radiation

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Art and Archeology

Carbon Dating:
A process in which we determine the age of a fossil
by counting the number of Carbon-14 isotopes
remaining in it.
PALEORADIOLOGY

Palaios + Radiology
- It is the study of bio-archeological materials using imaging
methods such as X - Rays, CT , MRI , and micro CT.
- This can be used in diagnosis of a disease in bio-archeological
remains.
THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING
THERMO + LUMINESCENCE

Materials that have accumulated energy over time will emit light when exposed to high heat.

This process measures the ‘accumulated’ radiation over time unlike other methods which measure radiation ‘lost’
over time.
Computed Tomography
For dating an object we use a mathematical relation:
Age = Total Dose/ Annual Dose

If the absorption of radiation is happening at a constant rate it is what we call


an annual dose the electrons get accumulated uniformly over time.
For calculation of annual dose the sources we use:

1. 238U

2. 232Th

3. 40K

The size of the population of the electrons trapped is measured and is directly
related to the amount of radiation the object has been subjected to, this is
what we call total dose.
Procedure:
1. Mostly we rub off the surface a few millimetres to get to the gamma
rays.
2. The object is subjected to high heat equivalent to 400-500oC. The
electrons after getting excited to the conduction band recombine
with the lattice releasing energy in the form of photons which can be
seen as emitted light radiations.
Applications Of Synchrotron Radiation in Archaeology
ONE OF THE MAJOR CONCERNS IN ARCHAEOLOGY:
How to study the archaeological remains without destroying them!?

SOLUTION:
The great Synchrotron Radiation!

Synchrotron Radiation-based methods are specifically suitable for micro-non-destructive analyses.


Applications Of Synchrotron Radiation in Archaeology
SR-X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Cultural Heritage

SR Based Techniques for Analysis of Painted Cultural Heritage Artifacts

SR-X-Ray Computed Tomography

SR Based Techniques for Paleontological Findings


The team excavating a large site at Grenoble’s Saint
Laurent church found a small metallic box inside a grave,
which was too damaged even to be manually opened. The
archaeologists brought the 4cm box to the European
Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), which houses one
of the world’s most powerful sources of X-rays.
Animation 3D Box and medals @Paul Tafforeau ESRF

The particle accelerator enabled the team to


virtually look inside the box without opening it.
The researchers were able to obtain 3D images of
the interior of the box, which revealed three
circular medals made of clay and two pearls.
Although the medals were stuck together and
badly damaged, the researchers were able to
reconstruct engravings of Christ on the cross and
an image of resurrection that were used to
decorate them.
Crime Detection
❑ Nuclear Techniques can be a powerful additional tool in the field of Crime Investigation.

❑ NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS (NAA) is one of them and been widely used and developed.

❑ Some other Nuclear Techniques which has been used in forensic work are radioisotope dilution, radiotracer
methods, gamma radiography

❑ NAA was discovered in 1936 by Hevesy and Levi, who found that samples containing certain rare-earth
elements became highly radioactive after exposure to a source of neutrons.

❑ Carbon-14 dating technique can determine the age of objects up to 50 000 years old and has already helped a
number of investigations to determine the authenticity of paintings, statues and other valuable historical objects.
• Isotope analysis is the identification of the abundance of certain stable isotopes of chemical elements within
organic and inorganic compounds.
• This method involves analyzing the ratios of isotopes (variants of elements with different atomic masses) present
in a sample.
• Isotopic analysis can be used in forensics to determine the origin of substances like drugs or explosives, as well as
trace the source of materials used in crimes (e.g., tracking or identifying the geographic origin of food or
beverages).
What is neutron activation
analysis technique?
Neutron activation analysis is a method for the qualitative and quantitative determination
of elements based on the measurement of characteristic radiation from radionuclides
formed by irradiating materials by neutrons.

❑ The sample is bombarded with neutrons,


causing it’s constituent elements to form
radioactive isotopes.

❑ The radioactive emission and


decay path have long been studied & determined.

❑ Using this information it is possible to


study the spectra of the emission of the sample
and thus used for analysis.
• It is an analytic technique that relies on the measurement of gamma rays emitted from a sample that was
irradiated by thermal neutrons.
• The rate at which gamma rays are emitted from an element in a sample is directly proportional to the
concentration of that element.
• Personnel of the NAA laboratory have considerable experience in the forensic analysis of evidenting materials
like Bullet fragments, gunshot residue, hair and fingernails and geological materials.
• When the sample is irradiated with neutron source. Neutrons are captured by the elements in the sample to
produce unstable radioactive isotopes.
• Most of cases of gamma rays are emitted from the radio nucleus as they decay. The energies of these gamma
rays are, in general, distinct to a specific nuclide.
DETECTION LIMIT :-
1. The half life of radionuclie should be greater than 10 sec for good detection.

2. For element like arsenic, to determine 5ppb of arsenic , 1g of sample is sufficient.


PROCEDURE
• The procedure for NAA involves encapsulating the sample and
suitable standards in heat sealed quarts vial and simultaneously
irradiating them.
• Each standard sample is analyzed utilizing high resolution
germanium detectors coupled to a multichannel analyzer system.
• gamma ray conts accumulated in an energy region above
background counts produce photopeaks. Later, the data is
processed using sophisticated computer programs that smooth
the spectal data and determine the net areas of gamma ray
photopeaks and aslso find the count rate
CASE : John F. Kennedy Assasination
Investigation
In the investigation into the assassination
of President John F. Kennedy in 1963,
neutron activation analysis was used to
analyze bullet fragments. By examining the
elemental composition of these fragments,
scientists determined that the bullets
came from the same batch, supporting the
single-bullet theory associated with the
assassination.
Carbon-14: ART FORGERY
During a 2019 investigation of potential forgeries by France’ central
office. Two paintings from the late 19th and early 20th centuries
were tested. Researchers collected samples of fibre from the
canvases and reduced them to about one milligram of carbon that
was then measured with AMS.

With AMS radiocarbon dating, it was proved that the two paintings
— one Impressionist and one Pointillist — were forgeries. Based on
the excess of carbon-14 detected, the paintings had not been
painted in the 20th century by the artist, who died in the 1940s. it
was revealed the canvases were manufactured in the mid-1950s
Mass Spectrometer
Stable isotope ratios are measured using mass spectrometry, which separates the different isotopes of an
element on the basis of their mass-to-charge ratio.

OUTPU
T
CASE : The Unabomber Case
The case involving the Unabomber,
Theodore Kaczynski, who carried out a
series of bombings in the United States
from the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, was
partially solved using isotopic analysis.
Investigators used the analysis of wood
Theodore “Ted” Kaczynski—also
found in the bombs and compared it to a known as the Unabomber
sample of wood taken from Kaczynski's “Cool headed logicians”
cabin. The isotopic signatures matched,
contributing to Kaczynski's identification
and eventual arrest.

Click to watch the related video Shrapnel from one of Kaczynski’s bombs
Method: ION BEAM ANALYSIS
• Ion beam analysis involves directing a beam of high energy ions at material. These ion beams interacts with
material through elastic scattering , nuclear reactions and atomic displacement.
• Analysis of interaction with matter provides the information about elemental composition , depth profiling
and the structural properties.

• There are different kind of IBA techniques ie.


• Rutherford Spectroscopy:It involves
bombarding a sample with a beam of high-
energy ions, causing some of the ions to
scatter backward (backscatter) . By analyzing
the energy and intensity of these
backscattered ions, scientists can deduce the
composition and depth profile of elements
within the material.
• Nuclear Reaction Analysis (NRA): In this technique
bombardment of high-energy ions, causes nuclear
reactions that emit characteristic particles such as
protons, neutrons, or gamma rays. By measuring
these emissions. By analysis, we can determine the
elemental composition and concentration of specific
elements within a sample.
• Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE): In this
technique bombardment of high-energy ions, causes
inner-shell electrons to be displaced. As the
electrons return to their original positions, they emit
X-rays that are characteristic of the elements
present. PIXE is highly sensitive and can detect trace
elements in materials.
CASE: The Tokyo Subway Sarin Attack
In 1995, a terrorist group released sarin
gas in the Tokyo subway, resulting in
several deaths and injuries. Ion beam
analysis was instrumental in identifying
the chemical composition of the sarin
gas used in the attack. This helped
authorities trace the source of the gas
and aided in the investigation, leading to
the apprehension of the perpetrators.
WELL LOGGING TECHNIQUE

Well logging is an evaluation method in which a logging crew lowers a special


tool, a sonde, into the well and then pulls it back up.
 As the sonde passes the formations on its way up the wellbore, it senses and
measures electrical, radioactive, and acoustic (sound) properties of the rocks.
 Well logging is performed in boreholes drilled for the oil and gas, groundwater,
mineral and geothermal exploration.
 The well logging operation involves the use of sealed radioactive sources and
portable mini-neutron generators in suitable logging tool for oil exploration.
RADIOACTIVE TRACERS TECHNIQUE

A tracer is a substance that is intentionally introduced to a


system to study the dynamics of the process material
moving or flowing through it.
 The tracer should be representative, and thus behaves
similarly to the material being traced. However, it should
also have a property that makes it distinguishable from the
process material for its detection.
 The principle behind the use of radioactive tracers is that
an atom in a chemical compound is replaced by another
atom, of the same chemical element. The substituting atom,
however, is a radioactive isotope.
 This process is often called radioactive labeling. The power
of the technique is due to the fact that radioactive decay is
much more energetic than chemical reactions.
Radioisotopes are used by manufacturers as tracers to monitor fluid
flow and filtration, detect leaks, and gauge engine wear and
corrosion of process equipment.
 Small concentrations of short lived isotopes has no residues left in
the environment so, by adding small amounts of these to the
material, it is possible to study the mixing and flow rates of a wide
range of substances including liquids and gases, and locate leaks.
 Radioactive tracers are also used to determine the location of
fractures created by hydraulic fracturing in natural gas production.
Here, radioactive tracer isotopes are injected with hydraulic
fracturing fluid to determine the injection profile and location.
X-RAY FLUORESCENCE (XRF) TECHNIQUE
XRF (X-ray fluorescence) is a non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the
elemental composition of materials.
 XRF analyzers determine the chemistry of a sample by measuring the fluorescent (or secondary)
X-ray emitted from a sample when it is excited by a primary X-ray source.
 Each of the elements present in a sample produces a set of characteristic fluorescent X-rays (“a
fingerprint”) that is unique for that specific element, which is why XRF spectroscopy is an
excellent technology for qualitative and quantitative analysis of material composition.
 The X-ray fluorescence process :
1. A solid or a liquid sample is irradiated with high energy X-rays from a
controlled X-ray tube.
2. When an atom in the sample is struck with an X-ray of sufficient
energy (greater than the atom’s K or L shell binding energy), an
electron from one of the atom’s inner orbital shells is dislodged.
3. The atom regains stability, filling the vacancy left in the inner orbital
shell with an electron from one of the atom’s higher energy orbital
shells.
4. The electron drops to the lower energy state by releasing a fluorescent
X-ray. The energy of this X-ray is equal to the specific difference in
energy between two quantum states of the electron. The
measurement of this energy is the basis of XRF analysis.
Prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA Technique)
Prompt-gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) is a technique used for determining
the presence and amount of many elements simultaneously in samples ranging in size from
small to very large.
● The PGNAA process typically makes use of bulk material analyzers (see below image) to
process samples. Among other components, the key features of this equipment include:
• A carrying/conveyor belt
• A strong neutron source (such as californium-252)
• A neutron source holder
• A control cabinet
 Once the conveyor belt carries the material through the analyzer, the neutron source emits a beam of
neutrons that penetrates the raw material.
 The sample is continuously irradiated with a beam of neutrons from a californium-252 source.
 The elements of the sample absorb these neutrons and emit prompt gamma rays which are captured by a
sodium-iodized crystal and measured with a spectrometer.
 Each element emits a unique gamma ray. The energies of these gamma rays identify the neutron-capturing
elements, and the intensities of the peaks at these energies reveal
their concentrations.
 Customers use this information to analyze the composition and the quantities of elements such as sulfur,
silicon, calcium, oxides, carbon, etc., which then are used to determine total moisture and a more accurate BTU.
ADVANTAGES :
The PGNAA technique is well suited for many mining applications and has two major
advantages over the conventional X-ray fluorescence technique:
 The deep penetrating ability of the neutrons and gamma rays allows full
measurement of
material on a conveyor belt or in a chute or a bucket, whereas X-rays penetrate so little
that their analysis is strictly a surface phenomenona.
 PGNAA can detect many light elements (e.g. Si, Al, K Na, Mg, P and S) which XRF
cannot in
online applications.
DISADVANTAGES :
 High Initial Cost.
 Complex machinery, hence needs sophisticated management.
 More dangerous as it involves gamma rays.
Water Assessment
Nuclear and Isotopic technique (NIT) comprise the use of stable and radioactive isotopes as well as radiation
sources such as neutron and gamma density probes.
For example, the soil moisture neutron probe(SMNP) is portable nuclear equipment used to monitor soil water
content changes for constructing field water balance and defining irrigation scheduling.
☞ Gamma density probes are used to measure soil bulk density changes resulting from management
practices such as tilage systems and animal stocking rate.
☞ Isotopes are utilized as tracers that provide unique, precise, and quantitative data on nutrient and water
pools and fluxes in the soil-plant-water systems.
For example 15N-stable isotopic techqnique can be used to measures rates of nitrogen (N) process such as
nitrification and denitrification , N use efficiency and sources of N pollution in ground

Nuclear-based techniques are a complement and not a substitute to


non-nuclear conventional techniques. However, they demand skilled
and trained personnel and adequate laboratory facilities, in particular
measurement equipment/techniques or alternative financial resources
for analytical services.
Agricultural Water Management
SMNP, which measures slow neutrons after the collision of fast
neutrons (emitted by the neutron radioactive source in the SMNP)
with hydrogen atoms in the soil water, is an instrument that is well
suited to precisely determine field-scale soil water content as well as
to evaluate the impacts of different tillage systems in conserving soil
moisture for crop production.
☞ Isotopic techniques (18O and 2H) that quantify soil evaporation (E)
and crop transpiration (T) fluxes are important research tools to
determine their relative magnitudes and design better strategies for
water management under different rainfed conditions so that such
losses can be eliminated completely without affecting the rate of T.
Hydrology and Water Resources
Applications of isotopes in hydrology are based on the general concept of "tracing", in which either
intentionally introduced isotopes or naturally occurring (environmental) isotopes are employed.
 Radioisotope
Isotopes are water's finger prints and can be used to determine the origin, age and renewal rate of water and
to locate safe drinking water.
In early days, the use of radioisotopes was in vague. Mostly, the radioisotopes, artificially produced in
reactor/laboratory, were used as tracers. The radioisotope of hydrogen (tritium) in the form of water
molecule ( 3H2O) is still widely used for various hydrological studies. There are other varieties of artificially
produced radioisotopes like 60Co, 82Br , 131I, 137Cs, 198Au, 226Ra etc. that are used for various hydrological
investigations.
However, with the introduction of sophisticated instrumentation, the radioisotopes that occur in traces in the
environment and past and parcel of hydrological cycle are used. This has reduced the use of artificial
radioisotopes tremendously which may have an unwanted impact of health hazards in the mind of users as
well as in the public
Industrial Usage: Tracing
• Oil and Gas Industry:
• Tracers are used to monitor fluid flow in
reservoirs during enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) processes.
• They help in tracking the movement of • Chemical Industry:
fluids within pipelines, ensuring the
efficient transportation of oil and gas. • Tracers assist in understanding reaction
pathways and optimizing chemical
• Environmental Monitoring: processes.
• They can be used to track the
• Tracers aid in studying the dispersion of movement of substances in chemical
pollutants in air, water, and soil. plants, ensuring product quality and
• They are employed to trace the process efficiency.
migration of contaminants, helping to • Water Treatment and Distribution:
identify pollution sources and assess
environmental impact. • Tracers help evaluate the efficiency of
water treatment processes by
• Pharmaceuticals and Medical monitoring the movement of water and
contaminants.
Research: • They aid in detecting leaks and
• Tracers are used in pharmacokinetic assessing the integrity of water
studies to understand the absorption, distribution systems
distribution, metabolism, and
excretion of drugs in the body.
• Isotope tracers help in medical
imaging, such as positron emission
tomography (PET), for diagnosing
diseases and monitoring treatment.
Industrial Usage: Gauging
Nuclear gauges use radioactive sources to identify the thickness, density or make up of a wide variety
of material or surfaces.
These gauges, which are safe to use when the proper safety measures are followed, help people build
safe buildings, roads, and make reliable products.
Nuclear gauges measure three main things: thickness, density, and fill level. Thickness gauges are
used in manufacturing to make sure an entire
product or material is the same thickness throughout, or to make sure the coating on a material is
even. Density gauges are used in cement,
petroleum, and road production to make sure that the density of a material is the same. Level gauges
measure how much liquid is in a
container, to make sure that each container has the same amount of product.
Nuclear gauges have a radioactive source that is covered by a radiation blocking shield. Gauges can
contain a gamma, beta or neutron radiation source.
Gamma source can be used to measure the thickness, density and composition of materials in
industries like paper and pulp, plastic and mining.
Industrial Usage: Material Modification
Due to the changes in structure or composition of material under the effective role of ionizing radiation, the
ordinary substance or material may be transformed into a entirely new substance with extraordinary properties.
Based on the effect of high energy beta and gamma rays.
In this chemical bonds are broken and free radicals are formed which react to new chemical bonds.
An extremely resistant network is formed.
Suitable for all types of plastics which are chemically cross linked by radical initiators.
Upgradation in plastics in terms of their properties.
Changes in Thermal properties:
• thermoplastic materials become thermoelastic i.e. at
higher temperatures they behave like elastomer
• Higher hot wire resistance and ageing resistance.

Changes in Mechanical properties:


• due to the better bonding of the fillers to the polymer
matrix caused by the activation of the interfaces.
Applications
1. Cables/Wires
• they are thinner and lighter , occupies smaller
space.
• Their 3-d structure doesn’t allow them to melt
at high temperatures.

2. Automotive
• Needs expensive high performance plastics which
are difficult to process.
• helps to save raw material costs
3. Pipes/tubes
• Improved their long term durability under
internal pressure.

4. Heat shrink products


• Includes tubes,foils,tapes.
• Called as shape memory products
MATERIAL MODIFICATION BY ION
IMPLANTATION:
• ION IMPLANTATION :
- material surface modification process
- causes a change in the surface physical and chemical properties of the
materials
- low-temperature process
- special case of particle radiation
- Useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to
be near the surface of the target
- Used in semiconductor device fabrication and in metal finishing
GENERAL PRINCIPLE :

- Implantation dose = greater then 10^16 ions per square centimeter


- Ion ranges = 10 nanometers to 1 micrometer
- Ion energies = above 200 keV and up to 10 MeV
APPLICATIONS :
- Doping
- Silicon on insulator
- Tool steel toughening (drill bits)
- Surface finishing (prosthetic devices such as artificial joints)

PROBLEMS WITH ION IMPLANTATION :


- Crystallographic damage
- Damage recovery
- Sputtering
Industrial Usage: Sterlization
Sterilization destroys all microorganisms, including bacterial endospore. Sterilization should be used for
instruments, surgical gloves and other items that come in direct contact with the blood stream or normally
sterile tissues .
It can be achieved by high-pressure steam (autoclave), dry heat (oven), chemical sterilants (glutaraldehydes or
formaldehyde solutions) or physical agents (radiation).
To be effective, sterilization requires time, contact, temperature and, with steam sterilization, high pressure.
The effectiveness of any method of sterilization is also dependent upon four other factors:
• The type of microorganism present. Some microorganisms are very difficult to kill. Others die easily.
• The number of microorganisms present. It is much easier to kill one organism than many.
• The amount and type of organic material that protects the microorganisms. Blood or tissue remaining
on poorly cleaned instruments acts as a shield to microorganisms during the sterilization process.
• The number of cracks and crevices on an instrument that might harbor microorganisms.
Microorganisms collect in, and are protected by, scratches, cracks and crevices such as the serrated jaws
of tissue forceps.
Radiation Sterilization
• Commercial radiation sterilization has existed since the late 1950s
and has grown tremendously in popularity over the last 60 years.
• Radiation sterilization relies on ionizing radiation, primarily
gamma, X-ray or electron radiation, to deactivate microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungi, viruses and spores.

Why Radiation ?
• Radiation is the only other sterilization method that doesn’t rely
on elevated temperature in order to sterilize.
• Radiation is an excellent alternative for products that cannot be
sterilized with heat or chemicals.
PROCESS:

• Radiation can be lethal to biological organisms by inducing genetic damage and chemical changes in key
biological macromolecules.
• During sterilization treatment, the sample of interest is bombarded with high energy electrons or high
energy electromagnetic radiation, which leads to the formation of extremely unstable free radicals,
molecular ions and secondary electrons.
• These radiation products then react with nearby molecules to fracture and alter chemical bonds.
• DNA in particular is highly sensitive to the damaging effects of radiation and will break, depolymerize,
mutate and alter structure upon exposure to ionizing radiation.
• Incomplete repair of DNA damage ultimately leads to loss of genetic information and cell death. Thus,
radiation can kill harmful microorganisms and be used as a sterilization technique.
GAMMA RAYS
• Gamma radiation sterilization is the most popular form of
radiation sterilization.
• Co-60 and, to a lesser extent, Cs-137 serve as radiation sources
and undergo decomposition to release high energy gamma rays.
• The produced electromagnetic radiation is highly penetrating
and can kill contaminating microorganisms.
• Both radioisotopes are viable sources of radiation due to their
highly stability (with half-lives >5 years) and gamma emission
properties.
• However, Co-60 tends to be favored because it can be easily
manufactured from natural metal, is not fissile or flammable and
is less soluble in water.
Electron Beam Radiation

• Sterilization can alternatively be accomplished using electron beam irradiation. High energy
electrons capable of inducing biological damage are generated by electron beam
accelerators.
• Electron beam radiation involves the use of high-energy electron beams
• The principle lies in the ability of energetic electrons to penetrate materials.
• Gamma irradiation and e-beam irradiation differ in sample penetration depth, exposure time
required for effective sterilization and product compatibility.

• In terms of cost, e-beam


sterilization is equivalent to or less
expensive than gamma
sterilization.
X Ray

• Electron beam accelerators will also generate X-rays for sterilization. X-rays are
produced when high energy electrons from the accelerator interact with high
atomic number nuclei, such as atoms of tungsten or tantalum.
• In a process known as Bremsstrahlung, the deceleration of the electron when
passing the nucleus results in the release of X-rays. Electron energies of 5-7 MeV
are commercially used; the energies of the resultant X-rays lie along a spectrum
ranging from zero to the energy of the electron beam
Medical Industries :
Sterilization of Medical Equipment: Nuclear radiation,
particularly gamma radiation, is employed to sterilize
medical devices, instruments, and pharmaceutical
products. This ensures that these items are free from
harmful microorganisms, preventing infections in
patients.

Cobalt-60 has been used for sterilization of medical devices since the 1960s. There is substantial
knowledge of its effects on both the reduction of microorganisms to prevent disease and
changes to material properties, as well as considerable experience in its use.

There are approximately 200 large gamma irradiation facilities worldwide in more than 50
countries that are predominately used for medical device sterilization.
Medical Waste Treatment: Radioactive isotopes
are used to sterilize medical waste, such as
disposable syringes and gloves. This minimizes the
risk of spreading infections from contaminated
medical waste.

• The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires sterilization of all invasive medical
and dental devices including syringes, surgical gloves, artificial joints, and
implantable devices such as orthopedics and heart valves. FDA generally requires a
sterility assurance level (SAL) of 10–6 for invasive medical products.
• About 10 percent of single-use medical device sterilization is performed using e-
beams and just 1% by X- ray.
Agricultural Industry:
• Seed Sterilization: Nuclear techniques are
applied to sterilize seeds, preventing the
transmission of diseases and pests to crops.
This ensures healthier plant growth and higher
agricultural yields.

• While radiation can sterilize seeds, it may also have long-lasting effects on subsequent
seedlings. High levels of radiation can lead to reduced seedling survival. For instance, exposure
to ≤ 0.5 kGy of radiation results in seedlings surviving for a maximum of 10 days.
• Remember, seed sterilization is essential for maintaining a contamination-free environment
during research, cultivation, and study of purified cells or tissues in laboratories. It ensures
reliable results and healthy plant growth.
2. Insect Control: Sterile insect technique (SIT) involves sterilizing insects using
ionizing radiation and releasing them into the environment. This controls pest
populations without the need for chemical pesticides

As sterile insects cannot self-


replicate, this creates a long-term
solution for the pest problem without
running the risk of introducing non-
native species into the ecosystem.
Pharmaceutical Industry

Drug and Vaccine Production: Nuclear radiation is


employed to sterilize drug formulations and vaccines,
ensuring their safety and efficacy. This is crucial in
pharmaceutical manufacturing to meet strict quality
standards .

The amount of time that an unsterilized product can


safely be kept in its package without substantially
increasing microbial contamination is first determined.
Sterile Packaging: The packaging of pharmaceutical products is often
subjected to radiation to eliminate any potential microbial contamination,
maintaining the sterility of the enclosed drugs.

• Products of any shape can be sterilized


using gamma rays because they penetrate
right through the package and products.
Cosmetic Industry:
Sterilization of Cosmetic Products: Nuclear
radiation is utilized to sterilize cosmetic
formulations, ensuring that these products are
free from harmful microorganisms. This is
essential for preventing skin infections or
reactions in consumers.

In terms of reproduction factors such as humidity, medium acidity and appropriate


minerals, Cosmetic product formulations used in cosmetic industry are quite
convenient media for the micro organisms to live and reproduce. Moreover, such
substances as carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, vitamins, steroids, peptides,
fatty acids, sugar and fat alcohols are the substantial food sources which support
the reproduction of micro organisms.
Research and Laboratories:
• Sterilization of Laboratory Equipment: Radiation is employed to sterilize laboratory equipment,
glassware, and supplies to maintain aseptic conditions in research environments.
Advantages :
Chemical Independence: No volatile or toxic chemicals are needed. In the case of X-ray or e-beam
irradiation, no end products requiring disposal are generated during the procedure.

No residue: Radiation leaves no residue on the sterilized product.

Time efficiency: E-beam sterilization can be completed within seconds to minutes

Ease: Only a single variable, the exposure dose/time, must be monitored, making radiation sterilization
simple and easy to control.

Cold Method/Temperature Independence: Temperature increases during treatment are minimal.


Furthermore, radiation sterilization has no heat dependence and is efficient at both ambient temperature
and sub-zero temperatures. It is compatible with temperature sensitive materials, such as
pharmaceuticals and biological samples.
Advantages :
Long Shelf Life: Sterilized products often have an extended shelf life because the radiation
process reduces the microbial load, preventing contamination and spoilage over time.

Consistent and Reliable Results: The process provides consistent and reliable sterilization
outcomes, contributing to the production of high-quality and contamination-free industrial
products.

Disadvantages :
Limited Material Compatibility: Certain materials may be sensitive to ionizing radiation and
can undergo changes in physical or chemical properties. This limitation requires careful
selection of materials that can withstand the radiation process without compromising
functionality.
Disadvantages :
Instrumentation: Capital costs are high and specialized facilities are often needed. Gamma radiation
requires a nuclear reactor; E-beam/X-ray radiation are generated using electron beam accelerators.

Product Degradation: Radiation based methods are not compatible with all materials and can cause
breakdown of the packaging material and/or product. Common plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
acetal and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) are sensitive to gamma radiation. The high energies involved in
e-beam radiation can also lead to main chain scission (breaking of the long chain backbone) and chemical
crosslinking of packaging polymers.

Radioactive material: When gamma radiation is used as an ionization source, radiation sterilization
requires handling and disposal of radioactive material. Note that, at commonly used radiation levels,
irradiation with gamma rays does not induce radioactivity in the treated sample itself.
Food Industry:
Preservation of Food Products: Ionizing radiation is utilized to control and eliminate
bacteria, parasites, and insects in food products. This process helps extend the shelf life
of perishable items, maintaining their quality and safety for consumption.

The upper limit for e-


beam processing used on
foods is 10 MeV and for x-
ray processing is 7.5 MeV
• A dose lower than 2 kilogray (kGy) is used to
delay sprouting of vegetables and aging of
fruits.
• Doses between 1 and 10 kGy are used to
reduce the levels of pathogenic organisms.
• Doses greater than 10 kGy are used to achieve
sterility or to decontaminate certain food
ingredients such as spices.
Industrial Usage: Food Preservation
➢ Irradiation is the process of applying radiation to matter. Food irradiation
is the process of exposing food to controlled levels of ionizing radiation
to kill harmful bacteria, pests, parasites or to preserve its freshness. It is
often called 'cold pasteurization' because its kills harmful bacteria
without heat.
Prevention of Foodborne Illness - to effectively eliminate organisms that cause foodborne illness, such as
Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli).

Preservation - to destroy or inactivate organisms that cause spoilage and decomposition and extend the shelf life
of foods.

Control of Insects - to destroy insects in or on tropical fruits imported into the United States. Irradiation also
decreases the need for other pest-control practices that may harm the fruit.
• Delay of Sprouting and Ripening - to inhibit
sprouting (e.g., potatoes) and delay ripening of
fruit to increase longevity.

• Sterilization - irradiation can be used to


sterilize foods, which can then be stored for
years without refrigeration. Sterilized foods are
useful in hospitals for patients with severely
impaired immune systems, such as patients
with AIDS or undergoing chemotherapy.

• Eliminates food allergens - irradiation can


effectively reduce the allergenicity of animal
foods (milk, egg, fish and shrimp) and plant
foods (soybean, peanut, wheat and nuts), hence
improving the quality and safety of foods.
How is Food Irradiated?
 The process involves exposing the food,
either packaged or in bulk, to carefully
controlled amounts of ionizing radiation for
a specific time to achieve certain desirable
objectives.
 When microbes present in the food are
irradiated, the energy from the radiation
breaks the bonds in the DNA molecules,
causing defects in the genetic instructions.
Unless this damage can be repaired, the
organism will die or will be unable to
reproduce.

Fig: Radiation damage to DNA


MECHANISM:
➢ Food Irradiation is done in a special processing room or chamber for a specified duration. Bulk or
packaged food passes through a radiation chamber on a conveyor belt. The food does not come
into contact with radioactive materials, but instead passes through a radiation beam, like a large
flashlight.
➢ With food irradiation, the ionizing radiation (electrons, gamma rays, or x-rays) sends enough
energy into the bacterial or mold cells in the food to break chemical bonds. This damages the
pathogens enough for them to die or no longer multiply, which reduces illness or spoilage,
leaving the food still like-fresh, but with specific benefits, depending on treatment level.

⦁ Irradiation Room: When the cobalt is in the water, people can safely enter the irradiation room.
⦁ Radiation Source: Cobalt is shielded under water in an underground tank when not in use.
⦁ Control Console: Treatment is controlled by the speed of the conveyer belt. Amount of energy
needed varies by the density of the load.
⦁ Loading: Packaged food is loaded onto a conveyer belt for treatment.
⦁ Unloading Processed Product: Treated food can be handled immediately. The fence keeps treated
and untreated food separate.
⦁ Radiation Shield: Concrete walls prevent gamma rays from escaping into the environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IRRADIATION
SOURCES USED:

Gamma Rays:

• Emitted from radioactive element (cobalt 60 / cesium 137).


• Excellent penetration power.
• Permanent radioactive source.
• High efficiency.

X-rays:

• Produced by reflecting a high energy stream of electrons into food.


• High penetration power
• Efficiency of conversion from electrons to X rays is less than10% so low
efficiency.
• X-ray machines have a maximum energy of 5 MeV.
• Switch on-switch off capability
• Power and cooling needed
• Technically complex

Electron beam:

• Stream of high-energy electrons propelled from an electron accelerator into food.


• Cannot penetrate very far.
• Used only for treatment of thin packages of food and free flowing or falling grains.
• Accelerated electron machines having a maximum energy of 10 MeV.
• Switch on-switch off capability
• High efficiency
• Power and cooling needed
• Technically complex
NOTE:
➢ In addition to radiating gamma rays, many radioactive elements also
produce alpha rays(helium nuclei), beta rays(high- energy electrons
or positrons) and high energy neutrons.

➢ The other forms of radiation are undesirable because they have the
potential to make the target food(or medical product) radioactive.

➢ Ultraviolet light are considered to be impractical because of their


limited ability to penetrate matter.
Applications of Irradiation based on doses
:
Regulation of
Irradiated Food :

 For approval of any


irradiated food, the FDA
requires the foods labeled
with statement: Treated with
ionizing radiation/treated
with radiation.

 The international food


irradiation symbol- the
radura.
Advantages of the Irradiation :
❖The World Health Organization (WHO) (1987) summarized advantages of the irradiation
technique over conventional food processing methods:
1. Foods can be treated after packaging.
2. Irradiation processing permits the conservation of foods in the fresh state.
3. Perishable foods can be kept longer without noticeable quality loss.
4. The cost of irradiation and the low energy requirements compare favourably with
conventional food processing methods. Irradiation treatment up to the prescribed dose
leave no residue: changes in nutritional value (i.e., loss of some vitamins) are comparable
with those produced by other processes and during storage.
5. Foods processed under prescribed conditions for irradiation do not in any way become
radioactive.
6. Below 10kGy there are no known toxicological, microbiological, or nutritional problems.
Demerits of Irradiation of Food :
➢Unknown long-term effects on human health
➢ Irradiated food may form chemical products called "radiolytic”
products such as free radicals.
➢Undesirable flavor and texture changes Reduce same nutritional
contents
➢Some fresh fruits and vegetables may cause softening because of the
breakdown of cell walls.
➢Colour is another property of meat that can be changed by irradiation.
Doses higher than 1.5 kGy may cause a brown discoloration of meat
exposed to air.

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