for an interview, which is the final stage of selection procedure.
FELLOWSHIPS
The selected students are eligible to receive KVPY fellowship after class 12th/Ist Year of
Undergraduate course only if they pursue Undergraduate Courses in Basic Science, upto Pre-
PhD or 5 Years whichever is earlier.
Details of fellowships are listed below;
Monthly Annual
Basic Science Fellowship Contingency Grant
SA/SX/SB during Ist to IIIrd year
of B.Sc./B.S./BB.Stat./B.Math/ Rs. 5000 Rs. 20000
Integrated M.Sc or M.S.
SA/SX/SB during M.Sc. / IVth to Vth
years of Integrated M.Sc /M.S./ Rs. 7000 Rs. 28000
M.Math/ M.Stat.
CONTINUATION / RENEWAL OF FELLOWSHIP

Ÿ The fellow should continue to study basic science and should also maintain a minimum
level of academic performance as Ist division or 60% (50% for SC/ST/PWD) marks in
aggregate. Also the fellow has to pass all the subjects prescribed for that particular year.
Ÿ In each year marks are to be certified by the Dean or Head of the Institution.
Ÿ The fellowship will be discontinued if above marks are not obtained. However if fellow
passed all the subjects & obtain marks more than 60% (50% for SC/ST/PWD) in
subsequent year, the fellowship can be renewed only for that year onwards.
Ÿ If KVPY fellow opts out of the basic science at any stage then monthly fellowship and
contingency grant will be forfeited from him.
KVPY Timeline 2020

IMPORTANT DATES
Opening of Application Portal : 2nd Week of July 2020
Last Date of Submission of Online Application : 1st Week of September 2020
KYPY Aptitude Test : 1st Week of November 2020
APPLICATION FEE
For General Category : Rs. 1000/-
For SC/ST/ Persons with Disabilities : Rs. 500/-
For more details visit:www.kvpy.iisc.ernet.in

CONTENTS
KVPY SA QUESTION PAPERS (2019-2009)
QUESTION PAPER QUESTION PAPER QUESTION PAPER

2019 2018 2017 (19 Nov)
Pg. No. 1-16 Pg. No. 1-15 Pg. No. 16-31

2017 (05 Nov) 2016 2015
Pg. No. 32-47 Pg. No. 48-62 Pg. No. 63-76

2014 2013 2012
Pg. No. 77-92 Pg. No. 93-107 Pg. No. 108-122

2011 2010 2009
Pg. No. 123-137 Pg. No. 138-150 Pg. No. 151-164
KVPY PRACTICE SETS (1-5) 167-232


KVPY Question Paper 2019 Stream : SA 1
KVPY
KISHORE VAIGYANIK PROTSAHAN YOJANA
QUESTION PAPER 2019

Stream : SA
MM 100
Instructions
There are 80 questions in this paper.
This question paper contains two parts; Part I and Part II. There are four sections; Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry
and Biology in each part.
Out of the four options given with each question, only one is correct.
PART-I (1 Mark Questions)

MATHEMATICS Then, which of the following statements are true?
1. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle with side length I. g has exactly two distinct real roots.
a. Let R and r denote the radii of the circumcircle and II. g can have more than two distinct real roots.
the incircle of triangle ABC respectively. Then, as a III. There exists a real number α such that g(x) ≥ α
R for all real x.
function of a, the ratio
r (a) Only I (b) Both I and III
(a) strictly increases (b) strictly decreases (c) Only II (d) Both II and III
(c) remains constant
4. Let a n , n ≥ 1, be an arithmetic progression with first
(d) strictly increases for a < 1and strictly decrease for a > 1
term 2 and common difference 4. Let M n be the
2. Let b be an non-zero real number. Suppose the 10
1
quadratic equation 2x + bx + = 0 has two distinct
2 average of the first n terms. Then the sum ∑ M n is
b n =1
real roots. Then (a) 110 (b) 335

1 5 1 5 (c) 770 (d) 1100
(a) b + > (b) b + <
b 2 b 2 5. In a triangle ABC, ∠BAC = 90°; AD is the altitude
1
(c) b2 − 3b > − 2 (d) b2 + 2 < 4 from A on to BC. Draw DE perpendicular to AC and
b
DF perpendicular to AB. Suppose AB = 15 and
3. Let p(x) = x + ax + b have two distinct real roots,
2
BC = 25. Then the length of EF is
where a , b are real number. Define g(x) = p(x3 ) for all (a) 12 (b) 10
real number x. (c) 5 3 (d) 5 5
2 KVPY Question Paper 2019 Stream : SA
6. The sides a , b, c of a triangle satisfy the relations (b) given any positive real number α, we can choose C and
Area (C )
c2 = 2ab and a 2 + c2 = 3b2. Then the measure of T as above such that ratio is less than α
Area (T )
∠BAC, in degrees, is Area (C )
(a) 30 (b) 45 (c) give any C and T as above, the ratio is
Area (T )
(c) 60 (d) 90
independent of C and T
7. Let N be the least positive integer such that (d) there exist real numbers a and b such that for any
whenever a non-zero digit c is written after the last circle C and triangle T as above, we must have
Area (C )
digit of N, the resulting number is divisible by c. The a< <b
sum of the digits of N is Area (T )
(a) 9 (b) 18 15. The number of three digit numbers abc such that the
(c) 27 (d) 36 arithmetic mean of b and c and the square of their
8. Let x1, x2,…, x11 be 11 distinct positive integers. If we geometric mean are equal is
replace the largest of these integers by the median of (a) 9 (b) 18
the other 10 integers, then (c) 36 (d) 54
(a) the median remains the same
(b) the mean increases PHYSICS
(c) the median decreases
(d) the mean remains the same 16. Various optical processes are involved in the
9. The number of cubic polynomials P (x) satisfying formation of a rainbow. Which of the following
provides the correct order in time in which these
P(1) = 2, P(2) = 4, P(3) = 6, P(4) = 8 is
processes occur?
(a) 0
(a) Refraction, total internal reflection, refraction.
(b) 1
(b) Total internal reflection, refraction, total internal
(c) more than one but finitely many reflection.
(d) infinitely many (c) Total internal reflection, refraction, refraction.
10. A two-digit number ab is called almost prime if one (d) Refraction, total internal reflection, total internal
obtains a two-digit prime number by changing at reflection.
most one of its digits a and b. (For example, 18 is an 17. A specially designed Vernier calliper has the main
almost prime number because 13 is a prime number). scale least count of 1 mm. On the Vernier scale, there
Then the number of almost prime two-digit numbers are 10 equal divisions and they match with 11 main
is scale divisions. Then, the least count of the Vernier
(a) 56 (b) 75 (c) 87 (d) 90 calliper is
11. Let P be an interior point of a convex quadrilateral (a) 0.1 mm (b) 0.909 mm
ABCD and K , L , M , N be the mid-points of AB, BC, (c) 1.1 mm (d) 0.09 mm
CD, DA respectively. If Area (PKAN ) = 25, Area 18. A steel ball is dropped in a viscous liquid. The
(PLBK ) = 36, and Area (PMDN ) = 41 then Area distance of the steel ball from the top of the liquid is
(PLCM ) is shown below. The terminal velocity of the ball is
(a) 20 (b) 29 (c) 52 (d) 54 closest to
12. The number of non-negative integer solutions of the
equations 6x + 4 y + z = 200 and x + y + z = 100 is 0.4
(a) 3 (b) 5 (c) 7 (d) Infinite
13. Let N 1 = 255 + 1 and N 2 = 165. 0.3
Distance (m)
Then
(a) N1 and N 2 are coprime 0.2
(b) the HCF (Highest Common Factor) of N1 and N 2 is 55
(c) the HCF of N1 and N 2 is 11
(d) the HCF of N1 and N 2 is 33 0.1
14. Let l > 0 be a real number, C denote a circle with

circumference l and T denote a triangle with 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
perimeter l. Then
Time (s)
(a) given any positive real number α, we can choose C and
Area (C ) (a) 0.26 m/s (b) 0.33 m/s
T as above such that ratio is greater than α (c) 0.45 m/s (d) 0.21 m/s
Area (T )
19. A student in a town in India, where the price per unit hemisphere at a height h from the horizontal surface,
(1 unit = 1 kWh) of electricity is ` 5.00, purchases a then the speed of the particle is
1 kVA UPS (uninterrupted power supply) battery. A (a) (2g (R − h ))
day before the exam, 10 friends arrive to the (b) (2g (R + h ))
student’s home with their laptops and all connect (c) 2gR
their laptops to the UPS. Assume that each laptop (d) 2gh
has a constant power requirement of
24. The nuclear radius is given by R = r0 A1/ 3 , where r0 is
90 W. Consider the following statements.
constant and A is the atomic mass number. Then, the
I. All the 10 laptops can be powered by the UPS, if
nuclear mass density of U238 is
connected directly.
(a) twice that of Sn119
II. All the 10 laptops can be powered, if connected (b) thrice that of Sn119
using an extension box with a 3 A fuse. (c) same as that of Sn119
III. If all the 10 friends use the laptop for 5 h, then (d) half that of Sn119
the cost of the consumed electricity is about
25. The electrostatic energy of a nucleus of charge Ze is
` 22.50.
kZ 2e2
Select the correct option with the true statements. equal to , where k is a constant and R is the
R
(a) I only (b) I and II only nuclear radius. The nucleus divides into two
(c) I and III only (d) II and III only Ze
daughter nuclei of charges and equal radii. The
20. Frosted glass is widely used for translucent windows. 2
The region, where a transparent adhesive tape is change in electrostatic energy in the process when
stuck over the frosted glass becomes transparent. they are far apart is
The most reasonable explanation for this is 0.375kZ 2e2 0125
. kZ 2e2
(a) (b)
(a) diffusion of adhesive glue into glass R R
(b) chemical reaction at adhesive tape-glass interface kZ 2e2 0.5kZ 2e2
(c) (d)
(c) refractive index of adhesive glue is close to that of glass R R
(d) adhesive tape is more transparent than glass
26. Two masses M1 and M 2 carry positive charges Q1 and
21. Consider two equivalent, triangular hollow prisms A Q2, respectively. They are dropped to the floor in a
and B made of thin glass plates and arranged with laboratory set up from the same height, where there
negligible spacing as shown in the figure. A beam of is a constant electric field vertically upwards. M1 hits
white light is incident on prism A from the left. Given the floor before M 2. Then,
that, the refractive index of water is inversely related (a) Q1 > Q2 (b) Q1 < Q2
to temperature, the beam to the right of prism B (c) M1Q1 > M2Q2 (d) M1Q2 > M2Q1
would not appear white, if
27. Which one of the following schematic graphs best
represents the variation of pV (in Joules) versus T (in
Kelvin) of one mole of an ideal gas? (The dotted line
ht A B represents pV = T )
te lig
Whi
(a) both prisms are filled with hot water (70°C)

(b) both prisms are filled with cold water (7°C) (a) pV (J) (b) pV (J)
(c) both prisms are empty
(d) prism A is filled with hot water (70°C) and prism B
with cold water (7°C)
T (K) T (K)
22. A ball is moving uniformly in a circular path of
radius 1 m with a time period of 1.5 s. If the ball is
suddenly stopped at t = 83
. s, the magnitude of the
displacement of the ball with respect to its position at
t = 0 s is closest to
(a) 1 m (b) 33 m (c) pV (J) (d) pV (J)
(c) 3 m (d) 2 m
23. A particle slides from the top of a smooth
hemispherical surface of radius R which is fixed on a T (K) T (K)
horizontal surface. If it separates from the
. × 1012 L of water annually. Its

28. Mumbai needs 14 34. IUPAC name of the following compound
effective surface area is 600 km 2 and it receives an O
average rainfall of 2.4 m annually. If 10% of this rain
water is conserved, it will meet approximately
(a) 1% of Mumbai’s water needs
HO
(b) 10% of Mumbai’s water needs is
(c) 50% of Mumbai’s water needs (a) 1-hydroxycyclohex-4-en-3-one
(d) 100% of Mumbai’s water needs (b) 1-hydroxycyclohex-3-en-5-one
29. A mass M moving with a certain speed V collides (c) 3-hydroxycyclohex-5-en-1-one
elastically with another stationary mass m. After the (d) 5-hydroxycyclohex-2-en-1-one
collision, the masses M and m move with speeds V ′ 35. In water-gas shift reaction, hydrogen gas is produced
and v, respectively. All motion is in one dimension. from the reaction of steam with
Then,
(a) methane (b) coke
(a) V = V ′ + v (b) V ′ = V + v
(c) carbon monoxide (d) carbon dioxide
(V + v)
(c) V ′ = (d) v = V + V ′ 36. Treatment with lime can remove hardness of water
2
caused by
30. Four ray 1, 2, 3 and 4 are incident normally on the
(a) CaCl 2 (b) CaSO4
face PQ of an isosceles prism PQR with apex angle
(c) Ca(HCO3 )2 (d) CaCO3
∠Q = 120°. The refractive indices of the material of
the prism for the above rays 1, 2, 3 and 4 are 1.85, 37. The most polarisable ion among the following is
1.95, 2.05 and 2.15 respectively and the surrounding (a) F− (b) I− (c) Na + (d) Cl −
medium is air. Then, the rays emerging from the face 38. For a multi-electron atom, the highest energy level
QR are among the following is
(a) 4 only (b) 1 and 2 only 1
(a) n = 5, l = 0, m = 0, s = +
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 2
1
(b) n = 4, l = 2, m = 0, s = +
2
CHEMISTRY (c) n = 4, l = 1, m = 0, s = +
1
2
31. The hybridisations of N, C and O shown in the 1
following compound (d) n = 5, l = 1, m = 0, s = +
2
R
N C O
39. The oxide, which is neither acidic nor basic is
(a) As2O3 (b) Sb4 O10 (c) N2O (d) Na 2O
respectively, are
2 2 2 2 2
40. The element whose salts cannot be detected by
(a) sp , sp, sp (b) sp , sp , sp flame test is
(c) sp 2, sp, sp (d) sp, sp, sp 2
(a) Mg (b) Na (c) Cu (d) Sr
32. The following compounds 41. The plot of concentration of a reactant vs time for a
chemical reaction is shown below.
are
Concentration
(a) geometrical isomers (b) positional isomers

(c) optical isomers (d) functional group isomers
33. The major product of the following reaction
Br
Br 1. Excess alc. KOH
2. NaNH2 O Time
Ph
3. H3O
+ The order of this reaction with respect to the reactant
is is
H (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2
H (d) not possible to determine from this plot
(a) Ph H (b) Ph 42. During the free expansion of an ideal gas in an

Br isolated chamber,
Br Br (a) internal energy remains constant
H H (b) internal energy decreases
(c) Ph (d) Ph (c) work done on the system is negative
Br H (d) temperature increases
43. The number of moles of water present in a spherical 51. The mode of speciation mediated by geographical
water droplet of radius 1.0 cm is, isolation is referred as
. g cm −3 ]
[Given : Density of water in the droplet = 10 (a) adaptive radiation
π 2π (b) allopatric speciation
(a) (b) (c) parapatric speciation
18 27
2π (d) sympatric speciation
(c) 24π (d)
9 52. Which one of the following metabolic conversion
44. Among the following, the correct statement about requires oxygen?
cathode ray discharge tube is (a) Glucose to pyruvate
(a) the electrical discharge can only be observed at high (b) Glucose to CO 2 and ethanol
pressure and at low voltage. (c) Glucose to lactate
(b) in the absence of external electrical or magnetic field, (d) Glucose to CO 2 and H2 O
cathode rays travel in straight lines. 53. Where are the proximal and distal convoluted
(c) the characteristics of cathode rays depend upon the tubules located within the human body?
material of electrodes. (a) Adrenal cortex
(d) the characteristics of cathode rays depend upon the (b) Adrenal medulla
gas present in the cathode ray tube.
(c) Renal cortex
45. For a spontaneous process, (d) Renal medulla
(a) enthalpy change of the system must be negative
54. In a diploid organism, when the locus X is
(b) entropy change of the system must be positive
inactivated, transcription of the locus Y is triggered.
(c) entropy change of the surrounding must be positive Based on this observation, which one of the following
(d) entropy change of the system plus surrounding must statements is CORRECT?
be positive
(a) X is dominant over Y
(b) X is epistatic to Y
BIOLOGY (c) Y is dominant over X
(d) Y is epistatic to X
46. Which one of the following is a CORRECT statement
about primates’ evolution?
55. Which one of the following sequences represents the
CORRECT taxonomical hierarchy?
(a) Chimpanzees and gorillas evolved from macaques
(a) Species, genus, family, order
(b) Humans and chimpanzees evolved from gorillas
(b) Order, genus, family, species
(c) Human, chimpanzees and gorillas evolve from a
common ancestor (c) Species, order, genus, family
(d) Humans and gorillas evolved from chimpanzees (d) Species, genus, order, family
47. The crypts of Lieberkuhn are found in which one of 56. Which one of the following organs is NOT a site for
the following parts of the human digestive tract? the production of white blood cells?
(a) Oesophagus (a) Bone marrow (b) Kidney
(b) Small intestine (c) Liver (d) Spleen
(c) Stomach 57. Which one of the following anatomical structures is
(d) Rectum involved in guttation?
48. Removal of the pancreas impairs the breakdown of (a) Cuticle (b) Hydathodes
(a) lipids and carbohydrates only (c) Lenticels (d) Stomata
(b) lipids and proteins only 58. Which one of the following parts of the eye is affected
(c) lipids, proteins and carbohydrates in cataract?
(d) proteins and carbohydrates only (a) Cornea (b) Conjunctiva
49. Microscopic examination of a blood smear reveals an (c) Retina (d) Lens
abnormal increase in the number of granular cells 59. Which one of the following organisms is a bryophyte?
with multiple nuclear lobes. Which one of the (a) Liverwort (b) Volvox
following cell types has increased in number? (c) Chlamydomonas (d) Fern
(a) Lymphocytes (b) Monocytes
60. During oogenesis in mammals, the second meiotic
(c) Neutrophils (d) Thrombocytes
division occurs
50. Which one of the following genetic phenomena is (a) before fertilisation
represented by the blood group AB? (b) after implantation
(a) Codominance (b) Dominance (c) before ovulation
(c) Overdominance (d) Semidominance (d) after fertilisation
PART-II (2 Marks Questions)

MATHEMATICS 67. In an hour-glass approximately 100 grains of sand
fall per second (starting from rest); and it takes 2 s
61. Let a , b, c, d be distinct real numbers such that a , b for each sand particle to reach the bottom of the
are roots of x2 − 5cx − 6d = 0, and c, d are roots of hour-glass. If the average mass of each sand particle
x2 − 5ax − 6b = 0. Then b + d is is 0.2 g, then the average force exerted by the falling
(a) 180 (b) 162 (c) 144 (d) 126 sand on the bottom of the hour-glass is close to
(a) 0.4 N (b) 0.8 N
62. Let S = {1, 2, 3, … , 100}. Suppose b and c are chosen at
(c) 1.2 N (d) 1.6 N
random from the set S. The probability that
4x2 + bx + c has equal roots is 68. A student uses the resistance of a known resistor
(1 Ω ) to calibrate a voltmeter and an ammeter using
(a) 0.001 (b) 0.004 (c) 0.007 (d) 0.01 the circuits shown below. The student measures the
63. Let N be the set of positive integers. For all n ∈ N , let ratio of the voltage to current to be 1 × 103 Ω in
fn = (n + 1)1/ 3 − n1/ 3 and circuit (a) and 0999
. Ω in circuit (b). From these
  measurements, the resistance (in Ω) of the voltmeter
1
A = n ∈ N : fn + 1 < < fn  and ammeter are found to be close to
 3(n + 1)2/3

v A
Then,
(a) A = N 1=W 1=W
v
(b) A is a finite set
(c) the complement of A in N is nonempty, but finite
(d) A and its complement in N are both infinite (a) (b)
64. A prime number p is called special if there exist 2
(a) 10 and 10 −2
(b) 10 and 10−3
3
primes p1, p2, p3 , p4 such that p = p1 + p2 = p3 − p4. (c) 10−2 and 102 (d) 10−2 and 103
The number of special primes is 69. A hot air balloon with a payload rises in the air.
(a) 0 Assume that the balloon is spherical in shape with
(b) 1 diameter of 11.7 m and the mass of the balloon and
(c) more than one but finite the payload (without the hot air inside) is 210 kg.
(d) infinite Temperature and pressure of outside air are 27 °C
65. Let ABC be a triangle in which AB = BC. Let X be a and 1 atm = 105 N/m 2, respectively. Molar mass of
point on AB such that AX : XB = AB : AX. If dry air is 30 g. The temperature of the hot air inside
AC = AX, then the measure of ∠ABC equals . JK −1mol−1]
is close to [The gas constant, R = 831
(a) 18° (b) 36° (c) 54° (d) 72° (a) 27 °C (b) 52 °C
(c) 105 °C (d) 171 °C
PHYSICS 70. A healthy adult of height 1.7 m has an average blood

pressure (BP) of 100 mm of Hg. The heart is typically
66. A water-proof laser pointer of length 10 cm placed in at a height of 1.3 m from the foot. Take, the density
a water tank rotates about a horizontal axis passing of blood to be 103 kg/m3 and note that 100 mm of Hg
through its centre of mass in a vertical plane as is equivalent to 13.3 kPa (kilo pascals). The ratio of
shown in the figure. The time period of rotation is BP in the foot region to that in the head region is
60 s. Assuming the water to be still and no reflections close to
from the surface of the tank, the duration for which (a) one (b) two
the light beam escapes the tank in one time period is (c) three (d) four
close to (Take, refractive index of water = 133
. )
10cm CHEMISTRY
Laser
40cm 71. PbO2 is obtained from

30cm 30cm
(a) the reaction of PbO with HCl
(b) thermal decomposition of Pb(NO3 )2 at 200°C
(c) the reaction of Pb3 O4 with HNO3
(a) 8.13 s (b) 14.05 s
(d) the reaction of Pb with air at room temperature
(c) 16.67 s (d) 23.86 s
72. For one mole of a van der Waals’ gas, the 77. Papaya is a dioecious species with XY sexual
 pV  genotype for male and XX for female. What will be
compressibility factor Z =   at a fixed volume
 RT  the genotype of the embryos and endosperm nuclei
will certainly decrease, if after double fertilisation?
(a) 50% ovules would have XXX endosperm and YY
[Given : ‘‘a’’ and ‘‘b’’ are standard parameters for
embryo, while the other 50% would have XXY
van der Waals’ gas] endosperm and XX embryo
(a) ‘‘b’’ increases and ‘‘a’’ decreases at constant (b) 100% ovules would have XXX endosperm and XY
temperature embryo
(b) ‘‘b’’ decreases and ‘‘a’’ increases at constant (c) 100% ovules would have XXY endosperm and XX
temperature embryo
(c) temperature increases at constant ‘‘a’’ and ‘‘b’’ values (d) 50% ovules would have XXX endosperm and XX
(d) ‘‘b’’ increases at constant ‘‘a’’ and temperature embryo, while the other 50% would have XXY
73. The correct statements among the following. endosperm and XY embryo
i. E 2s (H) > E 2s (Li) < E 2s (Na) > E 2s (K). 78. Solid and dotted lines represent the activities of
ii. The maximum number of electrons in the shell pepsin and salivary amylase enzymes of the digestive
with principal quantum number n is equal to tract, respectively. Which one of the following graphs
best represents their activity vs pH?
2n 2 .
iii. Extra stability of half-filled subshell is due to
Activity
Activity
smaller exchange energy.
(a) (b)
iv. Only two electrons, irrespective of their spin,
may exist in the same orbital are.
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iii 1 5 10 1 5 10
pH pH
(c) iii and iv (d) i and iv
Activity
Activity
74. An organic compound contains 46.78% of a halogen
(c) (d)
X. When 2.00 g of this compound is heated with
fuming HNO3 in the presence of AgNO3 , 2.21 g AgX
was formed. The halogen X is 1 5 10 1 5 10
[Given : atomic weight of Ag = 108, F = 19, Cl = 355
., pH pH
Br = 80, I = 127]
(a) F (b) Cl (c) Br (d) I 79. If the gene pool of the locus X in the human genome
75. An organic compound X with molecular formula is 4, then what would be the highest possible number
C6H10, when treated with HBr, forms a gem- of genotypes in a large population?
dibromide. The compound X upon warming with (a) 6 (b) 8
HgSO4 and dil. H2SO4, produces a ketone, which (c) 10 (d) 16
gives a positive iodoform test. The compound X is 80. Match the plant hormones in Column I with their
primary function in Column II.
(a) (b)
Column I Column II
(c) C (d)
P. Abscisic acid i. Promotes disease
resistance
Q. Ethylene ii. Maintains seed dormancy
BIOLOGY R. Cytokinin iii. Promotes seed germination
76. A cell weighing 1 mg grows to double its initial mass S. Gibberellin iv. Promotes fruit ripening
before dividing into two daughter cells of equal mass. v. Inhibits leaf senescence
Assuming no death, at the end of 100 divisions what
will be the ratio of the mass of the entire population Choose the correct combination
of these cells to that of the mass of the earth? Assume (a) P–iii, Q–iv, R–i, S–ii
that mass of the earth is 1024 kg and 210 is (b) P–ii, Q–iv, R–v, S–iii
approximately equal to 1000. (c) P–v, Q–iii, R–ii, S–i
(a) 10−28 (b) 10−3 (d) P–iv, Q–ii, R–iii, S–v
(c) 1 (d) 103
Answers
PART-I
1 (c) 2 (c) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (a) 6 (b) 7 (a) 8 (c) 9 (a) 10 (d)
11 (c) 12 (c) 13 (d) 14 (a) 15 (b) 16 (a) 17 (a) 18 (b) 19 (c) 20 (c)
21 (d) 22 (d) 23 (a) 24 (c) 25 (a) 26 (d) 27 (a) 28 (b) 29 (d) 30 (c)
31 (a) 32 (d) 33 (a) 34 (d) 35 (d) 36 (c) 37 (b) 38 (b,d) 39 (c) 40 (a)
41 (a) 42 (a) 43 (b) 44 (b) 45 (d) 46 (c) 47 (b) 48 (c) 49 (c) 50 (a)
51 (b) 52 (d) 53 (c) 54 (d) 55 (a) 56 (b) 57 (b) 58 (d) 59 (a) 60 (d)
PART-II
61 (c) 62 (a) 63 (a) 64 (b) 65 (b) 66 (c) 67 (a) 68 (b) 69 (c) 70 (c)
71 (c) 72 (b) 73 (a) 74 (c) 75 (d) 76 (c) 77 (d) 78 (a) 79 (c) 80 (b)
Solutions
1. (c) For an equilateral triangle ABC 8 b3 − 8 4. (a) The sum of first n ,n ≥ 1terms of
⇒ b2 − > 0⇒ >0
having side length a. If R and r are radii b b arithmetic progression with first term 2
of the circumcircle and the incircle of (b − 2)(b2 + 2b + 4) and common difference 4, is
triangle ABC respectively, then ⇒ >0
n
b Sn = [4 + (n − 1)4] = 2n 2
R = sec 30° = 
a a 2  a
 = ⇒ b ∈ (−∞ , 0) ∪ (2, ∞ ) …(i) 2
2 2  3 3 So, the average of the first n terms
For option (c),
S
A b2 − 3b > − 2 Mn = n = 2n
n
⇒ b2 − 3b + 2 > 0 10 10
⇒ (b − 2)(b − 1) > 0 Now, ∑ Mn = 2 ∑ n
n =1 n =1
b ∈ (−∞ , 1) ∪ (2, ∞ )
10 × 11
mean if b ∈ (−∞ , 0) ∪ (2, ∞ ) = 2 ×   = 110
R  2 
r then b2 − 3b > − 2
30° 60° 3. (b) Let the given quadratic polynomial 5. (a) It is given that in triangle ABC,
B
a/ M a/
C p (x) = x2 + ax + b has two distinct real ∠BAC = 90°, AD is the altitude from A on
2 2 to BC.
roots α and β, then
p (x) = x2 + ax + b = (x − α )(x − β ) B
a a 1 a and since g (x) = p (x3 ) = (x3 − α )(x3 − β ) D

and r = tan 30° = × = F
2 2 3 2 3 let α = α31 and β = β31
a then g (x) = (x3 − α31 )(x3 − β31 )
R = (x − α1 )(x − β1 )(x2 + α1 x + α12 )
∴ = 3 = 2, which is independent of a
r a
(x2 + β1 x + β12 ) A
2 3 E C
Q the discriminants of quadratic
and it is constant. equations Since, AB = 15 and BC = 25
2. (c) Given quadratic equation x2 + α1 x + α12 and x2 + β1 x + β12 are ∴ AC = BC 2 − AB 2 = 625 − 225
1
2x + bx + = 0, has two distinct real
2
negative.
b = 400 = 20
∴ g (x) has exactly two distinct real roots 1
roots, so Now, since area of ∆ABC = (BC )(AD )
and since g (x) = x6 + ax3 + b is an even 2
D>0 degree polynomial, so there exists a real 1
⇒  1
b − 4(2)  > 0
2 number ‘α’ such that g (x) ≥ α for all real x. = (AB )(AC )
 b 2
1 1 Now,
⇒ (BC )(AD ) = × 15 × 20 12. (c) Given equations
2 2 P (1) = a + b + c + d = 2 …(i) 6x + 4 y + z = 200, …(i)
⇒ 25 × AD = 300 P (2) = 8a + 4b + 2c + d = 4 …(ii) and x + y + z = 100 …(ii)
⇒ AD = 12 P (3) = 27a + 9b + 3c + d = 6 …(iii) By Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
Q AEDF is a rectangle, then P (4) = 64a + 16b + 4c + d = 8 …(iv) 5x + 3 y = 100
EF = AD = 12
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get For non-negative integer solutions, when
6. (b) It is given that the sides of 7a + 3b + c = 2 …(v) x = 2, then y = 30
triangle, a , b and c satisfy the following
relations
From Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get x = 5, then y = 25
c2 = 2ab …(i) 19a + 5b + c = 2 …(vi) x = 8, then y = 20
and a + c = 3b
2 2 2
…(ii) From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get x = 11, then y = 15
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get 37a + 7b + c = 2 …(vii) x = 14, then y = 10
A
Now, from Eqs. (v) and (vi), we get x = 17, then y = 5
12a + 2b = 0 …(viii) and x = 20, then y = 0
and from Eqs. (vi) and (vii), we get In every case z = 100 − (x + y) > 0
Ö2a
18a + 2b = 0 …(ix)
So, total number of non-negative integral
a From Eqs. (viii) and (ix), we get solutions are 7.
a = 0 and b = 0,
13. (d) It is given that, N 2 = 165
c = 2 and d = 0.
= 3 × 5 × 11and N1 = 255 + 1
C B So, P (x) = 2x
a As we know that, if n is odd integer then
∴no cubic polynomial is possible.
a 2 + 2ab = 3b2 xn + yn is divisible by x + y.
⇒ a + 2ab + b2 = 4b2
2 10. (d) Since in the group of first 10 two
So, N1 = 255 + 155 is divisible by 2 + 1 = 3
digit number 10-19, has atleast 1 prime
⇒ (a + b)2 = (2b)2 = (b + b)2 and N1 = 255 + 155
number similarly in other groups of 10
⇒ a = b, so c = 2a two digits numbers = (25 )11 + (15 )11 = (32)11 + (1)11
∴ ∠A = ∠B = 45° 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, 60-69, 70-79, is divisible by 32 + 1 = 33
7. (a) As N be the least positive integer 80-89 and 90-99 have almost 1 prime ∴the HCF of N1 and N 2 is 33.
and when a non-zero digit C is written numbers. 14. (a) It is given that circumference of
after the last digit of N, the resulting So, the number of almost prime two-digit circle C is l and the perimeter of triangle
number is divisible by C. number is 90. T is l.
So, 10N + C is divisible by C 11. (c) Let a convex quadrilateral ABCD Now, let the radius of circle C is r, so
∴10N must be divisible by C. and K , L, M, N be the mid-point of AB, l
2πr = l ⇒ r =
Now, the least integer (N ) which is BC, CD, DA respectively. 2π
divisible by digit ‘C’ i.e. (1 to 9) must be A l2
K ∴area of circle C is A1 = πr 2 =
L.C.M of {1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9}. B 4π
x x
= L.C.M of {4, 7, 9} w Now, as we know that area of triangle
y
= 252 = N L N will be maximum for given perimeter if it
y w is an equilateral triangle, let the length
and sum of digits of number ‘N’ is P
2+ 5+ 2= 9 of side of equilateral triangle is ‘a’, then
z z l
8. (c) Let the given 11 distinct positive 3a = l ⇒ a =
3
integers are in increasing order
C M D and area of equilateral triangle is
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 , x10 , x11 , so x11
is largest of these integers and the Now, as area ∆AKP = area ∆BKP = x (let) A2 =
3 2
a
median is x6 . Similarly 4
Now, median of first 10 numbers is ∆BLP = ∆CLP = y 3  l2  l2
So, A2 =  =
x6 + x6 ∆CPM = ∆DPM = z 4  9  12 3
= m (Let).
2 and ∆DNP = ∆ANP = w l2
Now, we have to replace largest number It is given that Area (PKAN ) = x + w = 25 A1
Q = 4π = 3 3 > 1
x11 by m and then increasing order will be π
area (PLBK ) = x + y = 36 A2 l2
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , m, x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 , x10
and area (PMDN ) = z + w = 41 12 3
x + x6
Q m < x6 as x5 < 5 < x6 So area (PLCM ) = y + z Since, as we took an equilateral triangle,
2
= ( x + y ) + ( z + w) − ( x + w) which has maximum area. But we can
So, median decreases. take a triangle T such that the ratio
= area (PLBK ) + area (PMDN ) − area (C)
9. (a) Let the equation of a cubic is greater than any positive real
area (PKAN )
polynomial area (T )
= 36 + 41 − 25 = 77 − 25 = 52
P (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d number α.
te
15. (b) It is given that, the number of D(m) Whi
three digit number abc, such that
A B
b+ c R
= bc …(i) x2=0.4 R
2
V
te
the above relation is true if b = c = 0 x1=0.3 Whi V
And if neither b nor c is zero, then
1 1 If bending of light caused by B is less
+ = 2, and b, c ∈{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
b c than or more than that of A, then out
Then b = c = 1 (s) going beam of light is not white.
1.6 1.9
and a ∈{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} t1 t2 So, when both prisms are filled with
water at different temperatures, their
So, total number of such three digit From data of graph,
refractive indices are different and the
number are 2 × 9 = 18 Terminal velocity,
dispersion produced by A and B are not
16. (a) Formation of rainbow is shown x − x1 0.4 − 0.3
v= 2 = equal and opposite. Hence, with condition
below. t2 − t1 1.9 − 1.6 in (d) beam to right of prism B will be
0.1 coloured.
White light
Refraction = = 0.33 m/s
0.3 22. (d) Time period of rotation of ball
Red
Vio 19. (c) Power requirement for 1 laptop, = 1.5 s
let Total
internal
P1 = 90 W So, in time interval of 7.5 s (= 1.5 × 5) s
reflection So, power requirement for 10 laptops, ball completes 5 revolutions.
P = 10 × P1 = 10 × 90 Also, ball covers one-fourth of circular
t Refraction = 900 W = 0.9 kW 1.5
o le path in time = 0.375 s.
Vi
d
4
Re
In 5h, electrical energy used by all

42° laptops, So, in remaining 0.8 s (= 8.3 − 7.5s) ball is
40°
E = P × t = 0.9 × 5 very near to other end of diameter as
Observer shown in the figure.
= 4.5 kWh
So, processes involved in formation of
rainbow in correct order are: refraction, Cost of electrical energy used is Position of ball at
total internal reflection, refraction. Cost = E × Unit cost t=0 and at t=7.5 s
Hence, the correct order is given in = 4.5 × 5
option (a). = ` 22.50 nt
me 3s
So, statement III is correct. l a ce t=8.
17. (a) Here, 10 divisions of vernier scall p t
= 11main scale divisions Dis ball a
For laptop charger, input voltage is Position of
11 220 V. of ball at
So, 1 vernier scale division = main
10 So, current when all 10 laptops are t=7.5+0.375
scale divisions connected through an extension, =7.875s
Now, we use formula for least count, P 900 Position
I= = ≈ 4.1A of ball at
Least count = 1main scale division − 1 V 220
t=8.3s
vernier scale division. As, line current exceeds current rating of Clearly, displacement of ball is nearly
⇒ LC = 1MSD − 1VSD fuse, therefore 3A fuse cannot be used. equals to diameter (= 2 m) of circular path.
=  1 −  MSD
11 So, statement II is incorrect.
23. (a) Condition given in question is
 10  20. (c) Frosted glass has a rough layer shown below.
1 which causes irregular refraction and
=− MSD
10 makes glass translucent. Particle
1 When a transparent tape which has separates here
= − × 1mm
321
10 refractive index close to that of glass is R–h

v
= −01
. mm pasted over the rough surface of glass,
the tape glue fills the roughness of glass. R h
So, magnitude of least count is 0.1 mm.
This makes glass surface more smooth
18. (b) Velocity = Slope of distance and so refraction is more regular. This
− Time graph Let v = speed of particle when it
makes region of tape transparent.
Last portion of given graph is a straight separates from hemisphere.
21. (d) Prism B is inverted relative to As there is no friction, loss of potential
line which indicates that velocity is
prism A. So, dispersion of light caused by
constant, i.e. terminal velocity is reached. energy appears in form of kinetic energy
prism A and B is in opposite direction.
of particle.
1 2h
∴ mg (R − h ) = mv2 26. (d) Time of fall = 28. (b) Surface area over which rain is
2 anet received, A = 600 km 2
⇒ v = 2 g (R − h ) = 600 × (103 )2 m 2
qE
24. (c) Given, nuclear radius is = 6 × 108 m 2
1
+ E Average rainfall, h = 2.4 m
R = r0 A 3
mg Volume of water received by rain, V
Here, atomic mass number of nucleus = A = A × h = 6 × 108 × 2.4 m3
∴Nuclear density d is given by Water conserved = 10% of volume
Mass number received by rain
d=
Volume Net acceleration of charged masses is 10
= 6 × 108 × × 2.4 m3 = 1.44 × 108 m3
A A qE 100
⇒ d= = anet = g −
4 3 1
= 1.4 × 108 × 103 L = 1.4 × 1011 L
πR 4 m
3 π (r0 A 3 )3
3 As, M1 hits the floor before M2. Percentage of total water consumption
A 3 2h 2h received by rain is
⇒ d= = ⇒ >
4 3
πr0 ⋅ A 4 π r03 a1 a2 1.4 × 1011 × 100
= = 10%
3 1 1 1.4 × 1012
As r0 = a constant, so nuclear density is a ⇒ >
a1 a2 29. (d) Collision is elastic, so both linear
constant quantity. momentum and kinetic energy are
⇒ a2 > a1
∴ Nuclear mass density of U238 is same conserved.
as that of Sn119 . When reciprocal is taken in equality sign
is reversed, then. We have following situation,
25. (a) Electrostatic energy of a nucleus
1 2 3
QE QE V
of charge Ze is g − 1 > g− 2 Before M m=0
2 2 M1 M2 collision
kZ e
U1 = ...(i) Q1 E Q2E
R ⇒ − >−
1 2 3
M1 M2 After V¢ v
When this nucleus is divided into two M m
Q1 E Q2E collision
equal nuclei of radius r, then as density ⇒ <
of nuclear matter is a constant, we have M1 M2 According to figure,
initial density = final density Here, multiplication with − 1reverse sign MV = MV ′ + mv ...(i) (linear momentum
M of inequality. conservation)
M
= 2 So,
Q1 Q2
<
1 1
MV 2 = MV ′2 + mv2
1
...(ii)
4 3 4 3
πR πr M1 M2 2 2 2
3 3
or M2Q1 < M1Q2 (kinetic energy conservation)
R3 R
⇒ r3 = or r = 1 ...(ii) ⇒ M1Q2 > M2Q1 From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
2
23 M (V − V ′ ) = mv ...(iii)
27. (a) From gas equation,
and M (V 2 − V ′2 ) = mv2 ...(iv)
Now, final electrostatic energy is given by pV = nRT
2 Dividing Eq. (iv) by Eq. (iii), we have
2k   e2
Z Here, n = 1mole
kZ ′ 2e2  2 M (V 2 − V ′2 ) mv2
U2 = 2 × ⇒U 2 = So, pV = RT ...(i) =
r   M (V − V ′ ) mv
Substituting the value of R in Eq. (i), we
 R
 1  get or V + V ′ = v
 23  pV = 8.3 T 30. (c) Total internal, reflection occurs
1
1 kZ 2e2 Clearly, slope of pV versus T line is 8.3, when n ≥ .
[from Eq. (ii)] = 2 ⋅ sin ic
R which is greater than one. Hence,
23 following graph is correct. 4
1
⇒ U 2 = 2 ⋅ U1 pV (J)
3
RT 2 Q
=
23 pV
1
[from Eq. (i)] = 0.63U1 R T 120°
e= V= 3
So, change in electrostatic energy in this S lop p
4
process is
∆U = U1 − U 2 (QU1 > U 2 ) 30°
1
= U1 − 0.63U1 = (1 − 0.63) U1 = 0.375U1 e =
Slop P R
kZ 2e2 2
= 0.375 [From Eq. (i)] T (K) 1
R
In given situation, angle of incidence of 4π

35. (d) Water-gas shift reaction is ∴Mass = volume × density = g.
each of ray is 30° over face PR. FeO ⋅ Cr2 O3 (Catalyst) 3
CO + H2O  
→
So, i = 30° (Atomic weight of water = 18 )
CO2 + H2
1 1 4π 2π
⇒ = =2 In this reaction, hydrogen gas is ∴ n= =
sin i sin 30° 3 × 18 27
produced from the reaction of steam with
Hence, for total internal reflection at carbon dioxide. 44. (b) Cathode ray is observed only at
surface PR, n ≥ 2 . As refractive index for 36. (c) Temporary hardness (caused by low pressure and high voltage, which
3 and 4 is more than 2, only rays 1 and 2, bicarbonates of calcium or magnesium) travel in straight line in the absence of
pass from face PR while rays 3 and 4 pass can be removed by using lime, Ca(OH)2. electrical and magnetic fields.
through face QR (as shown in diagram). Characteristics of cathode rays are
Ca(HCO3 )2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3
31. (a) Hybridisation is determined from independent of the material of electrode
+ 2H2O
the steric number (number of atoms or the gas present in the tube.
37. (b) Among anions with same charge,
bonded to the central atom + the number 45. (d) For a spontaneous process in an
the one having greatest size has
of lone pairs). Number of hybrid orbitals isolated system, the change in entropy is
maximum polarisability. Thus, I− ion
must be equal to the steric number. positive, i.e, ∆S > O.
having most polarisability.
From the Lewis structure. However, if a system is not isolated, the
38. (b, d) Among the orbitals of a entropy change of both the system and
R
multi-electron atom, the one with
:
N== C==O: surroundings are to be taken into account

greatest value of n + l has the greatest
:
(i) Steric number of N-atom = 3 because system and surroundings

energy.
(2 bonded atoms + 1 lone pair), together constitute the isolated system
∴Hybridisation = sp 2 (3 hybrid Between two orbitals with same value of thus, the total entropy change (∆Stotal ) is
orbitals). n + l e.g. options (b) and (d), the one with sum of the change in entropy of the
greater value of n has greater energy. system (∆Ssystem ) and the change in
(ii) Steric number of C-atom = 2
(2 bonded atoms), 39. (c) N2O is a neutral oxide, which is entropy of the surroundings
∴Hybridisation = sp (2 hybrid neither acidic nor basic. (∆Ssurroundings ),
orbitals). 40. (a) Of all the s-block elements, Mg i.e., ∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem + ∆SSurroundings for a
(iii) Steric number of O-atom = 3 and Be salts do not impart colour to spontenceus process, ∆Stotal must be
(1 bonded atom + 2 lone pair) flame. positive, i.e., ∆Stotal is also termed as
∴Hybridisation = sp 2 (3 hybrid ∆Suniverse.
41. (a)
orbitals). 46. (c) The correct statement for
For a reaction
32. (d) One isomer is an alkyne and the primates’ evolution is that human,
X → Y , chimpanzees and gorillas share a
other one is an alkadiene. Since, they
− d[X ]
have two different functional groups, rate = ; [X ] = concentration of X. common ancestor. From fossil records,
they are functional group isomers. dt primatologists came to know that human,
If reaction is nth order, chimpanzee and gorilla are evolved from
33. (a)
rate ∝ [X ]n a common ancient ancestor about 10
Br million years ago. Recent studies on
1.Excess alcoholic KOH Br d[X ]
Br
–HBr Ph From the graph, the slope is gorilla genome confirmed that gorilla
Ph dt
diverged from the common ancestor
2.NaNH2 + 3.H3O
+ constant.
Br Ph—CºC Na Ph—CºCH about 6 million years ago.
Ph –HBr ∴Rate is constant at any concentration.
–2NH3 or PhºH 47. (b) The crypts of Lieberkuhn are
∴ n=0
found in small intestine. Crypts are
42. (a) In a free expansion, external invagination of the epithelium around
34. (d) O pressure ( pex ) = 0 the villi and lined largely with younger
1 ∴ W = − pex ⋅ ∆V = 0 epithelial cell which are involved in
6 2 secretion of mucus.
and the system is isolated.
3
HO 5 Heat does not enter or leave, q = 0. 48. (c) Removal of pancreas impairs the
4 breakdown of lipids, proteins and
Principal functional group is ketone. ∆U = q + W = 0, whereU = internal
energy. carbohydrates because pancreas produces
∴C1 is carbonyl carbon atom. insulin and other important enzyme like
Locants for hydroxyl groups and double 43. (b) Number of moles, trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase and
mass (m)
bonds are 5 and 2, which are preferred n= lipase which helps in breakdown of
over 3 and 5, since the lower number at molar mass (M ) macromolecules.
first difference (2 compared to 3) is Given, radius = 1.0 cm, 49. (c) Microscopic examination of blood
preferred. 4π
∴volume = cm3 smear reveals an abnormal increase in
Hence, the IUPAC name of given 3 neutrophils. Neutrophils have a
compound is 5-hydroxycyclohex-2-en- Given, density = 1.0 g cm − 3 , multilobed nucleus and granulated
1-one. cytoplasm.
Their number increases in blood in deals with identification, nomenclature 60. (d) The second meiotic division
response of bacterial infection, acute and classification. Carlous Linnaeus occurs after fertilisation. Oogenesis is the
inflammation and Eclampsia. invented binomial nomenclature and formation of female gametes (egg).
Neutrophils are produced by developed a classification system known Oogenesis begins in female before birth.
hematopoiesis in the bone marrow and as taxonomic hierarchy. The various During early fetal development, germ cell
are active phagocytic cells. units of classification is kingdom, differentiate into oogonia. After several
Lymphocytes are white blood cells phylum, class, order, family, genus and mitotic divisions, oogonia begins meiosis
which occurs in blood, lymph and species. and known as primary oocytes. It
lymphoid organs. 56. (b) Kidneys are not associated with remains arrested after diplotene of
Monocytes are mononuclear phagocytic the production of white blood cells. prophase-I of meiosis-I until the female
cells. Kidneys regulate blood volume and becomes sexually mature. After puberty,
composition, release erythropoietin and primary oocyte completes meiosis-I and
Platelets are known as thrombocytes
excrete waste in the urine. produces secondary oocytes and it arrests
and helps in blood clotting.
Bone marrow is involved in at metaphase-II and it completes meiosis
50. (a) Blood group AB represents -II only after fertilisation.
codominance. In codominance a hematopoiesis. It is the site of
B-lymphocytes synthesis and maturation. 61. (c) It is given that the quadratic
heterozygous individual expresses both
Liver produces monocytes (a type of equation
alleles simultaneously with blending. No
single allele is dominant over the other. white blood cells). x2 − 5cx − 6d = 0 has roots a and b, then
Expression of both A and B alleles at In spleen, B and T-lymphocytes are a + b = 5c …(i)
same time results in AB type blood. present. 50% of spleen cells are and ab = − 6d …(ii)
51. (b) Allopatric speciation is a genetic B-lymphocytes and 30-40% are and, the quadratic equation
T-lymphocytes.
divergence permitted by geographical x2 − 5ax − 6b = 0 has roots c and d, then
isolation. It is a speciation that occurs 57. (b) Hydathodes are involved in c + d = 5a …(iii)
when population of the same species guttation. Hydathodes are specialised
and cd = − 6b …(iv)
becomes isolated due to geographic pore located along the leaf margins and
barriers such as mountain ranges and tip which secrets water droplets. The Now, from Eqs. (i) and (iii), we have
water bodies. The population is exudation of water droplets from the tip (a + b) − (c + d ) = 5c − 5a
reproductively isolated and each of the or margin of the leaves is called ⇒ (a − c) + (b − d ) = − 5(a − c)
population accumulates different guttation. Hydathodes mediated ⇒ (b − d ) = 6(c − a ) …(v)
mutation and become diverge. guttation occurs under high humidity
∴a and c are the roots of equations.
52. (d) Conversion of glucose to CO2 and and in the absence of transpiration.
x2 − 5cx − 6d = 0 and x2 − 5ax − 6b = 0,
H2O requires oxygen. In aerobic Cuticle is an extracellular layer which
covers the epidermis of plants which respectively.
respiration glucose reacts with oxygen
forming ATP, carbon dioxide and water provides protection against dessication ∴ a 2 − 5ac − 6d = 0
are released as byproducts. and external environmental stress. and c2 − 5ac − 6b = 0
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP Lenticels and stomata both regulates ⇒ (a 2 − c2 ) − 6(d − b) = 0
gaseous exchange between internal plant 6(d − b)
53. (c) Proxima and distal convoluted ⇒ a+ c= = 36 …(vi)
tissues and atmosphere and also regulates a−c
tubules are located in renal cortex.
water movement through transpiration.
Convoluted means the tubules one tightly From Eqs. (i) and (iii), we have
coiled. Proximal convoluted tubules are 58. (d) Cataract affect the lens in eye. It
(a + b) + (c + d ) = 5(a + c)
associated with the reabsorption of occurs due to the clouding of lens and
⇒ b + d = 4(a + c) = 4(36) [from Eq. (vi)]
filtered water, Na + , K+ . glucose, amino prevent light and image from reaching to
acid, Cl − , HCO3− , Ca 2 + , Mg 2 + and retina. Cataract makes a person vision ⇒ b + d = 144
secretion of H+ , NH+4 , urea whereas distal blurry and less colourful. 62. (a) The quadratic equation
convoluted tubules are associated with 59. (a) Liverwort These are 4x2 + bx + c = 0
reabsorption of water, Na + , Cl − and Ca 2 + . non-vascular plants and one of the three has equal roots if b2 − 16c = 0
54. (d) When one gene masks or ancient lines of bryophytes (liverworts,
⇒ b2 = 24 c
modifies the expression of another gene hornworts and mosses).
Now,c should be chosen from the set
at distinct locus is known as epistasis. Volvox It is a spherical multicellular
Gene that masks other or expresses itself green algae and used as a genetic model S = {1, 2, 3, … , 100}, such that it is a
is epistatic gene and gene that is masked of morphogenesis. perfect square number, so
is hypostatic gene. Here, X is inactivated Chlamydomonas It is a genus of c = 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100
by Y and triggers its own expression that unicellular green algae found in soil, ∴number of ordered pair (b, c) will be 10.
means Y is epistatic to loci X because it freshwater and oceans. 10
So, required probability =
masks the expression of X. Fern These are vascular plants that 100 × 100
55. (a) The correct taxonomic hierarchy possess true roots, leaves and stem and 1
= = 0.001
is species, genus, family, order. are reproduced by spores. Ferns and 1000
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that lycophytes are pteridophytes.
63. (a) It is given that for n ∈ N ∴XB = x2 ⋅ AB 67. (a) Force = Rate of change of
fn = (n + 1)1/3 − n1/3 Q AB = AX + XB = x ⋅ AB + x2 ⋅ AB momentum
(n + 1) − n ⇒ x2 + x − 1 = 0
=
(n + 1)23
/
+ (n + 1)23
/
n 23
/
+ n 23
/ −1 ± 1 + 4 ± 5 − 1
⇒ x= =
1 2 2
=
(n + 1)23
/
+ (n + 1)23
/
n 23
/
+ n 23
/ 5−1
Q x > 0, so x =
2
Q∀ n ∈ N
AB 2 + BC 2 − AC 2
3n 23
/
< (n + 1)23
/
+ (n + 1)23
/
n 23
/
+ n 23
/
Now, cosθ =
2(AB )(BC )
< 3(n + 1)23
/
1 2(AB 2 ) − (AX 2 )
⇒ ⇒ cosθ = [Q AB = BC ]
3(n + 1) 23
/
2(AB 2 ) Velocity with which a sand particle
1 1 strikes the bottom of hour-glass,
< < 2(AB ) − (x ⋅ AB )
2 2 2
= v = u + gt
(n + 1)23
/
+ (n + 1)23
/
n 23
/
+ n 23
/
3n 23
/
2(AB 2 )
1 1 ⇒ v = 0 + 10 × 2 = 20 ms − 1
⇒ < fn < 2− x 2
3(n + 1)23
/
3n 23/ = Change in momentum of particle
2 = pf − pi = 0 − mv
Similarly, 2
= − 0.2 × 10− 3 × 20
 5 − 1
1
< fn + 1 <
1 2− 
 2  = − 4 × 10− 3 kg-ms − 1
3(n + 2)23
/
3(n + 1)23
/
=
2 Momentum imparted to base by the
1
∴ fn + 1 < < fn + 1 , ∀ n ∈ N particle = 4 × 10− 3 kg-ms − 1
3(n + 1) 23
/ 8 − (5 + 1 − 2 5 )
=
8 Total change of momentum imparted per
So, set A = N . second by all 100 particles
2 5+ 2
64. (b) It is given that for prime = = 4 × 10− 3 kg-ms−1 × 100 s− 1
8
numbers p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 the special prime = 0.4 kg-ms−1
5+1
number = = cos 36° So, force on bottom = 0.4 N
p = p1 + p2 = p3 − p4 4
So, θ = ∠ABC = 36°
68. (b) When a voltmeter put in series, it
Case I still reads potential drop and when an
If all p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 are odd, then ( p1 + p2 ) 66. (c) When angle of incidence of laser ammeter is connected in parallel, it still
and ( p3 − p4 ) are even, which is not on surface of water is less than critical shows current through it.
possible. incidence, it goes out otherwise reflected
Case a
back into the tank.
Case II B
If one of p1 and p2 is even, say p2 is 2 and Laser comes out from V
p4 must be 2. a path of 2 ic rotation
So, p = p1 + 2 = p3 − 2
1W A
the above equation is satisfied only if ic
ic ic
p = 5, p1 = 3 and p3 = 7 I I2
I1
So, the number of special prime p is 1.
65. (b) It is given that in ∆ABC, A
AB = BC Let I = current through cell, then
For water, ic = sin − 1   = sin − 1 
A 1 1  potential drop read by voltmeter is

 n  1.33  V = I ⋅ RV (this is reading of voltmeter)
⇒ ic = sin − 1 (0.75) Where, RV is the resistance of voltmeter
X ⇒ ic ≈ 50° In loop AB,
If ω = angular speed and t = time to travel V AB = I1 × 1 = I 2 × RA and I = I1 + I 2
q an arc of 2 ic , then using ωt = 2 ic . Where, RA is the resistance of ammeter
B C 2i
We have, t = c We substitute for I1 from above equation
AX AB 1 ω to get
and = = (say) 50
XB AX x 2× × π ⇒ I = I 2RA + I 2 = I 2 (RA + 1)
⇒ AX = x ⋅ AB = 180 = 16.67 s I
 2π  ⇒ I2 =
and XB = xAX   (RA + 1)
 60 
(this is reading of ammeter)
Now given, where ρo = density of outside air van der Waals’ gas, the actual pressure
voltmeter reading IRV and ρi = density of inside air. and volume are:
= 1 × 103 =
ammeter reading  I  ⇒ V (ρo − ρi ) = 210 an 2
  p = p0 − 2 , V = V 0 + nb
 RA + 1 210 × 3  4 3  V
⇒ ρo − ρi = QV = πr 
So, RV (RA + 1) = 1000 ...(i) 4 πr3  3  ∴As “a” increases, p decreases, so
pV
RT
Case b PM PM 210 × 3 1 1
⇒ − = 3
⇒ − decreases, when temperature is constant.
RTo RTi To Ti
4 × π × 
B 11.7  pV
 and, as “b” decreases, V decreases, so
A  2  RT
680 × 8 × 8.31 decreases, when temperature is constant.
=
1W
4 × π × (11.7)3 × 105 × 30 × 10− 3 Note option (c) : When temperature
V
T − To 1 increases, pV also increases and
⇒ i =
I
I1 I2 ToTi 1387 therefore Z would not necessarily
decrease.
⇒ ToTi = 1387 (Ti − To )
A 73. (a) (i) Energy of the 2sorbital of
⇒ 300 Ti = 1387 Ti − 300 × 1387
Let I = current through cell, then different elements decreases as nuclear
ammeter reading in this case is I. (as, To = 27°C = 300 K) charge (equal to atomic number) of atom
300 × 1387
So, Ti = ≈ 383 K increases.
1087 (ii) There are n 2 orbitals in a shell with
Also, in loop AB,
∴ Ti = 383 − 273 = 110° C principal quantum number n.
V AB = I1 × 1 = I 2 × RV
So, temperature of hot air is near to 105° C. ∴total number of electrons = 2n 2.
As, I = I1 + I 2 = I 2RV + I 2
70. (c) (iii) Extra stability of half-filled orbitals
= I 2 (RV + 1)
is due to greater exchange energy.
I
So, I 2 = Head
(iv) For two electrons will be in the same
(RV + 1)
orbital, their spin quantum numbers
0.4m
Hence, voltmeter reading is V = I 2RV must be different.
IRV 1.7m
= (this is reading of voltmeter) It is not irrespective of their spin.
(RV + 1)
Heart 74. (c) Mass of AgX = 2.21g
Now given, voltmeter reading ÷ ammeter
reading = 0.999 Ω. Mass of X = 46.78% of 2.00 g
46.78 × 2.00
 IRV  1.3m =
 (R + 1)  100
So, 0.999 =  V 
Foot ≅ 0.94 g
I
∴Mass of Ag in AgX must be
RV Pressure at head level = pheart − ρgh
⇒ 0.999 = 2.21 − 0.94 g
RV + 1 = 13.3 − 103 × 10 × 0.4 = 1.27 g
So, RV = 999Ω ...(ii) = 9.3 kPa 1.27
∴Number of moles of Ag = ,
≈ 103 Ω Pressure at foot level = pheart + ρgh 108
Substituting RV in Eq (i), we get = 13.3 + 103 × 10 × 1.3 which is also equal to number of moles
1 = 26.3 kPa of X.
RA =
999 26.3 mass
So, ratio = ≈ 2.9 or 3 ∴Atomic mass of X =
or RA = 10− 3 Ω 9.3 'n '
0.94 × 108
69. (c) Hot air balloon will rise in the 71. (c) (a) PbO + HCl → PbCl 2 + H2O = ≅ 80
atmosphere when upthrust of buoyant 1.27
(not correct option)
force is greater than weight of balloon ∴The halogen must be bromine (Br).
(b) 2Pb(NO3 )2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
and its payload. 75. (d)
(not correct option)
Upthrust = Weight of atmospheric air Br Br
(c) Pb 3 O4 + 4HNO3 → 2Pb(NO3 )2
displaced by balloon + PbO2 + 2H 2 O (correct option) + 2HBr
So, upthrust ≥ weight of balloon and its (d) Pb + air (contains O2 , H2O and CO2)
payload room
→ (Hydrobromination, Markownikoff’s
⇒ (Volume of air displaced × density of temperature product, which is a gem-dibromide).
atmospheric air × Acceleration due to Protective layer of varying composition, O
gravity) ≥ (Volume of air of inside balloon mainly PbCO3 is formed only on the + H+
× density of air inside balloon × surface. (not correct option)
+ H2 O
+ Hg2+
acceleration due to gravity) + (Weight of X
payload of balloon) 72. (b) If p0 and V 0 are used as notation (dil. H2SO4
+ HgSO4)
⇒V ⋅ ρo ⋅ g ≥ V ⋅ ρi ⋅ g + 210 × g of ideal pressure and ideal volume of a
Acid catalysed hydration of alkyne gives 1024 Graph (c) and (d) represents constant
= =1
ketone. In the case of terminal alkyne, 1024 activity of both enzyme. At low pH
the product is a methyl ketone, which So, option (c) is correct activity of pepsin increases and become
gives haloform test. stable as pH is increasing and activity of
O
77. (d) In papaya, sexual genotype for amylase increases at above pH 5 and
O
male is XY and for female is XX. In become stable at high pH.
I2 + NaOH double fertilisation, the X nuclei fuses
ONa
with egg and polar nuclei then resulting 79. (c) Gene pool of locus X = 4
+ CHI3 + other n
genotype of embryo and endosperm is XX Possible genotype = (n + 1)
products
and XXX. When Y nuclei fuses with the 2
(NaI+H2O)
egg cell and polar nuclei then resulting n = Total number of gene for ‘X’ loucs
Yellow product genotype for embryo and endosperm is n=4
(positive haloform test) XY and XXY. n
= (n + 1)
76. (c) Mass of one cell = 1 mg = 10− 6 kg So, 50% XXX and XXY is genotype of 2
Division in the cell is calculated as 2n endosperm and 50% XX and XY is 4
genotype of embryo. = (4 + 1) = 2(5) = 10
So, after 100 divisions, 2
Number of cells = 2n = 2100 78. (a) Graph (a) represents the activity So, highest possible genotype in a
of pepsin at low pH and salivary amylase population is 10.
Total mass of cells = Total no. of cells ×
activity at high pH. Enzymes have a
Mass of one cell
particular pH where they have the proper
80. (b) The correct combination of plant
= 2100 × D 10− 6 kg conformation to have maximum catalytic
hormones with their function is as follows
= 210 = 103 activity. Pepsin have maximum catalytic (P) Abscisic acid—Maintains seed
= (103 )10 × 10− 6 kg activity at a very low pH (2.0) and no dormancy
= 1030 × 10− 6 kg longer functional once moved to alkaline (Q) Ethylene—Promotes fruit ripening
condition and optimum pH for salivary (R) Cytokinin—Inhibits leaf senescence
= 10+ 24 kg
amylase ranges from 6 to 7 and it is most (S) Gibberellin—Promotes seed
Mass of earth is 1024 kg active at pH 6.8.
Total mass of cells germination
Ratio = Graph (b) represents minimum activity of
Mass of earth pepsin and salivary amylase.

KVPY
KISHORE VAIGYANIK PROTSAHAN YOJANA
QUESTION PAPER 2018

Stream : SA
MM 100
Instructions
There are 80 questions in this paper.
This question paper contains two parts; Part I and Part II. There are four sections; Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry
and Biology in each part.
Out of the four options given with each question, only one is correct.
PART-I (1 Mark Questions)

MATHEMATICS Then
(a) both I and II are true (b) both I and II are false
1. The number of pairs (a , b) of positive real numbers
(c) I is true and II is false (d) I is false and II is true
satisfying a 4 + b4 < 1 and a 2 + b2 > 1 is
5. The number of polynomials p(x) with integer
(a) 0 (b) 1
coefficients such that curve y = p(x) passes through
(c) 2 (d) More than 2
(2, 2) and (4, 5) is
2. The number of real roots of the polynomial equation (a) 0 (b) 1
x4 − x2 + 2x − 1 = 0 is (c) more than 1 but finite (d) infinite
(a) 0 (b) 2 6. The median of all 4-digit numbers that are divisible
(c) 3 (d) 4 by 7 is
3. Suppose the sum of the first m terms of an arithmetic (a) 5797 (b) 5498.5 (c) 5499.5 (d) 5490
progression is n and the sum of its first n terms is m, 7. A solid hemisphere is attached to the top of a
where m ≠ n. Then, the sum of the first (m + n ) terms cylinder, having the same radius as that of the
of the arithmetic progression is cylinder. If the height of the cylinder were doubled
(a) 1 − mn (b) mn − 5 (keeping both radii fixed), the volume of the entire
(c) − (m + n ) (d) m + n system would have increased by 50%. By what
4. Consider the following two statements percentage would the volume have increased if the
radii of the hemisphere and the cylinder were
I. Any pair of consistent liner equations in two
doubled (keeping the height fixed)?
variables must have a unique solution.
(a) 300% (b) 400%
II. There do not exist two consecutive integers, the (c) 500% (d) 600%
sum of whose squares is 365.
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may concern function alone; it may be expressed in the movement of
parts or organs, such as the closing of stomata or changes in the
position of leaves, in growth, or in modifications of structure. This
expression is fundamentally affected by the nature of the factor and
is in direct relation to the intensity of the latter. Adaptation
comprises all structural changes resulting from adjustment. It
includes both growth and modification. The latter is merely growth
in response to unusual stimuli, but this fact is the real clue to all
evolution. Growth is periodic, and in a sense quantitative; it results
from the normal continuous adjustment of the plant to the stimuli of
its proper habitat. In contrast, modification is relatively permanent
and qualitative; it is the response to stimuli unusual in kind or
intensity. A definite knowledge of the processes of growth is
indispensable to an understanding of modification. In the
fundamental task of connecting plant and habitat, it is the
modification of the plant, and not its growth, which records the
significant responses to stimuli. For this reason the discussion of
adaptation in the pages that follow is practically confined to
modification of structure. This is particularly desirable, since growth
has long been the theme of physiological study, while modification
has too often been considered from the structural standpoint alone.
The comparatively few studies that have taken function into account
have been largely empirical; in them neither stimulus nor adaptation
has received anything approaching adequate treatment.
148. The measurement of response. The amount of response
to a stimulus is proportional to the intensity of the factor concerned.
This does not mean that the same stimulus produces the same
response in two distinct species, or necessarily in two plants of one
species. In these cases the rule holds only when the plants or species
are equally plastic. For each individual, however, this quantitative
correspondence of stimulus and response is fundamental. It is
uncertain whether an exact or constant ratio can be established
between factor and function; the answer to this must await the
general use of quantitative methods. There can be no doubt,
however, that within certain limits the adjustment is proportional to
the amount of stimulus, whereas reaction is well known to be
abnormal or inhibited beyond certain extremes. It is quite erroneous
to think that reaction is independent of quantity of stimulus, or to
liken the stimulating factor to “the smallest spark (which) by igniting
a mass of powder, produces an enormous mechanical effect.”[8] Such
a statement is only apparently true of the action of mechanical
stimuli upon the few plants that may properly be said to possess
irritability, such as sensitive plants and certain insectivorous ones.
Of the normal relation of response to direct factors, water, light, etc.,
it is entirely untrue. Axiomatically, there is ordinarily an essential
correspondence, also, between the amount of adjustment and of
adaptation. This correspondence is profoundly affected, however, by
the structural stability of the plant.
From the preceding it follows that the measurement of response
and the relating it to definite amounts of direct factors as stimuli are
two of the most fundamental tasks of ecology. The exact
determination of physical factors has no value apart from its use for
this purpose. It is perfectly clear that precise methods of measuring
stimuli call for similar methods in determining the amount of
adjustment and of adaptation. The problem is a difficult one, and it is
possible at present only to indicate the direction which its
development should take, and to describe a few methods which will
at least serve as a beginning. To cover the ground adequately it is
necessary to measure response by adjustment and by adaptation
separately, and in the latter to find a measure for the individual and
one for the species. The one is furnished by the methods of
morphology and the other by biometry.
A primary requisite for any method for measuring adjustment is
that it be applicable to field conditions. Many instruments for
measuring transpiration, for example, are valueless, not because they
are inaccurate, but because the plant studied is under abnormal
conditions. To avoid the latter is absolutely necessary, a fact which
makes it peculiarly difficult to devise a satisfactory field method.
After the latter has been found and applied, it becomes possible to
check other methods by it, and to give them real value. The final test
of a field method is three-fold: (1) the plant must be studied while
functioning normally in its own habitat; (2) the method must give
accurate results; and (3) it must permit of extensive and fairly
convenient application in the field. Until methods of this character,
some of which are described later, have been employed for some
time, it is impossible to connect definite intensities of factor stimuli
with measured amounts of adjustment. Ultimately, it seems certain
that researches will regularly take this form.
Adaptation is primarily indicated by changes in the arrangement
and character of the cells of the plant. Since these determine the
form of each organ, morphology also furnishes important evidence in
regard to the course of adaptation, but form can be connected
certainly with adjustment only through the study of cellular
adaptation. In tracing the modifications of cell and of tissue, the
usual methods of histology, viz., sectioning and drawing, suffice for
the individual. It is merely necessary to select plants and organs
which are as nearly typical as can be determined. The question of
quantity becomes paramount, however, since it often gives the clue
to qualitative changes, and hence it is imperative that complete and
accurate measurements of cells, tissues, and organs be made. These
measurements, when extended to a sufficiently large number of
plants, serve to indicate the direction of adaptation in the species.
They constitute the materials for determining biometrically the mean
of adaptation for the species and the probable evolution of the latter.
In its present development, biometry contains too much
mathematics, and too little biology. This has perhaps been
unavoidable, but it is to be hoped that the future will bring about a
wise sifting of methods, which will make biometry the ready and
invaluable servant of all serious students of experimental evolution.
This condition does not obtain at present, and in consequence it
seems unwise to consider the subject of biometry in this treatise.
149. Plasticity and fixity. As the product of accumulated
responses, each species is characterized by a certain ability or
inability to react to stimuli. Many facts seem to indicate that the
degree of stability is connected with the length of time during which
the species is acted upon by the same stimuli. It seems probable that
plants which have reacted to sunlight for hundreds of years will
respond less readily to shade than those which have grown in the sun
for a much shorter period. This hypothesis is not susceptible of proof
in nature because it is ordinarily impossible to distinguish species
upon the basis of the time during which they have occupied one
habitat. Evidence and ultimate proof, perhaps, can be obtained only
by field and control experiments, in which the time of occupation of
any habitat is definitely known. Even in this case, however, it is clear
that antecedent habitats will have left effects which can neither be
traced nor ignored. Additional support is given this view by the fact
that extreme types, both ecological and taxonomic, are the most
stable. Intense xerophytes and hydrophytes are much more fixed
than mesophytes, though the intensity of the stimulus has doubtless
as great an influence as its duration. Composites, labiates, grasses,
orchids, etc., are less plastic than ranals, rosals, etc., but there are
many exceptions to the apparent rule that fixity increases with
taxonomic complexity. At present it seems quite impossible to
suggest an explanation of the rule. Recent experiments indicate that
there may be ancestral fixity of function, as well as of structure. It
has been found, for example, that the flowers of certain species
always react normally to the stimuli which produce opening and
closing, while others make extremely erratic response. If further
work confirms this result and extends it to other functions, the
necessity of arriving at a better understanding of fixity will be greatly
emphasized.
It is impossible to make progress in the study of adaptation
without recognizing the fundamental importance of ancestral fixity
as a factor. E. S. Clements[9] has shown that a number of species
undergo pronounced changes in habitat without showing appreciable
modification. Consequently, it is incorrect to assume that each
habitat puts a structural impress upon every plant that enters it. For
this reason, the writer feels that the current explanation of
xerophytic bog plants, etc., is probably wrong, and that the
discrepancy between the nature of the habitat and the structure of
the plant is to be explained by the persistence of a fixed ancestral
type. The anomaly is scarcely greater than in cases that have proved
capable of being explained.
150. The law of extremes. When a stimulus approaches either
the maximum or minimum of the factor for the species concerned,
response becomes abnormal. The resulting modifications approach
each other and in some respects at least become similar. Such effects
are found chiefly in growth, but they occur to some degree in
structure also. It is imperative that they be recognized in nature as
well as in field and control experiment, since they directly affect the
ratio between response and stimulus. The data which bear upon the
similarity of response to extremes of different factors are too meager
to permit the formulation of a rule. It is permissible, however, to
suggest the general principle that extreme stimuli produce similar
growth responses, and to emphasize the need of testing its
application to adaptation proper.
151. The method of working hypotheses. In the study of
stimulus and response, where the unimpeachable facts are relatively
few, and their present correlation slight, the working hypothesis is an
indispensable aid. “The true course of inductive procedure ... consists
in anticipating nature, in the sense of forming hypotheses as to the
laws which are probably in operation, and then observing whether
the combinations of phenomena are such as would follow from the
laws supposed. The investigator begins with facts and ends with
them. He uses such facts as are in the first place known to him in
suggesting probable hypotheses; deducing other facts which would
happen if a particular hypothesis is true, he proceeds to test the truth
of his notion by fresh observations or experiments. If any result
prove different from what he expects, it leads him either to abandon
or to modify his hypothesis; but every new fact may give some new
suggestion as to the laws in action. Even if the result in any case
agrees with his anticipations, he does not regard it as finally
confirmatory of his theory, but proceeds to test the truth of the
theory by new deductions and new trials.”[10] In the treatment of
adjustment and adaptation which follows, the method of multiple
working hypotheses is uniformly employed. No apology is felt to be
necessary for this, since the whole endeavor is to indicate the proper
points of attack, and not to distinguish between that which is
conjectural and that which is known. If an hypothesis occasionally
seem to be stated too strongly, it is merely that it appears, after a
survey of the problem from all sides, to explain the facts most
satisfactorily. The final proof of any hypothesis, however, rests not
only upon its ability to explain all the facts, but also upon the
inability of other hypotheses to meet the same test. The discovery
and examination of all possible hypotheses, and the elimination of
those that prove inadequate are the essential steps in the method of
working hypotheses.
HYDROHARMOSE
ADJUSTMENT
152. Water as a stimulus. Plants are continually subjected to

the action of the water of the soil and of the air; exception must
naturally be made of submerged plants. The stimulus of soil water
acts upon the absorbing organ, the root, while that of humidity
affects the part most exposed to the air, viz., the assimilative organ,
which is normally the leaf. But since both are simultaneous water
stimuli, a clearer conception is gained of this operation if they are
viewed as two phases of the same stimulus. This point of view
receives further warrant from the essential and intimate relation of
humidity and water-content as determined by the plant. They are in
fact largely compensatory, as is shown at some length later. In
determining the intensity of the two, a significant difference between
them must be recognized. The total humidity of the air at any one
time constitutes a stimulus to the leaf which it touches. This is not
true of the total soil water. Part of the latter is not available under
any circumstances, and can not affect the plant, at least directly. The
chresard alone can act as a stimulus, but even this is potential in the
great majority of cases, since the actual stimulus is not the water
available but the water absorbed. The latter, moreover, contains
many nutrient salts which are in themselves stimuli, but as they
normally have little bearing upon the action of water as a stimulus
they are to be considered only when present in excessive amounts.
153. The influence of other factors upon water. The amount
of humidity is modified directly by temperature, wind, precipitation,
and pressure, and, through these, it is affected by altitude, slope,
exposure, and cover. Naturally, also, the evaporation of soil water
has a marked influence. In determining water-content, atmospheric
factors, with the exception of precipitation, are usually subordinate
to edaphic ones. Soil texture, slope, and precipitation act directly in
determining soil water, while temperature, wind, and pressure can
operate only through humidity. This is likewise true of altitude,
exposure, and cover, though the latter has in addition a profound
effect upon run-off. Biotic factors can affect humidity or water-
content only through the medium of another factor. Light in itself
has no action upon either, but through its conversion into heat
within the chloroplast, it has a profound effect upon transpiration.
The following table indicates the general relation between water and
the other physical factors of the habitat. The order of the signs, ±,
denotes that the water increases and decreases with an increase and
decrease of the factor, or the reverse, ∓.
Humidity ± Water-content ±
Temperature ∓ Temperature ∓
Wind ∓ Wind ∓
Precipitation ± Precipitation ±
Pressure ± Pressure ∓
Soil texture 0 Soil texture
Altitude ∓ Porosity ∓
Capillarity ±
Slope ∓ Slope ∓
Exposure ∓ Exposure ∓
Cover ± Cover ±
154. Response. The normal functional responses to water stimuli

are absorption, diffusion, transport, and transpiration. Of these,
absorption and transpiration alone are the immediate response to
soil water and humidity, respectively. Consequently they are the
critical points of attack in studying the fundamental relation of the
plant to the water of its habitat. In determining the pathway of the
response, it is necessary to trace the steps in diffusion and transport,
but, as these are essentially alike for all vascular plants, this task lies
outside the scope of the work in hand. As previously suggested, the
relation between absorption and transpiration is strictly
compensatory, though, for obvious reasons, the amount of water
transpired is usually somewhat less than the amount absorbed.
Absorption falls below transpiration when extreme conditions cause
temporary or permanent wilting; the two activities are essentially
equal after a growing plant reaches maturity. In all cases, however,
the rule is that an increase or decrease in water loss produces a
corresponding change in the amount of water absorbed, and,
conversely, variation in absorption produces a consequent change in
transpiration. This is strictly true only when the stimuli are normal.
For example, a decrease in humidity causes increased water loss,
which, through diffusion and transport, is compensated by increased
activity of the root surface. Frequently the water supply is
insufficient to compensate for a greater stimulus, and the proper
balance can be attained only by the closing of the stomata. In the
case of excessive stimuli, neither compensation suffices, and the
plant dies. Many mesophytes and all xerophytes have probably
resulted from stimuli which regularly approached the limit of
compensation for each, and often overstepped, but never
permanently exceeded it. For hydrophytes, the danger arises from
excessive water supply, not water loss. There is a limit to the
compensation afforded by transpiration, which is naturally
dependent upon the amount of plant surface exposed to the air. No
compensation occurs in the case of submerged plants; floating
hydrophytes possess a single transpiring leaf surface, while the
leaves of amphibious plants behave as do those of mesophytes. The
whole question of response to water stimuli thus turns upon the
compensation for water loss afforded by water supply where the
latter is moderate or precarious, and upon the compensation for
water supply furnished by water loss where the supply is excessive,
submerged plants excepted.
155. The measurement of absorption. As responses to
measured stimuli of water-content and humidity, it is imperative
that the amount of absorption and of transpiration be determined
quantitatively. It is also extremely desirable that this be done in the
normal habitat of the plant. A careful examination of the problems to
be met quickly discloses the great difficulty of obtaining a direct and
accurate measure of absorption under normal conditions, especially
in the field. For this purpose, the ordinary potometric experiments
by means of cut stems are valueless. The use of the entire plant in a
potometer yields much more trustworthy results, though the fact that
the root is under abnormal conditions can not be overlooked,
especially in the case of mesophytes and xerophytes. While
potometric conditions are less abnormal for amphibious plants, the
error is not wholly eliminated, since the roots normally grow in the
soil. The potometer can be made of value for quantitative work only
by checking the results it gives by means of an instrument or a
method in which the plant functions normally. In consequence, the
potometer can not at present be used to measure absorption directly,
though, as is further indicated in the discussion of transpiration, it is
a valuable supplementary instrument, after the check mentioned has
been applied to its use with a particular species.
An estimate of the amount of absorption may be obtained either in
the field or in the control house by taking samples from the protected
soil at different times. Since it is impossible to determine the weight
of the area in which the roots lie, and since the soil water is often
unequally distributed, this method can not yield exact results. An
accurate method of measuring absorption under essentially normal
conditions has been devised and tested in the control house. The
essential feature of the process is the placing a plant in a soil
containing a known quantity of water, and removing it after it has
absorbed water from the soil for a certain period. In carrying out the
experiment, a soil consisting of two parts of sod and one of sand was
used, since the aeration is more perfect and the particles are more
easily removed from the roots. The soil was completely dried out in a
water bath and then placed in a five-inch battery jar. The latter,
together with the rubber cloth used later to prevent evaporation, was
weighed to the decigram. A weighed quantity of water was added,
and the whole again weighed as a check. Two plants of Helianthus
annuus were taken from the pots in which they had grown, and the
soil was carefully washed from the roots. Each plant was weighed
with its roots in a dish of water to prevent wilting, and then carefully
potted, one in each battery jar. A thistle tube was placed in the soil of
each jar to facilitate aeration, as well as the addition of weighed
amounts of water, when necessary, and the rubber cloth attached in
the usual manner to prevent evaporation. The entire outfit was
weighed again, and the weighing repeated at 8:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.
for five days, in order to determine the amount of transpiration and
its relation to the water absorbed. The plants were kept in diffuse
light to prevent excessive water loss while the roots were becoming
established. At the close of the experiment, the jar and its contents
were weighed finally. The plants were removed and weighed, the soil
particles being shaken from the roots into the jar, which was also
weighed. The results obtained were as follows:
Wt. of Wt. of pot and Total H2 O H2 O H2 O
pot and wet soil H2 O left absorbed transpired
dry soil
I II
I 1846.0 g. 2218.0 2174.3 372.0 328.3 43.7 g. 43.7 g.
g. g. g. g.
II 1886.7 g. 2253.2 2221.6 366.5 334.9 31.6 g. 31.6 g.
g. g. g. g.
The amount of water absorbed may be obtained directly by
subtracting the final weight of the jar and moist soil from their first
weight, but a desirable check is obtained by taking the dry weight of
jar and soil from the first, and the final weight of these, and
subtracting the one from the other as indicated in the table. A second
check is afforded by daily weighings, from which the amount of water
transpired is determined. Since the two sunflower plants made
practically no growth during the period of experiment, the exact
correspondence between water absorbed and water lost is not
startling, though it can not be expected that the results will always
coincide.
This method has certain slight sources of error, all of which, it is
thought, have been corrected in a new and more complete series of
experiments now being carried on. The aeration of the soil is not
entirely normal, as is also true of the capillary movements of the
water, on account of the nonporous glass jar and the rubber cloth.
Since the latter are necessary conditions of all accurate methods for
measuring absorption and transpiration, the resulting error must be
ignored. It can be reduced, however, by forcing air through the
thistle tube from time to time. Sturdy plants, such as the sunflower,
are the most satisfactory, since they recover more quickly from the
shock of transplanting. Almost any plant can be used, however, if
repotted in a loose sandy soil often enough. This permits the root
system to develop normally, and also makes it possible to wash the
soil away without injury to the root. The method is so recent that
there has been no opportunity to test it in the field. It would seem
that it can be applied without essential change to plants in their
normal habitats. Very large herbs or plants with extensive root
systems could not be used to advantage, and to be practicable the
experiments would need to be carried on near the base station. The
great value of the method, however, lies in its use as a check in
determining the accuracy of other methods, and in practice it will
often be found convenient and time-saving to use the latter, after
they have once been carefully checked for different groups of species.
This matter is further considered under measures of transpiration.
Fig. 31. Absorption and transpiration of Helianthus annuus. I and II, plants
repotted in soil of known weight and water-content; III, plant undisturbed in the
original soil; IV, potometer containing plant with cut stem; V, potometer with
entire plant.
156. The quantitative relation of absorption and

transpiration. Burgerstein[11] has summarized the results of
various investigators in the statement “that between the quantitative
absorption of water on the one hand and emission on the other there
exists no constant parallelism or proportion,” and he has cited the
work of Kröber, and of Eberdt in proof. This statement holds,
however, only for short periods of a few hours, or more rarely, a day,
and even here its truth still remains to be conclusively demonstrated.
The discrepancy between absorption and transpiration for a short
period is often greater than for a longer time, but it is evident that a
transient change in behavior or a small error in the method would
inevitably produce this result. Eberdt found the discrepancy for a few
hours to be 1–2 ccm. in an entire plant of Helianthus annuus, while
for a whole day the water absorbed was 33.57 ccm. and the water lost
33.98 ccm. Kröber’s experiments with cut branches of Asclepias
incarnata showed a maximum difference for 12 hours of 2.5 ccm.,
but the discrepancy for the first 24 hours was 1 ccm. and for the
second 1.9 ccm. In both cases, the potometer was employed.
Consequently, as will be shown later, Eberdt’s results are not entirely
trustworthy, while those of Kröber, made with cut stems, are
altogether unreliable. Hence, it is clear that the discrepancy is slight
for a period of several days or weeks, and that it may be ignored
without serious error, except in a few plants that retain considerable
water as cell-sap, in consequence of extremely rapid growth.
Accordingly, the amount of transpiration, which may be readily and
accurately determined, can be employed as a measure of absorption
that is sufficiently accurate for nearly all purposes. The truth of this
statement may be easily confirmed. It is evident that the amount of
water absorbed equals the amount transpired plus that retained by
the plant as cell-sap, or used in the manufacture of organic
compounds. In plants not actively growing, the amount lost equals
that absorbed, as already shown in the experiment with Helianthus.
According to Gain[12], Dehérain has found that a plant rooted in
ordinary soil transpired 680 kg. of water for each kilogram of dry
substance elaborated. In Helianthus annuus, the dry matter is 10 per
cent of the weight of the green plant. A well-grown plant weighing
1,000 grams, therefore, consists of 100 grams of dry matter and 900
of water. The length of the growing period for such a plant is
approximately 100 days, during which it transpires 68 kilograms of
water. Assuming the rate of transpiration and of growth to be
constant, the plant transpires 680 grams daily, adds 9 grams to its
cell-sap, and 1 gram to its dry weight. The amount of water in a gram
of cellulose and its isomers is about ⅗. Consequently, the total water
absorbed daily by the plant is 689.6 grams. The 680 grams
transpired are 98.6 per cent of the amount absorbed; in other words,
only 1.4 per cent of the water absorbed is retained by the plant. From
this it is evident that the simplest and most convenient measure of
absorption under normal conditions can be obtained through
transpiration, since the discrepancy between absorption and
transpiration is scarcely larger than the error of any method
applicable to the field. Conversely, the measure of absorption
obtained by the process described in the preceding section serves
also as a measure of transpiration. The determination of the latter in
the field is so much simpler, however, that it is rarely desirable to
apply the absorption method.
157. Measurement of transpiration. The water loss of a plant
may be determined absolutely or relatively. Absolute or quantitative
determinations are by (1) weighing, (2) collecting, or (3) measuring
the water absorbed; relative values are indicated by hygroscopic
substances. A number of methods have been employed more or less
generally for measuring transpiration. The great majority of these
can be used to advantage only in the laboratory, and practically all
fail to meet the fundamental requirement for successful field work,
namely, that the plant be studied under normal conditions in its own
habitat. The following is a summary of the various methods, the
details of which may be found in Burgerstein.
1. Weighing. This is the most satisfactory of all methods for
determining water loss. It is more accurate than any other, and is
unique in that it does not place the plant under abnormal conditions.
On the score of convenience, moreover, it excels every other method
capable of yielding quantitative results. Various modifications of
weighing are employed, but none of these have all the advantages of
a direct, simple weighing of the plant in its own soil.
2. Collecting the water transpired. This may be done by collecting
and weighing the water vapor exhaled by a plant placed within a bell
jar, or by weighing a deliquescent salt, such as calcium chloride,
which is used to absorb the water of transpiration. The decisive
disadvantage of these methods is that transpiration is carried on in
an atmosphere far more humid than normal. If an excessive amount
of salt is used, the air is abnormally dry. In both cases, the water loss
decreases until it reaches a point much below the usual amount.
Finally, all methods of this kind are open to considerable error, and
are inconvenient, especially in field work. They are of relatively slight
value in comparison with weighing.
3. Potometers. It has already been shown that the amount of water
absorbed is a close measure of the amount transpired. In
consequence, the potometer can be used to determine the amount of
transpiration provided the absorption is not abnormal. It is rarely
and only with much difficulty that this condition can be met. The use
of cut stems and branches does not meet it, and even in the case of
plants with roots, the results must be compared with those obtained
from absorption experiments made with plants rooted in soil before
they can be relied upon. This necessity practically puts the potometer
out of commission for accurate work, unless future study may show a
somewhat constant ratio between the absorption of a plant in its own
soil and that of a plant placed in a potometer.
4. Measuring absolute humidity. The cog psychrometer makes it
possible to determine the increased relative humidity produced
within a glass cylinder or special tin chamber by a transpiring plant.
From this result the absolute humidity is readily obtained, and by
means of the latter the actual amount of water given off. The evident
drawback to this method is that the increasing humidity within the
chamber gives results entirely abnormal for the plant concerned.
5. Self-registering instruments. There are various methods for
registering the amount of transpiration, based upon weighing, or
upon the potometer. The Richard recording evaporimeter has all the
advantages of weighing, inasmuch as the water loss is measured in
this way, and in addition the amount is recorded upon a revolving
drum, obviating the necessity of repeated attention in case it is
desirable to know the exact course of transpiration. On the other
hand, methods which depend upon the potometer, while graphic, are
not sufficiently accurate to be of value.
6. The use of hygroscopic materials. Hygroscopic substances
change their form or color in response to moisture. As they indicate
comparative water loss alone, they are of value chiefly in the study of
the stomatic surfaces of leaves. F. Darwin[13] has used strips of horn,
awns of Stipa, and epidermis of Yucca to construct small
hygroscopes for this purpose. In these instruments the error is large,
but as no endeavor is made to obtain exact results, it is negligible.
Filter paper impregnated with a 3–5 per cent aqueous solution of
cobalt chloride is deep blue when dry. If a strip of cobalt paper is
placed upon a leaf and covered with a glass slip it turns bright rose
color, the rapidity of the change affording a clue to the amount of
transpiration.
158. Field methods. The conditions which a satisfactory field
method of measuring transpiration must fulfill have already been
discussed; they are accuracy, simplicity, and normality. These
conditions are met only by weighing the plant in its own soil and
habitat. This has been accomplished by means of the sheet-iron soil
box, already described under the determination of the chresard. The
method is merely the familiar one of pot and balance, slightly
modified for field use. The soil block, which contains the plant to be
studied, is cut out, and the metal plates put in position as indicated
in section 53. Indeed, it is a great saving of time and effort to
determine transpiration and chresard in the same experiment; this is
particularly desirable in view of the close connection between them.
In this event, the soil block must be small enough not to exceed the
load of a field balance. After the block is cut and encased, all the
plants are removed, except the one to be studied. If several
individuals of the same species are present, it is an advantage to
leave all of them, since the error arising from individual variations of
water loss may, in this way, be almost completely eliminated. A sheet
of rubber or rubber cloth is carefully tied over the box to prevent
evaporation from the soil. A broad band is passed under the box to
aid in lifting it upon the scales. The latter must be of the platform
type, and should have a capacity as great as consistent with the need
for moving it about in the field. Weighings are made in the usual
way, care being taken to free the surface of the box from soil. The
aeration of the soil block is kept normal by removing the rubber for a
few minutes from time to time, or by forcing air through a thistle
tube. Water is also added through the latter, when it is desired to
continue the experiment for a considerable period. After the study of
transpiration is concluded, the rubber cloth is removed, soil samples
taken, and the soil allowed to dry out until the plant becomes
thoroughly wilted. If the box is weighed again, the difference
represents the amount of available water. The per cent of chresard is
also obtained in the usual way by taking samples for ascertaining the
echard, and subtracting this from the holard. Field determinations of
water loss yield the most valuable results when different habitat
forms, or ecads, of the same species are used. There is little profit in
comparing the transpiration of a typical sun plant, such as Touterea
multiflora, with that of a shade plant, such as Washingtonia obtusa.
But the simultaneous study of plants like Chamaenerium
angustifolium, Gentiana acuta, Scutellaria brittonii etc., which grow
in several different habitats, furnishes direct and fundamental
evidence of the course of adjustment and adaptation.
Hesselmann[14], in his study of open woodlands in Sweden, has
employed a method essentially similar to the preceding. Young
plants of various species were transferred to pots in the field, where
they were allowed to grow for several months before a series of
weighings was made to determine the amount of transpiration. Since
weighing is the measure used in each, both methods are equally
accurate. The one has a certain advantage in that the pots are,
perhaps, more easily handled, while the other has the advantage of
maintaining the normal relation of soil and roots, a condition more
or less impossible in a pot. In both instances the weighing should be
done in the habitat, which was not the case in Hesselmann’s
researches.
The slight value of the potometer, which has had a vogue far
beyond its merits, is indicated by the following table. These results
were obtained from three plants of Helianthus annuus; III was left
undisturbed in the pot where it had been growing, IV was placed in a
potometer, after the root had been cut off, and V was an entire plant
placed in a potometer. The amount of transpiration is indicated in
grams per square decimeter of leaf surface. The plants were kept in
diffuse light, except for a period of two hours (8:00 to 10:00 A.M.) on
the last day, when they were in full sunshine at a temperature of 75°
F. Plant IV wilted so promptly in the sunshine that it was found
necessary to conclude the experiment in diffuse light.
8 5 8 5 8 5 8 10 5 8 Total
A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. A.M. P.M. A.M.
III 2.9 7.3 2.4 6.0 1.7 1.6 2.0 3.4 2.0 1.8 31.1
IV 4.7 7.2 2.9 2.3 1.0 0.6 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.4 21.0
V 3.7 5.3 3.2 4.8 2.5 1.6 3.0 2.6 1.6 2.6 30.9
The cut plant, IV, lost more water the first day than either of the
others, but the water loss soon decreased, and at the end of the
period was almost nil. The total transpiration for III and V is much
the same, but the range of variation for periods of 12 hours is from
+2 to –1 gram. This experiment is taken as a fair warrant that the use
of cut stems in potometers can not give accurate results. It is
inconclusive, however, as to the merits of potometric values obtained
by means of the entire plant, and further studies are now being made
with reference to this point.
159. Expression of results. From the previous discussion of the
relation between them, it follows that an expression of the amount of
transpiration likewise constitutes an expression of absorption. It is
very desirable also that the latter be based upon root surface and
chresard, but the difficulty of determining the former accurately and
readily is at present too great to make such a basis practicable. In
expressing transpiration in exact terms, the fact that plants of the
same species or form are somewhat individual in their behavior must
be constantly reckoned with. In consequence, experiments should be
made upon two or three individuals whenever possible, in order to
avoid the error arising from this source.
Water loss may be expressed either in terms of transpiring surface
or of dry weight. Since there is no constant relation between surface
and weight, the terms are not interchangeable or comparable, and in
practice it is necessary to use one to the exclusion of the other.
Obviously, surface furnishes by far the best basis, on account of its
intimate connection with stomata and air-spaces, a conclusion which
Burgerstein (l. c., p. 6) has shown by experiment to be true. For the
best results, the whole transpiring surface should be determined.
This is especially necessary in making comparisons of different
species. In those studies which are of the greatest value, viz., ecads of
the same species, it is scarcely desirable to measure stem and petiole
surfaces, unless these organs show unusual modification. The actual
transpiring surface is constituted by the walls of the cells bordering
the intercellular spaces, but, since it is impossible to determine the
aggregate area of these, or the humidity of the air-spaces themselves,
the leaf surface must be taken as a basis. Since the transpiration
through the stomata is much greater than that through the epidermal
walls, the number of stomata must be taken into account. Since they
are usually less abundant on the upper surface, their number should
be determined for both sides of the leaf. The errors arising from
more or less irregular distribution are eliminated by making counts
near the tip, base, and middle of two or three mature leaves. The
most convenient unit of leaf surface is the square decimeter. The
simplest way to determine the total leaf area of a plant is to outline
the leaves upon a homogeneous paper, or to print them upon a
photographic paper. The outlines are then cut out and weighed, and
the leaf area obtained in square decimeters by dividing the total
weight by the weight of a square decimeter of the paper used. The
area may also be readily determined by means of a planimeter.
160. Coefficient of transpiration. At present it does not seem
feasible to express the transpiration of a plant in the form of a
definite coefficient, but it is probable that the application of exact
methods to each part of the problem will finally bring about this
result. Meanwhile the following formula is suggested as a step
toward this goal: t = g(u/l)LHT, in which t, the transpiration relation
of a plant, is expressed by the number of grams of water lost per
hour, on a day of sunshine, by one square decimeter of leaf,
considered with reference to the stomata of the two surfaces, and the
amount of the controlling physical factors, light, humidity, and
temperature, at the time of determination. For Helianthus annuus,
this formula would appear as follows: t = 2(²⁰⁰⁄₂₅₀) : 1 : 50 : 75°. To
avoid the large figures arising from the extent of surface considered,
the number of stomata per square decimeter is divided by 10,000.
This amounts to the number per square millimeter, and time may
consequently be saved by using this figure directly. While this
formula obviously leaves much to be desired, it has the great
advantage of making it possible to compare ecads of one species, or
species of the same habitat or of different habitats, upon an exact
basis of factor, function, and structure.
ADAPTATION
161. Modifications due to water stimuli. In adaptation, the

great desideratum is to connect each modification quantitatively with
the corresponding adjustment. This is even more difficult than to
ascertain the quantitative relation between stimulus and functional
response, a task still beset with serious obstacles. At the present
time, little more can be done than to indicate the relation of marked
adaptations of organs and tissues to the direct factors operating upon
them, and to attempt to point out among the functions possibly
concerned the one which seems to be the most probable connection
between the probable stimulus and the structure under investigation.
In the pages that follow, no more than this is attempted. The general
changes of organs and tissues produced by water are first discussed,
and after this is given a summary of the structural features of the
plant types based upon water-content.
162. Modifications due to a small water supply. A water
supply which may become deficient at any time is compensated
either by changes which decrease transpiration, or by those that
increase the amount of water absorbed or stored. These operate upon
the form and size of the organs concerned, as well as upon their
structure. Modifications of the form of leaf and stem are alike in that
they lessen transpiration by a reduction of the amount of surface
exposed to the air. Structural adaptations, on the other hand, bring
about the protection of epidermal cells and stomata, and often
internal cells also, from the factors which cause transpiration, or they
anticipate periods of excessive transpiration by the storage of water
in specialized cells or tissues. In certain extreme types the epidermis
is itself modified for the absorption of water vapor from the air.
163. The decrease of water loss. The following is a summary
of the contrivances for reducing transpiration.
1. Position of the leaf. Since the energy of a ray of sunlight is
greatest at the sun’s highest altitudes, those leaves transpire least
which are in such a position during midday that the rays strike them
as obliquely as possible. A leaf at right angles to the noonday sun
receives ten times as much light and heat upon a square decimeter of
surface as does one placed at an angle of 10 degrees. This device for
reducing the intensity of insolation is best developed in the erect or
hanging leaves of many tropical trees. In temperate zones, it is found
in such plants as Silphium laciniatum and Lactuca scariola, and in
species with equitant leaves. In such plants as Helianthus annuus,
the effect is just the opposite, since the turning of the crown keeps
the leaves for a long time at a high angle to the incident rays. In the
case of mats, it is the aggregation of plants which brings about the
mutual protection of the leaves from insolation and wind.
2. Rolling of the leaf. Many grasses and ericaceous plants possess
leaves capable of rolling or folding themselves together when drouth
threatens. In other cases, the leaves are permanently rolled or folded.
The advantage of this device arises not only from the reduction of
surface, but also from the fact that the stomata come to lie in a
chamber more or less completely closed. In the case of those mosses
whose leaves roll or twist, a reduction of surface alone is effected.
3. Reduction of leaf. The transpiring surface of a plant is reduced
by decreasing the number of leaves, by reducing the size of each leaf,
or by a change in its form. In so far as the stem is a leaf, a decrease in
size or a change in shape brings about the same result. The final
outcome of reduction in size or number is the complete loss of leaves,
and more rarely, of the stem. Such marked decrease of leaf area is
found only in intense xerophytes, though it occurs in all deciduous
trees as a temporary adaptation. Changes in leaf form are nearly
always accompanied by a decrease in size. Of the forms which result,
the scale, the linear or cylindrical leaf, and the succulent leaf are the
most common. Leaves which show a tendency to divide often
increase the number of lobes or make them smaller.
4. Epidermal modifications. Excretions of wax and lime by the
epidermis have a pronounced effect by increasing the impermeability
of the cuticle, and, hence, decreasing epidermal transpiration. It
seems improbable that a coating of wax on the lower surface of a
diphotic leaf can have this purpose. The thickening of the outer wall
of epidermal cells to form a cuticle is the most perfect of all
contrivances for decreasing permeability and reducing transpiration.
In many desert plants, the greatly thickened cuticle effectually
prevents epidermal transpiration. In these also the cuticle is
regularly developed in such a way as to protect the guard cells, and
even to close the opening partially. An epidermis consisting of two or
more layers of cells is an effective, though less frequent device
against water loss. When combined with a cuticle, as is usually the
case, the impermeability is almost complete. Hairs decrease
transpiration by screening the epidermis so that the amount of light
and heat is diminished, and the access and movement of dry air
impeded. While hairs assume the most various forms, all hairy
coverings serve the same purpose, even when, as in the case of
Mesembryanthemum, they are primarily for water-storage. Hairs
protect stomata as well as epidermal cells: the greater number of the
former on the lower surface readily explains the occurrence of a hairy
covering on this surface, even though absent on the more exposed
upper side. In some cases, hairs are developed only where they serve
to screen the stomata.
The modifications of the stomata with respect to transpiration are
numerous, yet all may be classed with reference to changes of
number or level. With the exception of aquatic and some shade
plants, the number of stomata is normally greater on the less
exposed, i. e., lower surface. The number on both surfaces decreases
regularly as the danger of excessive water loss increases, but the
decrease is usually more rapid on the upper surface, which finally
loses its stomata entirely. It has been shown by many observers that
species growing in dry places have fewer stomata to the same area
than do those found in moist habitats. This result has been verified
experimentally by the writer in the case of Ranunculus sceleratus, in
which, however, the upper surface possesses the larger number of
stomata. Plants of this species, which normally grow on wet banks,
were grown in water so that the leaves floated, and in soils
containing approximately 10, 15, 30, and 40 per cent of water. The
averages for the respective forms were: upper 20, lower 0; upper 18,
lower 10; upper 18, lower 11; upper 11, lower 8; upper 10, lower 6.
Reduction of number is effective, however, only under moderate
conditions of dryness. As the latter becomes intense, the guard cells
are sunken below the epidermis, either singly or in groups. In both
cases, the protection is the same, the guard cells and the opening
between them being withdrawn from the intense insolation and the
dry air. The sun rays penetrate the chimney-shaped chambers of
sunken stomata only for a few minutes each day, and they are
practically excluded from the stomatal hollows which are filled with
hairs. The influence of dry winds is very greatly diminished, as is also
true, though to a less degree, for leaves in which the stomata are
arranged in furrows. Sunken stomata often have valve-like
projections of cuticle which reduce the opening also. Finally, in a few
plants, water loss in times of drouth is almost completely prevented
by closing the opening with a wax excretion.
5. Modifications in the chlorenchym. A decrease in the size and
number of the air passages in the leaf renders the movement of
water-laden air to the stomata more difficult, and effects a
corresponding decrease in transpiration. The increase of palisade
tissue, though primarily dependent upon light, reduces the air-
spaces, and consequently the amount of water lost. The development
of sclereids below the epidermis likewise hinders the escape of water.
Finally the character of the cell sap often plays an important part,
since cells with high salt-content or those containing mucilaginous
substances give up their water with reluctance.
164. The increase of water supply. Plants of dry habitats can
increase their absorption only by modifying the root system so that
the absorbing surfaces are carried into the deep-seated layers of soil,
and the surfaces in contact with the dry soil are protected by means
of a cortex. Exception must be made for epiphytes and a few other
plants that absorb rain water and dew through their leaves, and for
those desert plants that seem to condense the moisture of the air by
means of hygroscopic salts, and absorb it through the epidermis of
the leaf. The storage of water in the leaf is a very important device; it
increases the water supply by storing the surplus of absorbed water
against the time of need. Modifications for water-storage are
occasionally found in roots and stems, but their chief development
takes place in the leaf. The epidermis frequently serves as a reservoir
for water, either by the use of the epidermal cells themselves, by the
formation of hypodermal water layers, or by means of superficial
bulliform cells. The water cells of the chlorenchym regularly appear
in the form of large clear cells, scattered singly or arranged in groups.
In this event, they occur either as transverse bands, or as horizontal
layers, lying between the palisade and sponge areas, and connecting
the bundles. A few plants possess tracheid-like cells which also serve
to store water. In the case of succulent leaves, practically the whole
chlorenchym is used for storing water, though they owe their ability
to withstand transpiration to a combination of factors.
165. Modifications due to an excessive water supply.
Water plants with aerial leaf surfaces are modified in such manner as
to increase water loss and to decrease water supply, but the resulting
modifications are rarely striking. There is a marked tendency to
increase the exposed surface. This is indicated by the fact that, while
the leaves of mud and floating forms become larger, they change
little or not at all in thickness. The lobing of leaves is also greatly
reduced, or the lobes come to overlap. Leaves of water plants are
practically destitute of all modifications of epidermis and stomata,
which could serve to hinder transpiration. The stomata are usually
more numerous on the upper surface, and in the same species their
number is greater in the forms grown in wet places. These facts
explain in part the extreme development of air-passages in water
plants, though this is, in large measure, a response to the increasing
difficulty of aeration. The increase of air-spaces is correlated with
reduction of the palisade, and a decided increase in the sponge. An
increase in water supply is indicated by the absence of storage
tissues, and the reduction of the vascular system, which, however, is
more closely connected with a diminished need for mechanical
support.
166. Plant types. The
necessity for decreasing or
increasing water loss in
compensation of the water
supply has made it possible to
distinguish two fundamental
groups of plants upon the
twofold basis of habitat and
structure. These familiar
Fig. 32. Mesophyll of Pedicularis
groups, xerophytes and
procera (chresard, 15%, light, 1).
hydrophytes, represent two
× 130.
extremes of habitat and
structure, between which lies a
more or less vague, intermediate condition represented by
mesophytes. These show no characteristic modifications, and it is
consequently impossible to arrange them in subgroups. Xerophytes
and hydrophytes, on the other hand, exhibit marked diversity among
themselves, a fact that makes it desirable to recognize subgroups,
which correspond to fundamental differences of habitat or
adaptation. It is hardly necessary to point out that these types are not
sharply defined, or that a single plastic species may be so modified as
to exhibit several of them. The extremes are always clearly defined,
however, and they indicate the specific tendency of the adaptation
shown by other members of the same group.
167. Xerophytic types. With the exception of dissophytes, all
xerophytes agree in the possession of a deep-seated root system,
adapted to withdraw water from the lower moist layers, and to
conserve from loss from the upper dry layers. Reservoirs are
developed in the root, however, in relatively few cases. The stem
follows the leaf more or less closely in its modification, except when
the leaf is greatly reduced or disappears, in which event the stem
exhibits peculiar adaptations. While the leaf is by far the most
strikingly modified, it is a difficult task to employ it satisfactorily as
the basis for distinguishing types. Several adaptations are often
combined in the same leaf, and it is only where one of these is
preeminently developed, as in the case of succulence, that the plant
can be referred to a definite type. The latter does not happen in many
species of the less intensely xerophytic habitats, and, consequently, it
is difficult, if not undesirable, to place such xerophytes under a
particular group. The best that can be done is to recognize the types
arising from extreme or characteristic modification, and to connect
the less marked forms as closely as possible with these. Halophytes
differ from xerophytes only in the fact that the chresard is
determined by the salt-content of the habitat, and not by the texture
of the soil. In consequence, they should not be treated as a distinct
group.
168. Types of leaf xerophytes. In these, adaptation has acted
primarily upon the leaf, while the stem has remained normal for the
most part. Even when the leaves have become scale-like, they persist
throughout the growing season, and continue to play the primary
part in photosynthesis. The following types may be distinguished:
1. The normal form. The leaf is of the usual dorsiventral character.
In place of a reduction in size, structural modifications are used to
decrease transpiration. With respect to the protective feature that is
predominant, three subtypes may be recognized. The cutinized leaf
compensates for a low water-content by means of a thick cuticle,
often reinforced by a high development of palisade tissue. Such
leaves are more or less leathery, and they are often evergreen also.
Arctostaphylus and many species of Pentstemon are good examples.
Lanate leaves, i. e., those with dense hairy coverings on one or both
surfaces, as Artemisia, Antennaria, etc., regularly lack both cuticle
and palisade tissue. The protection against water loss, however, is so
perfect that the chlorenchym often assumes the loose structure of a
shade leaf. Storage leaves usually have a well-developed cuticle and
several rows of palisade cells, but their characteristic feature is the
water-storage tissue, which
maintains a reserve supply of
water for the time of extreme
drouth. Xerophytic species of
Helianthus furnish examples of
transverse bundles of storage
cells, while those of Mertensia
illustrate the more frequent
arrangement in which the water
tissue forms horizontal layers.
2. The succulent form. Many
succulent leaves are normal in
shape and size, though always
thicker than ordinary leaves.
Usually, however, they are
reduced in size and are more or
less cylindrical in form. The
necessary decrease in
transpiration is effected by the
reduction in surface, the general
storage of water, a waxy
coating, and, often also, by a Fig. 33. Staurophyll of Bahia
very thick cuticle. Agave, dissecta, showing extreme
Mesembryanthemum, Sedum, development of palisade
and Senecio furnish excellent (chresard, 3–9%; light, 1). × 130.
examples of this type.
3. The dissected form. The
reduction in surface is brought
about by the division of the leaf
blade into narrow linear or
thread-like lobes which are
widely separated. The latter are
themselves protected by a hairy
covering or a thick cuticle,
which is often supplemented by
many rows of palisade, or by
storage tissue. Artemisia,
Senecio, and Gilia contain
Fig. 34. Diplophyll of Mertensia species which serve as good
linearis, showing water cells examples of this type.
(chresard, 3–9%, light, 1). × 130. 4. The grass form.
Xerophytic grasses and sedges
have narrow filamentous leaves
with longitudinal furrows which serve to protect the stomata. The
furrows are sometimes filled with hairs which are an additional
protection, and the leaves often protect themselves further by rolling
up into a thread-like shape. The elongated subulate leaves of Juncus
and certain Cyperaceae are essentially of this type, although they are
usually not furrowed.
5. The needle form. This is the typical leaf of conifers, in which a
sweeping reduction of the leaf surface is an absolute necessity. The
relatively small water loss of the needle leaf is still further decreased
by a thick cuticle, and usually also by hypodermal layers of
sclerenchyma.
6. The roll form. Roll leaves are frequently small and linear. Their
characteristic feature is produced by the rolling in of the margin on
the under side, by which an almost completely closed chamber is
formed for the protection of the stomata which are regularly
confined to the lower surface of the leaf. The upper epidermis is
heavily cutinized and the lower one often protected by hairs. This
type is found especially among the genera of the Ericales, but it also
occurs in a large number of related families.
7. The scale form. Reduction of leaf surface for preventing
excessive water loss reaches its logical culmination in the scale leaf
characteristic of many trees and shrubs, e. g., Cupressus, Tamarix,
etc. Scale leaves are leathery in texture, short and broad, and closely
appressed to the stem, as well as often overlapping.
169. Types of stem xerophytes. In these types the leaves are
deciduous early in the growing period, reduced to functionless scales,
or entirely absent. The functions of the leaf have been assumed by
the stem, which exhibits many of the structural adaptations of the
former. Warming[15] has distinguished the following groups:
1. The phyllode form. The petiole is broadened and takes the place
of the leaf blade which is lacking. In other cases, the stem is flattened
or winged, and it replaces the entire leaf. This type occurs in Acacia,
Baccharis, Genista, etc.
2. The virgate form. The leaves either fall off early or they are
reduced to functionless scales. The stems are thin, erect, and rod-
like, and are often greatly branched. They are heavily cutinized and
palisaded, and the stomata are frequently in longitudinal furrows.
This type is characteristic of the Genisteae; it is also found in
Ephedra, many species of Polygonum, Lygodesmia, etc.
3. The rush form. In Heleocharis, many species of Juncus, Scirpus,
and other Cyperaceae, the stem, which is nearly or completely
leafless, is cylindrical and unbranched. It usually possesses also a
thick cuticle, and several rows of dense palisade tissue.
4. The cladophyll form. In Asparagus the leaves are reduced to
mere functionless scales, and their function is assumed by the small
needle-shaped branches.
5. The flattened form. As in the preceding type, the place of the
scale-like leaves is taken by cladophylls, which are more or less
flattened and leaf-like. Ruscus is a familiar illustration of this form.
6. The thorn form. This is typical of many spiny desert shrubs, in
which the leaves are lost very early, or, when present, are mere
functionless scales. The stems have an extremely thick cuticle, and
the stomata are deeply sunken, as a rule. Colletia and Holacantha
are good examples of the type.
7. The succulent form. Plants with succulent stems such as the
Cactaceae, Stapelia, and Euphorbia have not only decreased water
loss by extreme reduction or loss of the leaves, and the reduction of
stem surface, but they also offset transpiration by means of storage
tissues containing a mucilaginous sap. The cuticle is usually highly
developed and the stomata sunken. Thorns and spines are also more
or less characteristic features.
170. Bog plants. Many of the xerophytic types just described are
found in ponds, bogs, and swamps, where the water supply is
excessive, and hydrophytes would be expected. The explanation that
“swamp xerophytes” are due to the presence of humic acids which
inhibit absorption and aeration in the roots has been generally
accepted. As Schimper has expressed it, bogs and swamps are
“physiologically dry”, i. e., the available water is small in amount, in
spite of the great total water-
content. Burgerstein (l. c., 142)
has shown, however, that maize
plants transpire, i. e., absorb,
three times as much water in a
solution of 0.5 per cent of oxalic
acid as they do in distilled
water, and that branches of
Taxus in a solution containing 1
per cent of tartaric acid absorb
more than twice as much as in
distilled water. Consequently, it
seems improbable that small
quantities of humic acids
should decrease absorption to
the extent necessary for the
production of xerophytes in
ponds and bogs. Indeed, in
many ponds and streams, where
Heleocharis, Scirpus, Juncus,
etc., grow, not a trace of acid is
discoverable. Furthermore,
plants with a characteristic
hydrophytic structure
throughout, such as
Ranunculus, Caltha, Ludwigia,
Sagittaria, etc., are regularly
Fig. 35. Polygonum bistortoides, a found growing alongside of
stable type: 1, mesophyll apparent xerophytes. Many of
(chresard, 25%); 2, xerophyll the latter, furthermore, show a
(chresard, 3–5%). × 130. striking contrast in size and
vigor of growth in places where
they grow both upon dry gravel
banks and in the water, indicating that the available water-content is
much greater in the latter. Finally, many so-called “swamp
xerophytes” possess typically hydrophytic structures, such as air-
passages, diaphragms, etc. In spite of a growing feeling that the
xerophytic features of certain amphibious plants can not be ascribed
to a low chresard in ponds and swamps, a satisfactory explanation of
them has been found but recently. This explanation has come from
the work of E. S. Clements already cited, in which it was found that
certain sun plants underwent no material structural change when
grown in the shade, and that the same was true also of a few species
which grew in two or more habitats of very different water-content.
In accordance with this, it is felt that the xerophytic features found in
amphibious plants are due to the persistence of stable structures,
which were developed when these species were growing in
xerophytic situations. When it is called to mind that
monocotyledons, and especially the grasses, sedges, and rushes, are
peculiarly stable, it may be readily understood how certain ancestral
characters have persisted in spite of a striking change of habitat.
Such a hypothesis can only be confirmed by the methods of
experimental evolution, and a critical study of this sort is now under
way.
Fig. 36. Hippuris vulgaris: 1, submerged leaf; 2, aerial leaf. × 130.
171. Hydrophytic types. Hydrophytes permit a fairly sharp

division into three groups, based primarily upon the relation of the
leaf surface to the two media, air and water. In submerged plants, the
leaves are constantly below the water; in amphibious ones, they grow
normally in the air. Floating plants have leaves in which the upper
surface is in contact with the air, and the lower in contact with the
water. Transpiration is at a maximum in the amphibious plant; it is
reduced by half in the floating type, and is altogether absent in
submerged plants. Aeration reaches a high development in
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