radiation
radiation
radiation
Carbon Dating:
A process in which we determine the age of a fossil
by counting the number of Carbon-14 isotopes
remaining in it.
PALEORADIOLOGY
Palaios + Radiology
- It is the study of bio-archeological materials using imaging
methods such as X - Rays, CT , MRI , and micro CT.
- This can be used in diagnosis of a disease in bio-archeological
remains.
THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING
THERMO + LUMINESCENCE
Materials that have accumulated energy over time will emit light when exposed to high heat.
This process measures the ‘accumulated’ radiation over time unlike other methods which measure radiation ‘lost’
over time.
Computed Tomography
For dating an object we use a mathematical relation:
Age = Total Dose/ Annual Dose
1. 238U
2. 232Th
3. 40K
The size of the population of the electrons trapped is measured and is directly
related to the amount of radiation the object has been subjected to, this is
what we call total dose.
Procedure:
1. Mostly we rub off the surface a few millimetres to get to the gamma
rays.
2. The object is subjected to high heat equivalent to 400-500oC. The
electrons after getting excited to the conduction band recombine
with the lattice releasing energy in the form of photons which can be
seen as emitted light radiations.
Applications Of Synchrotron Radiation in Archaeology
ONE OF THE MAJOR CONCERNS IN ARCHAEOLOGY:
How to study the archaeological remains without destroying them!?
SOLUTION:
The great Synchrotron Radiation!
❑ NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (NAA) is one of them and been widely used and developed.
❑ Some other Nuclear Techniques which has been used in forensic work are radioisotope dilution, radiotracer
methods, gamma radiography
❑ NAA was discovered in 1936 by Hevesy and Levi, who found that samples containing certain rare-earth
elements became highly radioactive after exposure to a source of neutrons.
❑ Carbon-14 dating technique can determine the age of objects up to 50 000 years old and has already helped a
number of investigations to determine the authenticity of paintings, statues and other valuable historical objects.
• Isotope analysis is the identification of the abundance of certain stable isotopes of chemical elements within
organic and inorganic compounds.
• This method involves analyzing the ratios of isotopes (variants of elements with different atomic masses) present
in a sample.
• Isotopic analysis can be used in forensics to determine the origin of substances like drugs or explosives, as well as
trace the source of materials used in crimes (e.g., tracking or identifying the geographic origin of food or
beverages).
What is neutron activation
analysis technique?
Neutron activation analysis is a method for the qualitative and quantitative determination
of elements based on the measurement of characteristic radiation from radionuclides
formed by irradiating materials by neutrons.
With AMS radiocarbon dating, it was proved that the two paintings
— one Impressionist and one Pointillist — were forgeries. Based on
the excess of carbon-14 detected, the paintings had not been
painted in the 20th century by the artist, who died in the 1940s. it
was revealed the canvases were manufactured in the mid-1950s
Mass Spectrometer
Stable isotope ratios are measured using mass spectrometry, which separates the different isotopes of an
element on the basis of their mass-to-charge ratio.
OUTPU
T
CASE : The Unabomber Case
The case involving the Unabomber,
Theodore Kaczynski, who carried out a
series of bombings in the United States
from the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, was
partially solved using isotopic analysis.
Investigators used the analysis of wood
Theodore “Ted” Kaczynski—also
found in the bombs and compared it to a known as the Unabomber
sample of wood taken from Kaczynski's “Cool headed logicians”
cabin. The isotopic signatures matched,
contributing to Kaczynski's identification
and eventual arrest.
Click to watch the related video Shrapnel from one of Kaczynski’s bombs
Method: ION BEAM ANALYSIS
• Ion beam analysis involves directing a beam of high energy ions at material. These ion beams interacts with
material through elastic scattering , nuclear reactions and atomic displacement.
• Analysis of interaction with matter provides the information about elemental composition , depth profiling
and the structural properties.
2. Automotive
• Needs expensive high performance plastics which
are difficult to process.
• helps to save raw material costs
3. Pipes/tubes
• Improved their long term durability under
internal pressure.
Why Radiation ?
• Radiation is the only other sterilization method that doesn’t rely
on elevated temperature in order to sterilize.
• Radiation is an excellent alternative for products that cannot be
sterilized with heat or chemicals.
PROCESS:
• Radiation can be lethal to biological organisms by inducing genetic damage and chemical changes in key
biological macromolecules.
• During sterilization treatment, the sample of interest is bombarded with high energy electrons or high
energy electromagnetic radiation, which leads to the formation of extremely unstable free radicals,
molecular ions and secondary electrons.
• These radiation products then react with nearby molecules to fracture and alter chemical bonds.
• DNA in particular is highly sensitive to the damaging effects of radiation and will break, depolymerize,
mutate and alter structure upon exposure to ionizing radiation.
• Incomplete repair of DNA damage ultimately leads to loss of genetic information and cell death. Thus,
radiation can kill harmful microorganisms and be used as a sterilization technique.
GAMMA RAYS
• Gamma radiation sterilization is the most popular form of
radiation sterilization.
• Co-60 and, to a lesser extent, Cs-137 serve as radiation sources
and undergo decomposition to release high energy gamma rays.
• The produced electromagnetic radiation is highly penetrating
and can kill contaminating microorganisms.
• Both radioisotopes are viable sources of radiation due to their
highly stability (with half-lives >5 years) and gamma emission
properties.
• However, Co-60 tends to be favored because it can be easily
manufactured from natural metal, is not fissile or flammable and
is less soluble in water.
Electron Beam Radiation
• Sterilization can alternatively be accomplished using electron beam irradiation. High energy
electrons capable of inducing biological damage are generated by electron beam
accelerators.
• Electron beam radiation involves the use of high-energy electron beams
• The principle lies in the ability of energetic electrons to penetrate materials.
• Gamma irradiation and e-beam irradiation differ in sample penetration depth, exposure time
required for effective sterilization and product compatibility.
• Electron beam accelerators will also generate X-rays for sterilization. X-rays are
produced when high energy electrons from the accelerator interact with high
atomic number nuclei, such as atoms of tungsten or tantalum.
• In a process known as Bremsstrahlung, the deceleration of the electron when
passing the nucleus results in the release of X-rays. Electron energies of 5-7 MeV
are commercially used; the energies of the resultant X-rays lie along a spectrum
ranging from zero to the energy of the electron beam
Medical Industries :
Sterilization of Medical Equipment: Nuclear radiation,
particularly gamma radiation, is employed to sterilize
medical devices, instruments, and pharmaceutical
products. This ensures that these items are free from
harmful microorganisms, preventing infections in
patients.
Cobalt-60 has been used for sterilization of medical devices since the 1960s. There is substantial
knowledge of its effects on both the reduction of microorganisms to prevent disease and
changes to material properties, as well as considerable experience in its use.
There are approximately 200 large gamma irradiation facilities worldwide in more than 50
countries that are predominately used for medical device sterilization.
Medical Waste Treatment: Radioactive isotopes
are used to sterilize medical waste, such as
disposable syringes and gloves. This minimizes the
risk of spreading infections from contaminated
medical waste.
• The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires sterilization of all invasive medical
and dental devices including syringes, surgical gloves, artificial joints, and
implantable devices such as orthopedics and heart valves. FDA generally requires a
sterility assurance level (SAL) of 10–6 for invasive medical products.
• About 10 percent of single-use medical device sterilization is performed using e-
beams and just 1% by X- ray.
Agricultural Industry:
• Seed Sterilization: Nuclear techniques are
applied to sterilize seeds, preventing the
transmission of diseases and pests to crops.
This ensures healthier plant growth and higher
agricultural yields.
• While radiation can sterilize seeds, it may also have long-lasting effects on subsequent
seedlings. High levels of radiation can lead to reduced seedling survival. For instance, exposure
to ≤ 0.5 kGy of radiation results in seedlings surviving for a maximum of 10 days.
• Remember, seed sterilization is essential for maintaining a contamination-free environment
during research, cultivation, and study of purified cells or tissues in laboratories. It ensures
reliable results and healthy plant growth.
2. Insect Control: Sterile insect technique (SIT) involves sterilizing insects using
ionizing radiation and releasing them into the environment. This controls pest
populations without the need for chemical pesticides
Ease: Only a single variable, the exposure dose/time, must be monitored, making radiation sterilization
simple and easy to control.
Consistent and Reliable Results: The process provides consistent and reliable sterilization
outcomes, contributing to the production of high-quality and contamination-free industrial
products.
Disadvantages :
Limited Material Compatibility: Certain materials may be sensitive to ionizing radiation and
can undergo changes in physical or chemical properties. This limitation requires careful
selection of materials that can withstand the radiation process without compromising
functionality.
Disadvantages :
Instrumentation: Capital costs are high and specialized facilities are often needed. Gamma radiation
requires a nuclear reactor; E-beam/X-ray radiation are generated using electron beam accelerators.
Product Degradation: Radiation based methods are not compatible with all materials and can cause
breakdown of the packaging material and/or product. Common plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
acetal and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) are sensitive to gamma radiation. The high energies involved in
e-beam radiation can also lead to main chain scission (breaking of the long chain backbone) and chemical
crosslinking of packaging polymers.
Radioactive material: When gamma radiation is used as an ionization source, radiation sterilization
requires handling and disposal of radioactive material. Note that, at commonly used radiation levels,
irradiation with gamma rays does not induce radioactivity in the treated sample itself.
Food Industry:
Preservation of Food Products: Ionizing radiation is utilized to control and eliminate
bacteria, parasites, and insects in food products. This process helps extend the shelf life
of perishable items, maintaining their quality and safety for consumption.
Preservation - to destroy or inactivate organisms that cause spoilage and decomposition and extend the shelf life
of foods.
Control of Insects - to destroy insects in or on tropical fruits imported into the United States. Irradiation also
decreases the need for other pest-control practices that may harm the fruit.
• Delay of Sprouting and Ripening - to inhibit
sprouting (e.g., potatoes) and delay ripening of
fruit to increase longevity.
⦁ Irradiation Room: When the cobalt is in the water, people can safely enter the irradiation room.
⦁ Radiation Source: Cobalt is shielded under water in an underground tank when not in use.
⦁ Control Console: Treatment is controlled by the speed of the conveyer belt. Amount of energy
needed varies by the density of the load.
⦁ Loading: Packaged food is loaded onto a conveyer belt for treatment.
⦁ Unloading Processed Product: Treated food can be handled immediately. The fence keeps treated
and untreated food separate.
⦁ Radiation Shield: Concrete walls prevent gamma rays from escaping into the environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IRRADIATION
SOURCES USED:
Gamma Rays:
X-rays:
Electron beam:
➢ The other forms of radiation are undesirable because they have the
potential to make the target food(or medical product) radioactive.