International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences– 2022; 7(1); 17-23

International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences

https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ijeg
e-ISSN 2548-0960

3D city model for monitoring flash flood risks in Salalah, Oman

Khalid Al Kalbani*1 , Alias Abdul Rahman 1

1Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 3D GIS Research Lab, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Keywords ABSTRACT
Flood risk management This paper investigates the issues and challenges in using a 3D city model for monitoring flash
3D city model flood risks in Salalah (Oman) designed using the City Geography Markup Language (CityGML)
CityGML standards version 2.0. The investigation was made based on the fact that 2D and 2.5D GIS
solutions cannot analyse flood complex problems inside the urban area. Hence, the study
sought to reduce time and effort for the decision-makers by proposing a 3D city model for
flood risk management. The study used geospatial tools and databases such as ArcGIS,
Watershed Modelling System (WMS), FME, PostgreSQL-PostGIS, and 3D City Database
(3DCityDB) to generate the 3D model and to test the capability of establishing a unified
geospatial data structure including the 3D city objects, hydrological data, and geological data.
The findings showed the importance of addressing flood risks data and arranging it in the 3D
geodatabase. It was also revealed that establishing a 3D city model based on the CityGML
standard requires homogenised definitions and standards for city objects (surface and
subsurface) as well as hydrological data.

1. INTRODUCTION

Oman has coasts with a length of 3165 kilometres

that facing towards the Indian Ocean, where tropical
storms occur. Therefore, it experiences frequent climatic
events such as tropical depression and cyclone (Al-
Kalbani, 2011; Dube et al., 2020). In addition to that, the
low parts of the coastal areas can be exposed to coastal
floods caused by high waves that come along with the
climactic event. These climatic events affect human lives
and cause damage to city infrastructure, which costs
millions of dollars. Salalah is one of the south Omani
cities that has faced several climatic events such as
cyclone Mekunu in 2018 and tropical depression from 27
May to 1 June 2020, as shown in Fig. 1.
The impact of these events has led to the importance
of evaluating Salalah city infrastructure by using the 3D
geospatial data approach to test the extent to which the
Salalah city infrastructure matches with the hydrological
system in that area. This study, thus, investigates the
issues and challenges of implementing a 3D city model to
monitor, evaluate and manage these dangers by
developing a small-scale 3D city model using CityGML Figure 1. The tropical depression, 30 May 2020
standard version 2.0.

* Corresponding Author Cite this study

(asakkhalid2@graduate.utm.my) ORCID ID 0000-0002-3268-6831 Kalbani K A & Rahman A A (2022). 3D city model for monitoring flash flood risks in
(alias@utm.my) ORCID ID 0000-0001-5263-8266 Salalah, Oman. International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences, 7(1); 17-23

Research Article / DOI: 10.26833/ijeg.857971 Received: 18/01/2021; Accepted: 25/03/2021

 International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences– 2022; 7(1); 17-23

Monitoring and assessing flash floods and managing Establishing a flood risk database within the 3D city
mitigation measures is a complex project that requires model is a complex task at the national level. On the one
great effort and a relatively long period of time. The study hand, dealing with 3D city model requires new solutions
seeks to reduce time and effort by employing a 3D city to integrate the data structure for both the surface and
model, which mainly depends on the design of the 3D city subsurface spatial objects (Al Kalbani and Abdul
model databases to manage the influence of the flood risk Rahman, 2019). This is because most of the 3D geospatial
on the city infrastructure (surface and sub-surfaces initiatives focus on surface spatial objects data structure
spatial objects). Bee et al. (2008), Ruíz (2015) and with less interest to model the subsurface spatial objects.
Tymkow et al. (2016) demonstrated that a mechanism On the other hand, there is a need to find an approach
could be established to deal with flood risk data by that bridges between different available 3D geospatial
linking geospatial data and identifying effective models, standards in terms of geometric and semantics
analysing appropriate simulation, estimation techniques, information to supports the interoperability between
and designing a flood intensity scale. On the other hand, Database Management Systems (DBMS), services, and
The Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery (BCPR) in stakeholders (Stoter et al., 2010).
its 2004 international report indicated that more efforts This paper is arranged in nine sections, where
should be made to collect disaster-related data. Also, it Section 2 discusses the study area. Then, Section 3
pointed out in its recommendations, the need to support reviews the CityGML standard. Section 4 reviews the
the national risk management to produce the current state of Oman geospatial data and Spatial Data
information needed for decision-making at a national Infrastructure (SDI), followed by the data and methods in
level (UNDP, 2004). Section 5. The Section 6 includes the discussion and
Nowadays, the infrastructure such as multi-floor outcomes of the study. Section 7 highlights the issues and
buildings and underground utilities, indoor and outdoor challenges. The benefit of implementing a 3D city model
spatial objects in the urban areas is complicated as it for flood risk management is summarised in Section 8,
requires using 3D geodata sets and 3D geospatial and finally, Section 9 concludes the paper.
platforms with high performance. Additionally,
employing the current geospatial solutions may not be 2. STUDY AREA
useful to analyse and visualise complex problems, so
there is an urgent need to develop 3D city model based Salalah is one of the main cities in the Dhofar
on interoperability solutions (Biljecki et al., 2015b; Governorate (southwest of the Sultanate of Oman)
Stoter et al., 2014, 2010). 3D geospatial platforms, 3D (Zerboni et al., 2020). The population of the governorate
database and their related applications are considered as has reached 416,458 in December 2020 (NCSI, 2020),
good initiatives to represent the 3D spatial objects and distributed between the coastal plain and mountainous
entire cities. The capability of these geospatial and desert areas. The urban area in Salalah is spread on
technologies offer some solutions in analysing complex a narrow coastal plain, located between mountains, that
data structure issues (Abdul Rahman et al., 2019; Siew are more than 1000 meters high (see Fig. 2), and a coastal
and Kumar, 2019; Yao et al., 2018). Hence, efforts to line with a number of wadis and alluvial fans passing
make the 3D city model successful for flood risk throughout the area.
management requires a homogenous and stable
environment for all models and standards in terms of
hydrology, meteorology, geomorphology, geology, and
hydrogeology.
A number of countries around the world have
applied the GIS for flood risk management, while other
countries are working toward 3D GIS by using their
standard, data format and database (Al-Kalbani, 2011;
Ruíz, 2015). At this point, the 3D geospatial institutions
and researchers have made an effort to develop a
framework for flood modelling based on the use of OGC
CityGML standard, CityJSON and others. Nevertheless,
the pre-implementation has exposed several issues and
challenges that need to be addressed during data
processing, data integration, data modelling, data
converting, and data visualising (Al Kalbani and Abdul
Rahman, 2019; Kumar et al., 2018; Zlatanova et al.,
2014). Part of the challenges is related to DEM sources
efficiency in 3D flood modelling and complex hydraulic
simulation. In this context, Bakuła et al. (2016) and Li and Figure 2. The digital elevation model (DEM) of Salalah
Wong (2010) investigated how hydraulic modelling and
The coastal plain can reach 13 km in its maximum
application can be influenced by the source of different
width. The mountain range in this area was formed by
elevation data. Meanwhile, Muhadi et al. ( 2020)
tectonic activity and uplift movement (Zerboni et al.,
discussed the use of Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
2020). Most of the rocky structure scattered in this
extruded from LiDAR for flood applications.
region is dominated by solid limestone.

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 International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences– 2022; 7(1); 17-23

Dhofar is considered a semi-arid area with assessment and noise monitoring (Biljecki, 2017; Biljecki
approximately 100–400 mm of rainfall per year (Zerboni et al., 2015b; Preka and Doulamis, 2016; Soon et al., 2016;
et al., 2020). This area also has a monsoon from July to Yao et al., 2018).
August, in which the weather becomes cloudy with little
rain. This area can also be affected by cyclones and 4. THE CURRENT STATE OF OMAN GEOSPATIAL
tropical depressions. One of the clime events Dhofar had DATA AND SDI
experienced is the tropical depression (27 May to 1 June
2020) which caused heavy rains so much causing some Oman government established its National Spatial
of the Dhofar districts to receive more than 1000 mm of Data Infrastructure (NSDI) in 2014 to standardise the
rains in 5 days. Salalah (study area) received 531 mm, geospatial activities and business at the national level.
causing flash floods and destroying some city Since then, the geospatial workflow of Oman NSDI and its
infrastructure (Mrmwroman, 2020). partners (Oman GIS stakeholders) are limited to the 2D
Rapid development in Salalah plays a role in the and 2.5D geospatial data (Al Kalbani et al., 2018; Das et
occurrence of natural phenomena such as floods. The al., 2017; NCSI, 2017a, 2017b). In fact, Oman is one of the
accelerated pressure on urban spatial holdings developed countries which has a complex city
contributed to the exploitation of flood-prone areas, and infrastructure. As a result, using 2D and 2.5D geospatial
most exploitation was not accompanied by providing the data may not be efficient in analysing flood risk inside the
infrastructure of water drainage (Al-Kalbani, 2011). The big cities and complex structures. Hence, the decision-
Crisis and Recovery Office has indicated in its global makers in Omani municipalities need GIS solutions based
report to UNDP 2004 that "it does not necessarily mean on utilising a 3D city model.
that the urban transformation increases flood risk and 5. DATA AND METHODS
can actually reduce it if it is well managed" (UNDP, 2004).
However, the damage caused by floods cannot always be 5.1. Data
the main natural factor for exacerbating events. Instead,
it is often the human factor that provides the right The study created a small-scale 3D city model for
environment for these risks to develop into disasters. Salalah district using CityGML version 2.0 and spatial
The high cost for constructing and maintaining the data collected from the related geospatial agencies in
flood protection infrastructure constrained the Oman (2D, 2.5D geospatial data). Satellite images
integration of flood risk measures into urban planning (Sentinel-2) with a resolution of 10 meters for the
efforts effectively. In fact, establishing flood risk tropical depression from 1-3 June 2020 were obtained
infrastructure at the government level can be affected by from https://eos.com/landviewer.
two elements, namely the economic feasibility and
practical feasibility. Often, the economic factor is the 5.2. Method
dominant factor in addition to the amount of available
budget (Al-Kalbani, 2011). In all scenarios, when The methodology in this study is given below.
planning deviates from the inclusion of flood risk as a 5.2.1. Creating Surface and Subsurface Models at
priority, this uncontrolled planning may cause challenges LoD1
in normal rainfall and make matters worse in the case of
heavy rains. A building model was created at CityGML LoD1 by
extruding the building footprint using a high value from
3. CityGML STANDARD the file attributes. LoD1 was also used to create a terrain
CityGML is an open XML file format for exchanging, model. Geospatial tools such as FME engine was used to
storing, and representing 3D objects. Its initiatives have generate 3D spatial objects for surface and subsurface
been developed by the Special Interest Group 3D (SIG spatial objects based on CityGML standard version 2.0
3D). Now, it is organised by Open Geospatial Consortium and also for exchanging the file format from one model to
(OGC). CityGML standard has been adopted as an the other. Since the CityGML 2.0 does not fully support
international standard to exchange the format of 3D the subsurface spatial objects and models, the study used
geospatial objects and the 3D city model based on the the CityGML generic module to develop some of these
XML file format and the GML 3xx. Besides, CityGML subsurface models such as geological model and pipeline
version 2.0 includes 13 models to store the spatial networks.
objects and five levels of detail (LoD) (Biljecki, 2017;
Biljecki et al., 2015b; Stouffs et al., 2018). 5.2.2. Creating Wadi Networks and Watershed
CityGML presents the most common natural and The study used ArcGIS (hydrology tools) and the
human spatial features that can be found in the cities and Watershed Modelling System (WMS) to extract wadi
their surroundings by determining their geometric and (stream) networks and watershed using ASTER DEM
semantic information (Arroyo Ohori et al., 2018; Biljecki, with a resolution of 30 meters. Besides, WMS
2017; Biljecki et al., 2017, 2015a, 2015b; Kensek, 2014; applications were used to produce flood spread layers
Stoter et al., 2016). Furthermore, the structure of based on digital terrain data and floodwater estimative
CityGML file format is developed based on the hierarchy elevation values between 1 – 3 meters.
structure for both geometric and semantic information.
Now, there are various spatial applications for CityGML
standard such as solar potential estimation, flood risk

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 International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences– 2022; 7(1); 17-23

5.2.3. Creating A unified 3D Database because the CityGML version 2.0 does not provide a
definition to support the subsurface objects except for
The study carried out some experiments to the CityGML Application Domain Extension (ADE) for
investigate further the issues and challenges for utility network. Thus, the study created some of the
constructing a unified 3D database. Related to this, subsurface spatial objects in LoD1 using the CityGML
databases PostgreSQL-PostGIS and 3DCityDB were used generic module. However, there are some challenges
to register and store the 3D models for surface and related to semantic, geomatic and topology that need to
subsurface objects in a relational database. It also, be addressed to enhance 3D subsurface models. Other
explored the data structure integration challenges challenges are related to 3D spatial analysis and the
between geological models, hydrological models and 3D process of creating a unified relational database for
city models. surface and subsurface spatial objects.
Since the CityGML version 2.0 does not include
5.2.4. Integration Between Satellite Images and 3D hydrological models and flooding simulation, this study
City Models used several applications separately and the outcomes
were linked to one 3D city model. During this stage, the
The study investigated how to integrate the benefits experiments showed that the 3D city model was able to
of satellite images and 3D city models for flood risk determine the areas that might be subjected to water
management. Satellite images (Sentinel-2) were flooding by linking the 3D city model, terrain and flood
analysed using change detection methods. The role of layer exported from WMS, as shown in Fig. 4.
satellite images in this study is to draw a map of the flood
spread in the study area by overlapping the 3D models
(building and road) in the 3D city model with 2D satellite
images that are classified using change detection. In
addition, this step contributed to tracking and
highlighting some of the flooding problems related to the
failure of drainage networks along highways and inside
cities.

5.2.5. Visualising

Since there is no professional 3D viewer to visualise

both surface and subsurface spatial objects, the study
used visualising tools such as FME Data Inspector, Google
Earth, FZK viewer and Cesium.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A small-scale 3D city model was created for most

surface city spatial objects in LoD 1 (see Fig. 3). However,
it faced a challenge to go higher to LoD 3 and LoD 4 due Figure 4. The areas subjected to flooding
to missing rich data such as BIM/IFC. In addition, the
study able to generate wadi (stream) networks and Another advantage of managing flood data in 3D city
watershed using Salalah digital terrain data. model is providing the capability to determine the level
to which floodwater can reach in each of the city
buildings (see Fig. 5).

Figure 3. The small-scale 3D city model for Salalah Figure 5. The level of floodwater in residential areas

The real challenge in developing the 3D city model Nevertheless, there is still a challenge in registering
was how to create the subsurface spatial objects. This is the value to which floodwater can reach automatically in
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 International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences– 2022; 7(1); 17-23

the database for each of the building faces and edges due • Upgrading 3DCityDB data structure to import
to the complexity of CityGML data structure in terms of subsurface spatial objects.
systematic and geometric information. • Developing homogenised definitions within CityGML
Moreover, the experiments demonstrated that there standard to manage relationships between different
is a possibility to integrate the analysis of satellite images subsurface spatial objects, geological models and
using change detection methods and 3D city models to hydrological models.
map the distribution of internal floods in residential • Developing a new logarithm of hydrodynamic
areas and to highlight some issues in the city modelling of flood flows based on CityGML standard
infrastructure (see Fig. 6). and 3D raster map (voxel).
• Calculating the water drainage that comes from the
city’s infrastructure, where the roofs of buildings and
paved areas contribute to the gathering of rainwater
in residential areas and low areas.
• Designing a mechanism to predict urban
infrastructure behaviour during the flooding, where
the failure of bridges, roads and drainage channels
can shut down the natural paths of valleys and
change the direction of their flow, causing internal
flooding in residential areas.
• Integrating indoor and outdoor navigation and flood
risk management.
• Updating the hydrology simulation results
automatically into the databases at the level of
CityGML schema(s) and LoD(s).
• Defining the water stream paths inside the city in the
absence of Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
data, which is a restricted data in Oman and needs
several official permissions.
Other challenges are related to CRS/SRID, quality of
Figure 6. The integration between satellite images using data structures, geomatics representation, the problem
the change detection method and 3D city models of semantic cording, creating the data structure in terms
of schema(s) and LoD(s), integration with the DEM, the
Based on this approach, the results revealed that 3D object topology issues, flood topology issues, data
floodwater collects on the sides of highways and some retrieval, data size, data index, 3D spatial analysis, spatial
modern bridges as well as residential areas. There are operations and rendering over Cesium.
many reasons that can caused the phenomenon, but lack
of water drainage networks, failure of drainage channels 8. THE BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING A 3D CITY
due to accumulation of impurities coming from the MODEL FOR FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT
watershed, incompatibility of the engineering design of
the drainage channels and the volume of water flow are The expected benefits of using a 3D city model for
the most important factors. Other challenges are due to flood risk management study are summarised as follows:
the low level of the ground surface in some residential
areas and weak water infiltration into the ground. • A suitable environment for the modelling of floods
and their impact on the urban areas in 3D
7. ISSUES AND CHALLENGES • The ability to test infrastructure projects before
implementation on the ground
The establishment of a 3D city model for flood risk • A suitable environment for flood risk management
monitoring based on the use of CityGML version 2 and rescue operations
requires compatible solutions. Hence, this study was
performed to address the issues and challenges listed as 9. CONCLUSION
follows:
• Integrating the CityGML and the current mathematic This study successfully investigated the use of a 3D
hydrological models in a unified ADE, data structure city model to monitor flood risks in Salalah and
and 3D geodatabase. determined the challenges faced during the
• Designing suitable equations to estimate the floods’ investigation. This evidently showed that the issues and
peak considering Salalah environment, climate, the challenges are related to the efficiency of this standard
nature of urban patterns and characteristics of dams for hydrological analysis and in managing surface and
and their ability to drain water. Therefore, creating subsurface spatial objects in the unified data structure.
hydrodynamic modelling of flood flows using The results also demonstrated that the 3D
CityGML standard needs to determine the relation geospatial data is more efficient in solving planning
with other factors such as the surface of the wadi, problems and defining the issues that may increase flood
slope, velocity, leakage rate to the underground, risks. This, in turn, helps to understand and assess the
evaporation, and 3D objects resistance.
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nature of risks, and thus design a clear vision to manage International Publishing, Cham, pp. 199–215.
rescue efforts. This research is still a work-in-progress https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92862-3_11
and the authors believe that the initial outcomes of this Bakuła, K., StĘpnik, M., Kurczyński, Z., 2016. Influence of
paper can highlight the importance of including 3D Elevation Data Source on 2D Hydraulic Modelling.
geospatial solutions for flood risk management in Oman. Acta Geophys. 64, 1176–1192.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Technology.
https://doi.org/10.4233/uuid:f12931b7-5113-47ef-
The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry bfd4-688aae3be248 Uzbekistan (Hz. Osman’s
of Higher Education, Research, and Innovation (MoHERI) Mushafi). International Congress on Cultural Heritage
of the Sultanate of Oman for supporting the main project and Tourism (ICCHT), 115-123, Bishkek, Kyrgzstan.
(3D SDI). The research leading to these results has Biljecki, F., Ledoux, H., Stoter, J., 2017. Generating 3D City
received funding from MoHERI under the GRG program. Models Without Elevation Data. Comput. Environ.
Funding Agreement No: MoHERI/GRG/INT.S/09/2020. Urban Syst. 64, 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2017.01.
Author contributions 001
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preparation, Validation, and Visualization. Alias Abdul https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12181-9_1
Rahman: Conceptualization, Methodology, Reviewing Biljecki, F., Stoter, J., Ledoux, H., Zlatanova, S., Çöltekin, A.,
and Editing. 2015b. Applications of 3D City Models: State of the Art
Review. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Information 4, 2842–2889.
Conflicts of interest https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi4042842
Das, A., Chandel, K., Narain, A., 2017. Value of Geospatial
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Technology in Boosting Omans Economy, in: Oman
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