2019

Version

Light and Sound

Junior Science
What is light?

Light is a form of energy that we

can see and is given out by hot
objects. It is made up of waves
that travel outwards from a light
source. Some of the waves reach
our eyes, but most continue
elsewhere.
 Waves can be transverse or longitudinal

The two main types of wave form are transverse waves and longitudinal
waves. All types of electromagnetic waves, including light, as well as
water waves travel as transverse waves. Sound waves travel as
longitudinal waves.
 Particle movement in transverse and longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves (sound) are a compressing and expanding wave that needs a
medium to travel in. A medium could be gas, solid or liquid.

Transverse waves (light) are a moving wave where each part of the wave travels up
and down in repeating motion as the wave moves forward. These do not need a
medium to travel through and can travel through empty space.
 Sound travels as a longitudinal wave

Sound waves are mechanical waves requiring particles. (a medium to

travel through) Air particles vibrate back and forward creating repeating
patterns of high (compressed particles) and low (spaced apart particles)
pressure. Sound travels in the form of longitudinal waves. One wave
stretches from one compressed area of particles to the next. Waves of
sound energy travel through air, water or solid.
Waves generated from Earthquakes can be transverse or longitudinal

The waves generated from an earthquake travel through the ground as both
longitudinal and transverse waves.
Primary (or P) waves are longitudinal waves and move the fastest. They are similar to
sound waves and can travel at 5000 metres per second through solid rock.
Longitudinal waves can also travel through liquid and gas, travelling at the speed of
sound through air.
Secondary (or S) waves are transverse waves and can only travel through solids.
They travel at nearly half the speed of P waves.
 Waves transfer energy

Waves are a means of transferring energy from one place to another

without also transferring matter. Some waves need a medium (matter) to
travel through in order to transport their energy from one location to
another and are known as mechanical waves such as ocean waves, sound
waves and earthquake waves.
Other waves can travel through the vacuum of space where there is little or
no atoms. These are know as electromagnetic waves. Examples of those
waves include light waves, microwaves and radio waves.
 Electromagnetic radiation travels as waves

Light and other types of electromagnetic radiation from the sun and
even further away stars travel through space in a vacuum – Light does
not need matter or a medium through which to travel.
Each particular type of electromagnetic radiation, including each different
colour of light, has a unique fixed length of wave, called the wavelength (λ),
that it travels in.

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 Types of Electromagnetic radiation

Some objects,
such as the sun,
release large
amounts of
energy. The
energy can be
emitted from
the energy
source in the
form of
electromagnetic
radiation and
travels in
electromagnetic
waves. Light,
radio waves and
x-rays are all
forms of
electromagnetic
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radiation.
GZ Science Resources
 Features of a wave

Waves have troughs, the lowest point, and crests, the highest point. A
wavelength is the distance between two closest crests.
The amplitude of a wave is a measure of its height. The height is taken
from a midpoint between a trough and a peak up to the top of a peak of
a wave.

A higher
amplitude
wave indicates
a wave has
more strength
and that a
light wave
contains more
photons, little
packets of
light energy.
 A nanometre is very small

Small objects such as atoms, viruses

and light waves need to be measured
using very small units called a
nanometre.
A metre (m) can be divided into one
thousand equal parts called
millimetres (mm). If one millimetre is
divided into a thousand equal parts
then we have a micrometre (µm). If
one micrometre is divided into a
thousand parts then we have a
nanometre (nm). A nanometre is one-
billionth of a metre.
Wavelengths can be measured in metres
(m) or nanometres (nm). The type of
electromagnetic radiation can be
determined by its wavelength.
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 Frequency of a wave

The frequency of a wave is calculated by the number of waves that

pass by a fixed point in a given amount of time. The frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz). Because all electromagnetic radiation travels at
the same speed then more waves of shorter wavelength will pass by a
point over the same time as waves of longer wavelength .
 wave speed = wavelength x frequency

Waves always travel at the same speed. A scientific value that always
remains the same is called a constant. The constant for the speed of light
is c = 3x108 m/sec or 300,000 kilometres per second.
Because we know the speed of light, if we know either the wavelength (λ)
in metres or the frequency ( f ) in hertz then we can calculate the other.

Wavelength = speed of light / frequency

c
Frequency = speed of light / wavelength

λ f
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 Light energy is carried by photons

The amount of energy in a wave depends upon the frequency of the

wave. The energy of a photon can be calculated by multiplying the
frequency by another constant called Planck’s constant (h). This constant
is named after a famous German scientist called Max Planck who made
many discoveries about light and how it also travels as particles called
photons. A photon does not have mass like matter does, it only contains
energy.

Planck’s constant is
6.626 x 10-34 joules per
second. This value is so
small because a
photon is so tiny but
there are so many of
them within a light
wave.
Structure and Function of the human ear

Sound waves travel

through the ear canal
and cause the eardrum
to vibrate. The small
bones of the inner ear
transfer this vibration to
the inner ear cochlea.
The cochlea is fluid filled
and lined with many
hair-like nerve cells.
Different length nerve
cells detect different
wave frequencies and
transmit this information
to the brain using
electrical impulses that
move along the nerves.
 Audible range of humans and other animals

Humans can hear between 20 – 20,000 Hertz, a measure of frequency. The

frequency of a wave is calculated by the number of waves that pass by a fixed
point in a given amount of time.
In comparison to many other animals, humans have a very limited audible range.
Bats and dolphins can hear and produce sound at an exceedingly high frequency
– and use it to bounce back off objects as sonar to “see” without light.
Low rumbling noises of elephants and moles are below our auditory range but
can travel long distances.
 Pitch and Loudness of sound

Sound can be described by “characteristics” called pitch and loudness.

Pitch is related to frequency – the higher the frequency then the higher the
pitch of the note (a single sound at a particular level). Loudness is related
to amplitude – the higher the amplitude the louder the sound.
 Reflecting sound waves

Sonar (originally an acronym for SOund Navigation And Ranging) is

simply making use of an echo. When an animal or machine makes a
noise, it sends sound waves into the environment around it. Those waves
bounce off nearby objects, and some of them reflect back to the object
that made the noise. Whales and specialized machines can use reflected
waves to locate distant objects and sense their shape and movement.
 Total internal reflection

When waves are going from a dense medium to a less dense medium they
speed up at the boundary. This causes light rays to bend when they pass from glass
to air at an angle other than 90º. This is refraction.
Beyond a certain angle, called the critical angle, all the waves reflect back into the
glass. We say that they are totally internally reflected. All light waves, which hit the
surface beyond this critical angle, are effectively trapped.
The critical angle for most glass is about 42 °. Fibre optics makes use of this so light
rays can travel down a glass fibre that has curves in it.
 Light energy can travel as rays

Light travels fast and in straight lines.

At the speed of light, which is 300,000 kilometers per
second, light from the sun takes about 8 minutes to
travel 149 million kilometers to earth. Light can go
around the earth 7 times in one second.
Light travels perfectly straight, until something bends
it. The straight paths of light are called light rays..

Gaze
 Light energy can be reflected, refracted or dispersed

Light travels in a straight line until it strikes an object or a force.

Light can be:
1. Reflected by a mirror
2. Refracted by a lens
3. Absorbed by the object

Light interacts with matter by transmission (including refraction) which is

travelling through it, absorption where it enters but doesn’t leave again, or
scattering (including reflection) where it bounces off.
To see an object, light from that object— emitted by or scattered from it—
must enter the eye.
 Transparent, Translucent and Opaque

Allows light to
All light rays travel
pass through, but
through in straight
the rays are No light rays
lines. The image is
scattered. The travel through and
not distorted
Image is distorted no image is seen
when looking
when looking from the other
from the other
from the other side.
side.
side.

Transparent Translucent Opaque 22

Shadows are created when light rays are stopped
A shadow is a dark area that is formed due
to light travelling in straight lines which
opaque objects block. An object that stops
direct light rays creates a shadow. The
shape of the shadow resembles the shape
of the object.
The shadow created
when the Moon blocks
the light from the Sun to
the Earth is called a solar
eclipse.
 The length of the shadow depends on the angle of the light source

The length of the shadow formed on the ground depends on the angle
that the light rays hit the object blocking the light. If the light rays hit the
object straight on then this will create the smallest possible shadow. The
greater the angle the light rays hit the longer the resulting shadow.
The changing of length of shadow can be seen as the Sun moves across
the sky. In the morning and afternoon the shadows created are the
longest as the Sun is at the greatest angle. The shortest shadows are
formed at midday when the sun is directly over head (in Summer).

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 Sources of light and reflectors of light
Light is a form of energy. The Sun is our most
important source of light, which is produced along
with heat energy, that is transformed from matter
during a nuclear reaction. Other sources of light
energy such as electrical lighting, fire and the glow
from bioluminescent animals are produced during
energy transformations as well. Light sources need
energy to be transformed to produce light. These
are also called illuminators.
Objects that appear to produce light such as the
Moon or shiny objects but do not use energy are
reflectors of light. Light rays must originally come
from a light source, such as the Sun’s light reflecting
off the moon.
 The sun is an incandescent light source

Virtually all of the electromagnetic radiation that arrives on Earth is from the
Sun. The Sun is an incandescent light source because the light energy is generated
from heat. The nuclear reactions that occur within the high pressure centre of the Sun
release large amounts of heat. The heat causes the atoms that make up the Sun to
move around fast. As the atoms collide together the electrons move up and down
orbits around the nucleus and release photons of light each time.
Each different type of element releases combinations of light in different wave lengths
or colours called its spectra. We can “read” what type of elements make up the Sun,
and other stars as well, by looking at what spectrum of light is emitted.
Luminescent light is produced from chemical or electrical energy

Some animals can produce

their own light through
chemical reactions in their
bodies. This light is known
as luminescence. It is much
cooler than incandescent as
it does not require heat
energy to produce it. Glow
sticks and florescent lamps
also emit this type of light
without producing heat so
are far more efficient to use
than a incandescent filament
light bulb.
 Spectroscopy is the study of spectra

Our Sun is mainly made up of Hydrogen and Helium. Helium is very rare and
unreactive on Earth. It was not discovered until scientists, using spectroscopy on
the Sun, found an unknown element emitting a spectra of light that did not match
to any known elements. They named this element Helium after Helios, the Latin
name for Sun. We now know many stars contain Helium along with assorted other
elements rare and common on earth.
 Ray diagrams in a plane mirror

Ray diagrams are used to

show an image of an object
reflected in a mirror.
Straight lines from the
object are drawn towards
the mirror. Using the rule
from the angle of incidence
and reflection the lines are
then reflected back. Arrows
are used on the lines to
show the light rays
direction.
 The angle of incidence and angle of reflection

The main rule for mirrors is that the angle of incidence equals the angle
of reflection.

normal
This means that
the angle of the
light ray between
where it arrives
and the
perpendicular line
called the normal,
to where it hits on
the surface of the
mirror is the same
angle it leaves and
the same
perpendicular
(normal) line.
SJ Gaze
GZ Science Resources 30
 Measuring the angle of incidence and angle of reflection

Unknown angles can be calculated using rule for mirrors that the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection. You also need to know the normal line is
90 to the plane of the mirror and all angles (A,B,C & D) must add up to 180

Normal line
For example: If angle B
is 50 what angle is D?
B = C so C = 50
C + D = 90
D must = 40

B C
A 90
D
Plane of mirror

180
 Light energy can be reflected by a mirror

When you look directly at an object you can see where it is. But if you
look at it in a mirror, then you are looking at a reflection of the object – the
image is behind the mirror. An image is a view of an object at a place other
than where the object is. Images can either be real or virtual. A real image
occurs when the light rays pass through the place where the image is, for
example, the image on a cinema screen or the image that falls on film in a
camera.

A virtual image occurs when the image

appears to be at a place where the light
rays do not pass
When you hold an object in front of a
mirror, the reflected image you see is
behind the mirror. Obviously no light
can come through the mirror, so the
image must be a virtual one.
All reflected images off flat surfaces are
virtual images.
 Light energy can be reflected by a mirror

Images in plane
mirrors are:
the same size as the
object;
the same distance
behind the mirror as
the object is in front;
virtual (light does not
really go to them);
laterally inverted (the
left side is swapped to
the right side and the
right side swapped to
the left).
 Convex and concave mirrors
Mirrors work because light is reflected from them. The three types of
mirrors are:

light

Plane Concave Convex

The images in the plane mirrors are the same size, the right way up but laterally
inverted (changed right to left) and is a flat reflecting surface.
The images in the concave mirror are
a) magnified and the right way up when you are near to the mirror
b) smaller and upside down when you are further away from the mirror
The images in the convex mirror are reduced and the right way up
 Ray diagrams in a concave mirror

With concave mirrors, light being reflected

converges (goes in an inward direction)
towards the focal point (x). From a distance,
images appear upside down but when
brought nearer, image become larger in size
and appears right side up. A focal point is
where parallel rays meet.
 Ray diagrams in a convex mirror

The image formed in a convex mirror is

always upright and smaller in size. The
light rays diverge (spread apart). The
focal point is behind the mirror where
light rays do not actually pass through.
 Drawing Ray diagrams in concave mirrors

Typically three rays of light are drawn reflecting off a concave mirror.
The centre incident ray follows the principal axis which travels straight into the centre
of the mirror. The reflection ray travels directly back on the same line.
Another incident ray of light parallel to the principal axis is drawn and the reflection ray
reflects inwards. (a normal line can be drawn where the ray hits the mirror and the
incidence ray=reflection ray). Where the rays cross is the focal point (F).
A third incidence ray can be drawn on the opposite side of the principal axis with the
reflection ray crossing at the focal point as well.

Normal line
 Drawing Ray diagrams in convex mirrors
Typically three rays of light are drawn reflecting off a convex mirror.
The centre incident ray follows the principal axis which travels straight into the centre
of the mirror. The reflection ray travels directly back on the same line.
Another incident ray of light parallel to the principal axis is drawn and the reflection ray
reflects outwards. (a normal line can be drawn where the ray hits the mirror and the
incidence ray=reflection ray). Extending the reflected ray back past the mirror to cross
the principal axis is the focal point (F).
A third incidence ray can be drawn on the opposite side of the principal axis with the
extended reflection ray crossing at the focal point as well.

Normal line
 Everyday use for concave and convex mirrors

Convex traffic safety mirrors are

designed for road safety to see
better at blind corners, concealed
entrances and exits.
Convex ceiling dome mirrors are
used in surveillance for shops
because they allow someone to
watch what is going on in a wide
area.
Concave mirrors are commonly found
They are also used in car side
in the head lights of vehicles making
mirrors to see a wide view from
the light more reflective and wider,
behind.
making it possible for the drivers to
have a better view at night. Concave
mirrors are also used in microscopes
and face mirrors to enlarge the view as
magnified and the right way up when
you are near to the mirror
 Light can be Refracted by a lens

A glass or plastic lens is

transparent. This means
that light is able to be
transmitted through the
object without the light
being absorbed.
The medium of a plastic or
glass lens has a different
optical density to air. Light
rays entering the lens are
refracted to a different
angle.
Refraction is when light
travels between two
optically different A normal is a line at right angles to a
(densities) mediums that boundary between mediums
bend light towards or away
from the normal.
 Refraction

A medium is any space or substance

which will allow light to travel
through it called transmission.
Examples of different media include
air, water and glass. Each medium
has different optical density. The
optical density of a medium affects
the speed at which light rays travel
through. When a light ray passes
from one medium into another (e.g.
from air into water) it will change
direction where two media meet.
This ‘bending’ of light is called
refraction and it always occurs when
the two media have different optical
densities.
 Refraction in a glass block

The ray of light bends or

refracts inwards when it
moves into the glass. This
makes the angle of
refraction smaller than
the angle of incidence.
When the ray emerges
from the glass back into
the air then it continues
on a parallel path to the
original ray.
Concave and convex lens

Lenses that curve

outwards are known as
convex lenses.
When light enters them
it refracts inwards once
it leaves the lens.

Lenses that curve

inwards are known as
concave lenses.
When light enters them
it refracts outwards
once it leaves the lens.
 Concave lens

A concave lens
will cause
parallel light
rays entering
the lens to
diverge (be
spread) when
leaving it. Rays
refract outwards
when entering
the lens, then
refract outwards
even more
when leaving
the lens.
 Convex lens

A convex lens will

cause parallel light
rays entering the
lens to converge
(bend inwards)
when entering the
lens and leaving.
The “flatter” the lens
the lesser the angle
of the light rays
refracting. The
rounder the lens the
greater the angle of
the light rays
refracting.
 Drawing ray diagrams for Convex lens

Typically three rays of light are drawn refracting through a convex lens. (although you
may draw more as above)
The centre light ray follows the principal axis which travels straight into the centre of
the lens and continues on a straight line through the other side.
Another ray of light parallel to the principal axis is drawn and once reaching the optical
axis (middle of the lens) it bends inwards to cross the principal axis at the focal point
(F).
A third light ray can be drawn on the opposite side of the principal axis with the bent
ray crossing at the focal point as well.
 Drawing ray diagrams for Concave lens

Once the diagram is

drawn only the BLUE
and principal axis lines
are needed.
The grey lines are used
to help construct.

Typically three rays of light are drawn refracting through a concave lens. (although you
may draw more as above)
The centre light ray follows the principal axis which travels straight into the centre of
the lens and continues on a straight line through the other side.
Another ray of light parallel to the principal axis is drawn and once reaching the optical
axis (middle of the lens) it bends outwards (if this line is extended backwards it will
cross the principal axis at the focal point) A third light ray can be drawn on the
opposite side of the principal axis with the bent ray extended back and crossing at the
focal point as well.
 Structure of the Human eye

The human eye is a “collecting” organ that allows light to reach sensory nerves which
then transmit electrical signals to the brain. The convex lens focuses the images seen
onto the retina of the eye. Various sensory cells in the retina called rods and cones detect
both amount of light and colour of light.
The iris opens to let more light into
the eye when it is dimmer. The
muscles around the lens change the Blind
shape of the lens. The blind spot is spot

the point of entry of the optic nerve

on the retina and has no light
receptors. The cornea is the tough
transparent layer at the front of the
eye

Messages from the retina travel

through the optic nerve to the
brain. The brain further processes
the images in various parts of the
brain responsible for language,
speech and thinking.
 The lens of the Human Eye

The lens of the eye is able to change shape to focus light clearly from
different distances.
Muscles surrounding the lens relax to produce a more rounded lens, that is
able to focus on nearer objects.
Muscles surrounding the lens contract to produce a more flattened lens, that
is able to focus on far away objects.
While the eye
is focused to
see close up
images the
distance is
blurry and
vice versa.

49
Other types of eyes in the animal kingdom
 Short sighted

A short sighted
(near sighted)
person is not able to
focus on distant
objects clearly. Their
very convex eye lens
bends light rays into
a focus point before
it reaches the retina.
A concave lens
cause the light rays
to disperse (bend
outwards) before
reaching the eye
lens. The light rays
then are able to
have their focus
point at the retina.
 long sighted

A long sighted (far sighted) person is not able to focus on close up

objects clearly. Their less curved convex eye lens converges bends light rays
into a focus point after it reaches the retina.
A convex lens cause the light rays to converge (bend inwards) before
reaching the eye lens. The light rays then are able to have their focus point at
the retina.
 Eye focusing corrections

Eye problem Lens diagram Summary

short sighted A concave lens helps

people who are bend the light outwards
not able to focus for a person who
clearly on distant focusses before the
objects. cornea

Long sighted A convex lens helps

people who bend the light inwards
have trouble for a person who
focussing on focusses after the
close objects. cornea
 Prisms work by diffracting colours of different wavelengths

Light speed changes as it moves from one medium to another (for example,
from air into the glass of the prism). This speed change causes the light to be
refracted and to enter the new medium at a different angle The degree of bending
of the light's path varies with the wavelength or colour of the light used, called
dispersion. A prism is a triangular block used to disperse white light. This causes
light of different colours to be refracted differently and to leave the prism at
different angles, creating an effect similar to a rainbow. This can be used to
separate a beam of white light into its spectrum of colours.
 Blue skies and red sunsets

Why is the sky blue?

Sunlight, that is made up of
all colours, reaches Earth's
atmosphere and is scattered in all
directions by all the gases and
particles in the air. Blue light is
scattered in all directions by the tiny
molecules of air in Earth's
atmosphere. Blue is scattered more
than other colours because it travels
as shorter, smaller waves. Though
the atmospheric particles scatter
violet more than blue, the sky
appears blue, because our eyes are
more sensitive to blue light and
because some of the violet light is
Why are sunsets red? absorbed in the upper atmosphere.
When the Sun gets lower in the sky, its light is passing through more of
the atmosphere to reach you. Even more of the blue light is scattered,
leaving only the reds and yellows to pass straight through to your eyes.
 White light is made from colours mixed together

White light is a combination of all of the other colours of light mixed

together. The main colours that make up white light can be seen in a
rainbow. They are red, orange, red, green, blue, indigo (a dark inky blue)
and violet. They can be remembered by the acronym ROY G BIV. A prism
can be used to separate out the different colours. This is called dispersal.
56
 What colour is that

The sun releases visible light of all wavelengths, when combined becomes white
light. When this white light hits the surface of a red apple all of the other colours
of light except red are absorbed. The red light is instead reflected, and when
hitting our eyes we see the apple as red because that is the only wavelength
detected.
We see colours because of what wavelengths are reflected

A colour is a
property
processed by an
object as a result
of the way it
reflects, absorbs or
emits light of a
specific wave
length.

We see a tree as green

because the leaves absorb
the red and blue light
waves, and only the green
light is reflected into our
eyes.
 The nature of colour vision - primary and secondary colours

Combining light
colours is said to
be additive. Each
wavelength of
light adds to
another.
The three main
colours of light
are called
primary. Two
primary colours
together make a
secondary colour
and all three
primary colours
together make
up white light.

GZ Science Resources 59
Paint pigments are subtractive colours.

Paint absorbs light waves.

The paint is called
subtractive because with
each addition of colour
more of the wave lengths
are absorbed. The three
primary colours of paint are
cyan, yellow and magenta.
When these three are
added together the
resulting colour is black: all
of the different wavelengths
of coloured light are
absorbed.
 Visible light belongs to the electromagnetic spectrum

Light is a type of energy called electromagnetic (EM) radiation. There

are other kinds of EM radiation such radio waves, microwaves, x-rays, etc.,
but light is the only part we can see with our eyes. All of the types of EM
radiation together are known as the electromagnetic spectrum.

GZ Science Resources 61
 Short wave length EM radiation can be dangerous

Forms of EM radiation that have a

shorter wavelength than visible light
such as ultra-violet radiation (UV) and
X-rays can be dangerous to us in high
quantities.
The sun emits EM radiation of all
different wavelengths but a magnetic
layer, produced by the magnetised
iron inside earth, shield us from the
most harmful radiation. The ozone
layer (oxygen molecules made of 3
oxygen atoms) shield us from a large
amount of UV-B radiation but if we
remain out in the Sun for to long we
can be sunburnt. Sunblock provides a
layer on our skin, often containing
chemicals like zinc, that stop UV
radiation.
 Long wave length EM radiation can provide us with information

EM Radiation with wave lengths longer than visible light can be detected with
special types of receptors. Infra-red radiation is emitted from warm objects. Night
vision goggles pick up this type of EM radiation from living bodies when no visible
light is present.
Microwaves are longer again and
can be used to heat food. The
waves cause the water molecules
in food to move back and forward
rapidly and produce heat. Objects
such as plastic without water, do
not heat up directly.
Radio waves are the longest type
of EM radiation. Radio receivers
are used to pick up these waves
that can be generated by radio
stations or even from objects in
space. Cell phones work by
receiving radio waves reflected
from satellites orbiting above
earth.