Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-018-1300-x

ORIGINAL PAPER

A Solvent-Free Approach for Production of Films from Pectin

and Fungal Biomass
Rajesh Gurram1 · Pedro F. Souza Filho1 · Mohammad J. Taherzadeh1 · Akram Zamani1

Published online: 29 August 2018

© The Author(s) 2018

Abstract
Self-binding ability of the pectin molecules was used to produce pectin films using the compression molding technique, as
an alternative method to the high energy-demanding and solvent-using casting technique. Moreover, incorporation of fungal
biomass and its effects on the properties of the films was studied. Pectin powder plasticized with 30% glycerol was subjected
to heat compression molding (120 °C, 1.33 MPa, 10 min) yielding pectin films with tensile strength and elongation at break
of 15.7 MPa and 5.5%, respectively. The filamentous fungus Rhizopus oryzae was cultivated using the water-soluble nutrients
obtained from citrus waste and yielded a biomass containing 31% proteins and 20% lipids. Comparatively, the same strain
was cultivated in a semi-synthetic medium resulting in a biomass with higher protein (60%) and lower lipid content (10%).
SEM images showed addition of biomass yielded films with less debris compared to the pectin films. Incorporation of the
low protein content biomass up to 15% did not significantly reduce the mechanical strength of the pectin films. In contrast,
addition of protein-rich biomass (up to 20%) enhanced the tensile strength of the films (16.1–19.3 MPa). Lastly, the fungal
biomass reduced the water vapor permeability of the pectin films.

Keywords Citrus waste · Pectin · Compression molding · Rhizopus oryzae · Bioplastics

Introduction production of value added products, e.g. by fermentation,

has been proposed.
Plastics, which are commonly derived from petroleum CW contains abundant amount of sugars, including poly-,
resources, harmfully affect the wild and human lives [1]. di- and monosaccharides. Most polysaccharides (cellulose,
Accordingly, bioplastics have been suggested as one of the hemicellulose, and pectin) are components of the peel of the
best alternatives for the conventional plastics. Along with CW, while the di- and monosaccharides (sucrose, glucose,
plastics, residues of different industries are sometimes chal- and fructose) are present in the pulp. Satari et al. [5] reported
lenging and harmful to the environment. Citrus waste (CW), fungal cultivation using a solution containing the free sugars
originated from citrus fruit, is an example of such residues extracted from CW, without the addition of any nutrients, in
[2, 3]. The majority of the CW is produced by the citrus a bench scale airlift bioreactor. Hydrolysis of the structural
fruit processing industry where half of the weight of the polymers cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin of CW, and
citrus fruit is converted into waste [3]. Low pH and high ethanol production have also been reported [5–7].
moisture content of CW prevent its landfilling according to Besides sugars, CW is also a major source for industrial
the EU regulations [4], and the presence of essential oils is production of pectin, the other abundant compound in the
prejudicial to the composting and the biogas processes [2, citrus peel. Pectin is the term used to describe a group of
3]. Moreover, thermal treatments of CW yield low energy heteropolysaccharides naturally found in the cell wall of
recovery due to the high moisture content [2, 3]. To over- vascular plants which act as a cementing matrix in the
come these difficulties, biological treatments of CW and cellulosic fibers [8]. The natural role of pectin in provid-
ing mechanical strength to the plant cell wall has encour-
* Pedro F. Souza Filho aged the use of pectin as matrix in biocomposite materials.
pedro.ferreira_de_souza_filho@hb.se Pectin has a good potential to be used in food packag-
ing films and biocomposite materials, which are renew-
1
Swedish Centre for Resource Recovery, University of Borås, able, biodegradable and biocompatible [9]. Pectin-based
SE 50190 Borås, Sweden

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Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292 4283

biocomposite films are usually produced by solution cast- Materials and Methods
ing [10] in which pectin is dissolved in an aqueous acidic
solution, and reinforcing materials are suspended in this Materials
solution. The solution is then casted over a smooth sur-
face and dried to make a film [11]. Production of bioplas- CW was kindly provided by Brämhults Juice AB (Borås,
tic films via solution casting method however has a high Sweden). For the production of pectin-based bioplastic films,
demand of energy which may avoid profitability of the pro- citrus peel derived pectin (poly-d-galacturonic acid, ≥ 74%)
cess in large scales [12]. The molding method, on the other from Sigma-Aldrich Inc. (St. Louis, MO, USA) was used.
hand, usually has lower energy demand and processing Anhydrous glycerol (analytical grade, 99%), from Scharlab
time compared to the casting method, thus being preferred S.L. (Barcelona, Spain), was used as plasticizer for the pro-
for industrial applications [13]. For non-thermoplastic duction of bioplastic films. Other chemicals and reagents
biopolymers, such as proteins, heat compression molding used in this study were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Inc.
has been applied to produce bioplastic items [14]. How- (St. Louis, MO, USA) unless stated otherwise.
ever, to the best of our knowledge, this technique has not
been employed for production of pectin based bioplastics.
Microorganism
Blending of pectin with clay nanoparticles such as hal-
loysite nanotubes [15, 16] and layered double hydroxides
Rhizopus oryzae (CCUG28958) used for biomass cultivation
materials [17] positively affect the mechanical perfor-
was acquired from the Culture Collection of the Univer-
mances, improved thermal stability, and vapor barrier
sity of Gothenburg, Sweden. The strain was grown in agar
properties of the pectin films. Similarly, the blend of other
plates (potato extract 4 g/L, dextrose 20 g/L, agar 15 g/L)
biopolymers such as polysaccharides (e.g. starch, cellu-
for 5 days at 30 °C. The obtained plates were then kept at
lose, and chitosan) [11], proteins, and lipids [18] were
5 °C until use for a maximum of 30 days. Spore suspension
reported to improve the pectin films characteristics. For
for inoculation was prepared by adding 20 mL of sterile
instance, in a review, Porta et al. [19] stated that addi-
water in a plate and gently stirring the liquid using a sterile
tion of proteins, e.g. soy proteins, to pectin films not only
L-shaped spreader.
brings a nutritional value to the films, but also increases
the strength and improves the oxygen barrier characteris-
tics. The improvements are caused by the strong interac- Extraction of Citrus Waste Free Sugars (CWFS)
tions between the ­OH− and ­COO− groups of pectin and and Nutrients
positively charged –NH groups of proteins. Lipids can
form dipole-charge and dipole–dipole interactions with The soluble sugars and other soluble nutrients were extracted
polar functional groups of pectin matrix and therefore, from CW according to Satari et al. [5] with minor modifi-
improve the characteristics of the pectin-based films [12, cation. Briefly, CW in wet form (60 kg) was mixed with
18]. Furthermore, materials containing a mixture of sev- tap water (90 L) and left overnight. Thereafter, the mixture
eral organic compounds, e.g. coffee ground, have been was subjected to liquid extraction in a fruit press machine
tested as filler for a pectin matrix with interesting results (LANCMAN™ VSPIX120) equipped with a textile filter
[20]. Fungal biomass is a rich source of different biopoly- (pore size 3 mm). The citrus waste free sugars solution
mers. Improvement of the properties of the pectin films by (CWFS) was collected and stored at 5 °C until use.
blending the polymer with fungal biomass has not been
investigated before. Cultivation in Bubble Column Reactor
The purpose of the current work was to apply a solvent-
free compression molding method for production of bio- Cultivation of R. oryzae was performed using different
plastic films from citrus peel derived pectin. Moreover, media, namely CWFS and a nutrient rich semi-synthetic
as another solution to CW challenges, free sugars and medium [glucose (10 g/L), yeast extract (5.0 g/L), ­K2HPO4
other water-soluble nutrients were extracted from CW and (3.5 g/L), ­CaCl2·2H2O (1.0 g/L), ­MgSO4·7H2O (0.75 g/L),
employed for cultivation of the filamentous fungus Rhizopus and ­(NH4)2SO4 (7.5 g/L)]. Sterilization of the liquid media
oryzae, in a pilot scale bubble column reactor. Incorporation was performed in an autoclave (Systec, Germany) at 121 °C
of the fungal biomass to the pectin films was also investi- for 20 min. R. oryzae inoculum was prepared in 1-L baf-
gated. Fungal biomass grown on a rich synthetic medium fled Erlenmeyer flasks containing 300 mL of sterile CWFS
was used as a reference for comparison of the properties medium or semi-synthetic medium at pH 5.5. These solu-
of the obtained films. SEM analyses were used to study the tions were inoculated with 15 mL of spore suspension of R.
molecular interactions between the pectin and the fungal oryzae and incubated in shaking water bath at 35 °C (for 24 h
biomass components.

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4284 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292

for semi-synthetic medium or 48–55 h for CWFS medium) using a Rotor mill (Fritsch Pulverisette14, Fritsch Industries,
to obtain enough fungal biomass for inoculation of 26 L bub- Germany). Extraction was carried out by adding 25 mL of
ble column bioreactor (Bioengineering, Switzerland). 0.4% (w/v) biomass suspension in water to 50 mL of organic
Inoculum (1.5% v/v) was added to a 20-L plastic con- solvent mix (containing 40% petroleum ether, 40% diethyl
tainer containing the sterile medium (CWFS or semi-syn- ether, and 20% absolute ethanol) in a 250 mL separating
thetic) to complete 20 L of working volume. In addition, funnel. The content in the funnel was thoroughly mixed
5 mL of antifoam 204 (Sigma-Aldrich Inc, MO, USA) was manually for 10 min and left still for phase separation. The
also added to the medium to prevent foam generation during organic phase was collected in pre-weighted glass beakers
the cultivation. This inoculated solution was manually trans- to determine the lipid concentration. The aqueous phase was
ferred to the sterile bioreactor (sterilized by direct steam subjected to two more extractions similar to the first one
injection at 130 °C for 30 min) to start the cultivation, which to guarantee the complete extraction of lipids. The beaker
was carried out at 35 °C and at an aeration rate of 1.5 vvm containing the organic phase of the three extractions was
(volume of air per volume of medium per minute). The pH left overnight in a fume hood for evaporation of the liquid
was adjusted to 5.4–5.5 at the beginning of the cultivation. and further dried at 105 °C until constant weight. By weight
The initial pH of CWFS was 3.6 and was increased to 5.5 difference, the amount of lipids was determined.
using 5 M NaOH solution [5]. At the end of the cultiva-
tions, the broth was filtered through a kitchen sieve and the Solvent Free Method for Production of Pectin Films
harvested solid was washed with tap water and stored at
− 20 °C for further usage. As the media at the beginning of The pectin films were produced using a solvent-free
the cultivations contained no suspended solids, the collected compression molding approach, which involved thermo-
solids were considered to be only fungal biomass. mechanical treatment of pectin. Pectin (Sigma-Aldrich
The broth was analyzed in terms of lactic acid, glycerol, Inc., St. Louis, MO, USA) was used with galacturonic
ethanol, glucose, and other sugars using a hydrogen-ion acid ≥ 74.0%—dried basis, methoxy groups ≥ 6.7%—dried
based ion-exchange column (Aminex HPX-87H, Bio-Rad, basis, and molecular weight of 30–100 kg/mol. Glycerol
Hercules, CA, USA) installed in a high-performance liquid was used as plasticizer. Preliminary experiments (data not
chromatography (HPLC) system at 60 °C, using 0.6 mL/ shown) indicated glycerol content (GC) of 30% (w/w) as
min of 0.5 mM ­H2SO4 solution as the eluent. A refractive the best concentration. Mixing of pectin powder with glyc-
index detector (Waters 2414, USA) was used to identify and erol was carried out manually for 2 min with the help of
quantify the components. a glass stirrer to get an uniform dough which was then
formed into ball shape (total weight of 2.5 g) and stored in
Characterization of the Fungal Biomass polyethylene (PE) bags overnight at room temperature. To
prepare the films, the obtained pectin–glycerol blend was
The standard Kjeldhal method (InKjel P digestor + Behrotest placed between two square-shaped high-density polyethyl-
S1 distiller, Behr Labor-Technik, Germany) was adopted ene sheets (12 cm × 12 cm) and placed in a Rondol 20 Ton
for analysis of protein content in the fungal biomass. For molding press (Rondol Technologies Ltd, UK). The com-
this analysis, the biomass was pre-dried at 70 °C overnight. pression molding process was performed under operation
Briefly, the protein content in the biomass was quantified in conditions of 1.33 MPa and 120 °C. The heating plates were
two steps, namely digestion (where the organic nitrogen con- previously set at the working temperature and the sample
tent of biomass was converted into ammonium sulphate and was kept between them for 10 min. The sheets were then
water) and distillation (where ammonium hydroxide was col- removed from the press and left at ambient temperature to
lected as distillate through the reaction of (­ NH4)2SO4 with cool for 5 min. The obtained pectin biofilms were stored in
10.7 M NaOH). The collected distillate was titrated with PE bags at room temperature for further characterization.
0.1 M HCl to determine the protein concentration in fun- Pectin-based biomass films were also produced by incor-
gal biomass (defined as 6.25 times the net nitrogen content poration of fungal biomass. The fungal biomass was lyophi-
of biomass) [21]. Sulfuric acid (Sigma-Aldrich Inc., MO, lized and milled (particle size < 0.2-mm) before mixing with
USA), Kjeldhal tablets (0.5 g ­CuSO4 + 5.0 g ­K2SO4; Thomp- pectin and glycerol. Biomass concentrations varied in the
sons and Capper LTD, UK), and antifoam tablets (0.97 g range of 0–35% of the total mixture. Glycerol content was
­Na2SO4 + 0.03 g silicone antifoam; Thompsons and Capper kept at 30%. Pectin, fungal biomass, and glycerol were vig-
LTD, UK) were used as reagents for biomass digestion. orously blended manually. A longer mixing step (5 min com-
Organic solvent extraction was used for lipid determina- pare to 2 min for pectin films) was necessary to get a uniform
tion according to Majdejabbari et al. [22] with modifica- dough material that was suitable for compression molding.
tion. The harvested biomass was lyophilized (Labconco: Afterwards, the matrix was shaped into a ball (total weight
Kansas City, MO, USA) and milled to 0.2-mm size powder of 2.5 g) and conditioned overnight at ambient temperature

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Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292 4285

in PE bags to get better uniformity. Then, blends were sub- on the film diameter) and sealed with a paraffin film. Prior to
jected to compression molding to produce films. Figure 1 the film insertion, glass containers were filled with 50–100 g
illustrates different steps in preparation of the pectin based of distilled water, providing a distance between the tested film
films by compression molding approach. and the water surface of 2–3 cm. The weight of the entire
setup, including the film, was measured (at time 0 h) and this
Tensile Analyses was kept in a desiccator. The weight loss of the containers was
measured every 24 h up to 5 days, and finally a graph of weight
Tensile analyses, namely the yield point, the tensile strength loss versus time was plotted which showed a linear behavior.
(TS), the elongation at break (E%), and the Young’s modu- The slope of the straight line was used for the WVPC calcula-
lus were performed to determine the mechanical proper- tion (in kg/s/m/Pa) according to Eq. (1).
ties of the films. These properties were measured using an
S × X
Elastocon H10KT tensile testing machine (Elastocon AB, WVPC = (1)
A × ΔP
Sweden). The films were cut in dog-bone shaped testing
specimens using a manual cutting press (EP 08, Elastocon where S is the slope of the plot (kg/s), A is the beaker mouth
AB, Sweden) equipped with a dog bone shape cutting die area ­(m2), ΔP is the vapor pressure difference (Pa) between
EP 04 ISO 32-7. The pectin films were subjected to the ten- the two sides (inside of glass container and desiccator) of the
sile examination with gauge length of 22 mm, load force of film and X is the film thickness (m) [24, 25]. The test was
100 N, gap between grips of 50 mm, and width of dog bone done in duplicates for each film.
shape film specimen of 4 mm. QMat 5.41a-Dongle 4631
software processor was used to process the data. All film Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
specimens were tested in triplicates.
Scanning electron microscopy (SIGMA VP FE-SEM, Carl
Water Vapor Permeability Coefficient (WVPC) Zeiss AG, Germany) analysis was conducted to study the
morphology of the pectin based films. The micrographs were
Water vapor permeability coefficient (WVPC) was determined taken from surface and cross-section of the films. Before
according to the ASTM E96 [23]. The pectin and pectin-bio- taking images from the surface, the samples were attached
mass films were placed on the top of a pre-dried (at 70 °C, to a carbon tape and covered with gold. For cross-section
overnight) glass container (diameter of 32–50 mm depending imaging, samples were immersed in liquid nitrogen for
1 min, broken, and attached to a carbon tape placed on a
stub. Then, the gold coating was performed before imag-
ing. The images were collected at magnification of ×1000,
energy of the beam 10 kV, and working distance of 6 mm
for surface images, and at magnification of ×1500, energy of
the beam 25 kV, and working distance of 10 mm for cross-
section images.

Statistical Analyses

All experiments were carried out in duplicate. Data are

reported as average ± standard deviation. Error bars in
graphs indicate one standard deviation. Results were ana-
lysed using the software MINITAB® 17 Statistical Soft-
ware (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA). Tukey tests
were performed to determine statistical differences between
results. A confidence interval of 95% was considered in all
analyses.

Results and Discussions

Pectin-based bioplastic films have the potential to reduce the

Fig. 1  Steps involved in preparation and production of pectin fungal environmental footprint of human activity twofold: decreas-
biomass films ing the negative effects of synthetic plastics and addressing

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4286 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292

the citrus waste management issue [26]. However, the solu- was mixed with glycerol to form a dough-like material. This
tion casting method, the most-commonly used method for material was then subjected to a heat compression molding
pectin film production, has a high demand of energy. In process in similar conditions used for production of pro-
this work heat compression molding technique, with lower teins bioplastics, namely, 120 °C and 1.33 MPa for 10 min.
energy demand compared to casting [27, 28], was employed Higher tested temperature (150 °C) resulted in films with
for production of pectin films. Furthermore, the potential of burnt edges and was not further used. The results confirmed
the fungal biomass for enhancement of the pectin films was the self-binding ability of pectin as shown in Fig. 2.
investigated. The biomass was obtained by cultivation in Using the solution casting method, Cavallaro et al. [15]
water soluble nutrients of citrus waste [5]. Fungal biomass prepared pectin films using polyethylene glycol (PEG)
cultivated on a rich semi-synthetic medium was also used 20,000 as plasticizer at a weight ratio pectin/plasticizer of
as a reference. 4. Below this value, the obtained films were fragile and with
several voids. In this study, glycerol concentrations higher
Self‑binding Ability of Pectin and Production than 30% resulted in very thin and mechanically weak films
of Pectin Films that were not suitable for further mechanical analyses (data
not shown). On the other hand, pectin powder could not be
Thermo-triggered self-binding ability of proteins [28] and properly homogenized using less than 30% glycerol. Thus,
natural fibers [27] to produce binder-less objects has been glycerol content of 30% was found to be the optimum value
reported. Under the thermo-mechanical treatments, proteins to prepare the pectin films.
undergo disaggregation, denaturation, and dissociation reac-
tions which can lead to the formation of new links and the Production of Fungal Biomass for Incorporation
aggregation of proteins to new forms [28]. Melting/glass into Pectin Films
transition as well as degradation reactions play roles in for-
mation of new objects from natural fibers under thermo- CWFS solution and a semi-synthetic medium were used for
mechanical treatments [27]. Plasticizers are often required fungal cultivation in a 26-L bubble column bioreactor. The
to improve the processability and the mechanical properties fungal biomass was harvested when the sugar concentra-
by reducing the interactions between the polymers chains. tion in the medium was close to zero. In CWFS medium,
Glycerol has been used to improve the properties of the pro- R. oryzae first consumed glucose. When the glucose level
tein bioplastics [28, 29]. The presence of water, moisture, in the medium was low, consumption of other sugars, e.g.
has been reported to be necessary for production of cellulose fructose and sucrose, was started. The profile of different
bioplastics with good mechanical properties [27]. components during the fungal fermentation is presented in
In this work the self-binding ability of pectin was inves- Fig. 3. In average, 65–72 h was necessary for R. oryzae to
tigated. Glycerol was used as a plasticizer. Pectin powder completely assimilate the glucose (≈ 20 g/L) and ca. 10 g/L

Fig. 2  Optical photos of the

pectin-based biofilms. a Pectin
powder; b pectin (70%)–glyc-
erol (30%) dough-like matrix;
c pectin (70%)–glycerol (30%)
bioplastic; d CWFS medium
cultivated biomass (20–50%);
e semi-synthetic medium cul-
tivated biomass (15%)–pectin
(55%); f semi-synthetic medium
cultivated biomass (25%)–pec-
tin (45%)

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Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292 4287

A production in CWFS medium (34.5 g glycerol/g ethanol).

20
The result suggests different metabolic pathways were used

Con centration (g/L)

15 in these media for glycerol production. This hypothesis is
10 corroborated when taking into account the composition of
5 the biomasses grown in the different media.
The protein concentration was only 310 mg/g biomass
0
0 20 40 60 for the R. oryzae cultivated in CWFS medium while it was
Time (h) 600 mg/g biomass for the fungus cultivated in semi-syn-
B 10 thetic medium. In contrast, the total lipid concentration in
Concentration (g/L)

8 biomass was 200 mg/g for the fungus cultivated in CWFS

6 medium, and only 100 mg/g for the fungus cultivated in
4 semi-synthetic medium. The difference can be related to the
2 different nitrogen composition of the media. The semi-syn-
0 thetic medium was prepared with a total nitrogen content of
0 10 20 2.0 g/L, while nitrogen concentration was 1.3 g/L in CWFS
Time (h)
medium, as determined by the Kjeldahl method, and no sup-
Fig. 3  Concentration profile of glucose (filled triangles), other sug-
plementation was used.
ars (filled diamonds) (in xylose equivalent), glycerol (filled squares) Protein synthesis in microorganisms is mostly influenced
and ethanol (asterisks) during cultivation of R. oryzae in a CWFS by the nitogen source in the cultivation medium. Microbial
medium and b semi-synthetic medium in a 26 L bubble column bio- growth under nitrogen starvation, on the other hand, leads
reactor
to accumulation of lipids, an adaptation necessary to survive
under stress conditions. In such scenario, the tricarboxylic
Table 1  The yields of fungal biomass and primary metabolites (in acid cycle is interrupted, causing accumulation of citrate in
mg/g sugar consumed), as well as protein and lipid contents (in mg/g the cell. Citrate is then converted into oxaloacetate, which
biomas) of fungal biomass obtained in CWFS and semisynthetic
media after 72 and 24 h cultivation, respectively
in turn is converted into malate. The last is further converted
into pyruvate. All this reactions cause a net production of
Component CWFS medium Semi- NADPH and acetyl-coenzyme A, which are used to pro-
synthetic
medium
duce fatty acids and triacylglycerides (TAGs) [30]. In fact,
fatty acid metabolism is much more complex and involves
Ethanol 4±0 254 ± 17 several other reactions which are not part of this study [31].
Lactic acid 13 ± 4 68 ± 2 The accumulation of lipid in the cells occurs via a dynamic
Glycerol 138 ± 30 29 ± 1 equilibrium of fatty acid synthesis and degradation [31].
Fungal biomass 260 ± 30 350 ± 10 When degraded by lipases, TAGs are hydrolyzed into free
Protein 310 ± 20 600 ± 120 fatty acids and glycerol [32]. Production of glycerol during
Lipid 200 ± 40 100 ± 10 the course of fungal cultivation in CWFS has probably been
Components of the fungal biomass are given in italics
performed though a similar mechanism. Low ethanol yield
Data presented as average ± standard deviation and n = 3
and high lipid content in the biomass confirm this hypoth-
esis. In semi-synthetic medium however, glycerol has been
produced as a result of the alcoholic fermentation in order
of other sugars present in the CWFS medium. Starting with to maintain the cytosolic redox balance [33].
10 g/L glucose in semi-synthetic medium, the fungus needed
20 h for complete assimilation of the sugar. Therefore, the
fungal exhibited comparable rates of glucose assimilation Incorporation of Fungal Biomass into Pectin Films
in these media. However, different profiles of fermentation
byproducts were observed in these two media (Fig. 3). Pectin–fungal biomass films were prepared using 30% glyc-
The concentration of lactic acid and ethanol remained low erol. The concentration of fungal biomass in the pectin films
during fungal cultivation in the CWFS medium. In the semi- varied between 0 and 35%. Blends containing more than
synthetic medium, the obtained values for lactic acid and 35% of biomass were not suitable for compression mold-
ethanol were 68 and 254 mg/g of consumed sugar at the end ing (data not shown). Thickness of the obtained films was
of cultivation, respectively (Table 1). Moreover, while in the generally decreased by increasing the biomass concentra-
semi-synthetic medium the production of glycerol was lower tion in the pectin-based films. The thickness of pectin films
than the production of ethanol (0.12 g glycerol/g ethanol), was 1.03 mm which was reduced to 0.2–0.4 mm (Table 2)
the glycerol production was much higher than the ethanol in pectin–fungal biomass films. The biomass-incorporated

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Table 2  Mechanical properties and thickness of the pectin films obtained by heat compression molding (glycerol content of 30%) with and with-
out incorporation of fungal biomass, in this study, as well as solution casting, according to [11, 15, 36–39]
Pectin (%) Biomass (%) Culti- Tensile Elongation Young’s Thickness (mm) References
vation strengh at break modulus
medium (MPa) (%) (MPa)

70 0 – 15.7 ± 0.5 5.5 ± 1.7 298 ± 58 1.03

a
60 10 15.9 ± 0.8 3.5 ± 1.6 499 ± 141 0.42
b
19.3 ± 3.5 1.6 ± 0.9 1350 ± 370 0.41
a
55 15 12.7 ± 1.3 2.5 ± 0.9 533 ± 98 0.40
b
19.2 ± 2.9 1.9 ± 1.3 1230 ± 469 0.35
a
50 20 7.6 ± 0.6 3.8 ± 1.1 206 ± 31 0.35
b
16.1 ± 2.3 4.3 ± 2.7 446 ± 161 0.38
a
45 25 5.2 ± 1.1 1.6 ± 1.1 393 ± 141 0.27
b
12.5 ± 1.3 3.1 ± 0.6 406 ± 23 0.34
a
40 30 6.5 ± 2.0 1.4 ± 0.4 462 ± 10 0.25
b
11.2 ± 2.1 4.5 ± 1.0 250 ± 5 0.32
a
35 35 7.1 ± 1.5 3.8 ± 0.8 187 ± 1 0.28
b
9.2 ± 0.8 4.1 ± 1.5 237 ± 48 0.34
Solution casting pectin–glycerol film 17.0 ± 3.4 2.5 ± 0.6 1082 0.15 [11]
Solution casting (90–10%) pectin–flour protein film 24.0 ± 3.0 2.9 ± 0.9 1213 – [11]
Solution casting (80–20%) pectin–PEG 20,000 film 26 1.52 2650 0.06 [15]
Solution casting pectin–polyvinyl alcohol–glycerol (40–20–40%) film 0.153 3.45 – 0.17 [36]
Extruded pectin–glycerol (70–30%) film 9.9 ± 2.4 12.8 ± 6.8 201 – [37]
Compression molded Whey protein–glycerol (70–30%) film 10 ± 0.3 43 ± 15 251 1.32 [39]
Solution casting Pectin–Starch (40–30%) film with 30% GC 21 12 500 – [38]
a
CWFS
b
Semi-synthetic

pectin films were more flexible and softer than pure pectin pectin molecules. Pectin films with addition of 20% of
films. Visually, incorporation of the fungal biomass resulted protein-rich and low-protein biomasses presented more
in darker and more opaque films (Fig. 2d–f). agglomerates (Fig. 4c, d, respectively) than the 10%
low protein biomass film (Fig. 4b). These agglomerates,
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Pectin Based which were not present in the pure pectin film, indicate
Films the incompatibility of the biomass components and pectin,
leading to the formation of heterogeneous structures [34].
The surface SEM images of the pectin based films are For a deeper analysis of the morphology, the cross-sec-
shown in Fig. 4. A bumpy, dense, and cracked surface tional images of pectin films were obtained and are pre-
with randomly distributed small particles (in white color) sented in Fig. 5. Pure pectin film had a rugged structure with
was observed in pure pectin film (Fig. 4a). The small par- gaps, which irregularly appeared in the film. The film was
ticles on the surface of the pure pectin film were identified organized like a group of closely packed surfaces (Fig. 5a).
as non-homogenized pectin debris in the pectin–glycerol The lack of a solvent in the blend matrix might be the reason
matrix. With addition of 10% of low-protein biomass (i.e. for the resulted structure and the poor homogenization of the
cultivated in CWFS medium), the small white particles pectin and glycerol. Interestingly, a more uniform texture
disappeared and the film showed a coarse surface with was observed in the pectin films with addition of fungal bio-
few agglomerates (Fig. 4b). The obtained result indicates mass, with fewer gaps in the cross-sectional area compared
that biomass inclusion improves the uniformity of the to pectin film (Fig. 5b, c).
pectin–glycerol matrix. Moreover, the SEM images indi- The pectin film containing low-protein biomass (Fig. 5c)
cate the fungal cells (that commonly present a cylindrical showed a clumpy structure with few holes on the plane. The
shape) were disrupted since no structure similar to the same structure was observed for the protein-rich biomass
cells has been observed. Disruption of the cells means containing film with more structural discontinuities. This
the intracellular components (e.g., proteins) have been observation could be a result of the biomass composition
released in the biofilm matrix and could interact with the

13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292 4289

Fig. 4  SEM micrographs of

surface of compression molded
30% GC pectin based bio plastic
films. a Pectin film without
biomass (70:30); b pectin–low
protein biomass film (60:10); c
pectin–protein rich biomass film
(50:20); d pectin–low protein
biomass film (50:20), (magnifi-
cation = ×1000)

(protein and lipid contents) and pectin interactions with versus strain graphs were straight lines whose linear coeffi-
biomass. cients represent the Young’s modulus. Pectin–glycerol blend
Moreover, a different internal organization was observed yielded 1.03-mm thick films with TS of 15.7 MPa and E%
according to the film composition. The less-oriented net- of 5.5 (Table 2). The thickness of the film in a compression-
work of the pectin film compared to the composite pectin molding process may be controlled by the concentration of
films yielded greater thickness (Table 2), denser texture as plasticizer and the applied pressure. Kang et al. [36] pro-
well as cracks and gaps in the cross-section. Solution-casted duced pectin films using the solution casting method with
pectin films showed a smoother morphology, according to lower thickness (0.17 mm), E% (3.45), and TS (0.153 MPa)
Liu et al. [11] and Galus and Lenart [35], compared to the compared to the film prepared in this study. Pectin–glycerol
compression-molded pectin film in this study. This might films prepared by Liu et al. [11] using the solution cast-
be due to better homogenization of the materials in casting ing method yielded higher TS (17.0 MPa), and lower E%
method compared to the compression molding technique. (2.5%) and thickness (0.15 mm). Similarly, Cavallaro et al.
Solution casted soy-protein isolate films unmodified and [15], produced much thinner films (0.06 mm) with higher TS
modified with chitosan, however, showed rough and bubbly (26 MPa) and lower E% (1.6%) using PEG 20,000 as plas-
structure [34] similar to the biomass-containing pectin films ticizer. Fishman et al. [37] produced pectin–glycerol films
of this study. Macroscopically, a rough, dense and brittle tex- at the same composition of this study by extrusion method
ture has been observed for a solution-casted pectin–soy flour and got films with lower TS (9.9 MPa) and higher E% (10.9).
protein (90–10%) film [11]. This is probably a consequence When comparing the Young’s modulus, the film obtained in
of the incompatibility of the pectin with proteins, which are this study (298 MPa) had a value similar to the one obtained
one of the major ingredients of the fungal biomass. when preparing the pectin film by extrusion (201 MPa) [37].
On the other hand, the pectin films reported in the literature
Mechanical Properties of Films prepared by solution casting had much higher values for the
Young’s modulus (1082 [11] and 2650 MPa [15]).
The tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (E%), and Promising results was obtained when the fungal biomass
Young’s modulus of the films are measured. Table 2 shows was incorporated in the pectin films up to 20%. In this range,
tensile properties and thickness values of pectin-based films the tensile yields of the low-protein biomass films were
at various blend ratios with fungal biomass obtained in this 15.9, 12.7, and 7.6 MPa for 10, 15, and 20% biomass ratio,
study as well as reference values from literature. All the respectively. The respective E% was 3.5, 2.5, and 3.8%. The
films exhibited the same behavior, with the TS and yield films made with the protein-rich biomass exhibited tensile
strength at the same value; i.e., the rupture of the material strength of 19.3, 19.2, and 16.1 MPa, and E% of 1.6, 1.9, and
happened during the elastic behavior. This means the stress 4.3%, respectively. Comparing the results, the pectin films

13
4290 Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292

modulus of the pectin films with the protein-rich biomass

increased more than fourfold. Values above 1000 MPa were
obtained when using 10 or 15% biomass in the blend. This
is the result of the increase in the TS and the decrease in the
E%; i.e., the inclusion of the fungal biomass yielded more
resistant films possibly because of the effect of the fungal
biomass acting as fibers reinforcing the matrix. Neverthe-
less, loss of mechanical properties of the films was obtained
when further increasing the biomass concentration in the
blend matrix. This may be the result of the increase of the
heterogeneous structures formed in the film when adding
biomass to the pectin matrix, as observed by SEM images
as well (Fig. 4). The values obtained for E% for the films
containing or not fungal biomass were not statistically dif-
ferent (95% confidence interval).
For the pectin films with low-protein content biomass, up
to 15% of biomass yielded films with higher TS and, above
15%, they showed almost similar values compared to the
pectin films reported in the literature [37, 38]. Pectin films
made in this study with the protein-rich biomass showed
higher TS than the films made by compression molding with
30% GC and 70% whey protein [39], and solution casting
pectin–starch film with 30% GC [38]. The films of this
study also showed lower TS and higher E% than the films
obtained by the solution casting of pectin–soy flour protein
(10% protein) film [11]. This is in contrast to the results
obtained by Sothornvit et al. [39] who obtained higher TS
in the compression-molded whey protein isolate films com-
pared to those produced using the solution casting method.
They argued that the high heat and pressure applied during
the molding process may have induced a higher rate of cross-
linking of the protein chains compared to the heat denaturing
that is used before solution casting of whey protein isolate
films. The type of protein used and the presence of other
substances in the biomass are possible explanations of the
obtained results. The inclusion of the low-protein content
fungal biomass in the films had little effect in the Young’s
modulus as a result of the little changes produced in the TS
and E% of the films. A maximum increase of approximately
Fig. 5  SEM images of the cross-section of compression molded 30% 80% in the Young’s modulus was obtained when using 15%
GC pectin based bio plastic films. a Pectin film without biomass of low-protein biomass in the film (533 MPa) compared to
(70:30); b pectin–protein rich biomass film (50:20); c pectin–low pro- the pectin films without any fungal biomass (298 MPa).
tein biomass film (50:20), (magnification = ×1500) The results of this study indicate that the removal of the
solvent for production of pectin films can have a positive
with protein-rich biomass demonstrated better mechanical effect on the mechanical characteristics of the films and
properties than the pectin films with low protein content incorporation of fungal biomass can further improve these
biomass. Therefore, the composition of the fungal biomass characteristics.
had a specific importance on the mechanical properties of
the pectin films. Liu et al. [11] argued that, at the condi- WVPC Analysis of Films
tions they tested, the active aldehyde of the pectin and the
primary amines of the tested proteins (soybean flour and WVPC analysis was conducted in this study to determine
fish skin gelatin) form cross-linking which can enhance the the water vapor permeability of the films made with the
mechanical strength of the pectin–protein films. Young’s protein-rich fungal biomass, which presented the most

13
Journal of Polymers and the Environment (2018) 26:4282–4292 4291

WVPC (kg.s-1.m-1.Pa-1) x 1013

interesting mechanical characteristics. Moreover, incorpo-
8
ration of protein-rich fungal biomass up to 15% decreased
6 the presence of debris, increased the Young’s modulus, and
decreased the water vapor permeability of the pectin films.
4
R. oryzae is a very versatile microorganism and was able to
2 grow in a medium with nutrients extracted from citrus waste
without nutritional supplementation. The protein content of
0 the fungal biomass positively favored the mechanical proper-
0 10 20 25 30 35
% of fungal biomass in the matrix
ties of the bioplastic.

Acknowledgements This work was financed by the Coordination for

Fig. 6  WVPC of pectin films with incorporation of protein-rich fun- the Improvement of Higher Educational Personnel (Capes-Brazil).
gal biomass at different compositions (%) of fungal biomass

Compliance with Ethical Standards

promising mechanical characteristics. High WVPC (kg/s/m/
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
Pa) means the film has a poor resistance to the passage of interest.
water vapor. According to the obtained results (Fig. 6), the
pure pectin film (0% biomass) showed the greatest values Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Crea-
of WVPC (6.92 × 10−13 kg/s/m/Pa). However, it also pre- tive Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creat​iveco​
mmons​.org/licen​ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu-
sented the largest standard deviation. No statistical differ-
tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate
ences were observed in the WVPC values of pectin films credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
containing protein-rich biomass (p > 0.05); the films showed Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
values ranging from 2.35 × 10−13 (35% biomass content) to
3.58 × 10−13 kg/s/m/Pa (30% biomass content).
Overall, addition of biomass to the pectin films decreased
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