Document 2

RF Productivity Essentials
Part 4 – Components, Measurements

and System Design
Introduction - 1
©Besser Associates All Rights Reserved.
RF Communication System Block
Diagram
IF Output
RF Filter LNA RF Filter Mixer with
Modulation
PLO
PLO
Power Driver IF Input with

RF Filter Upconverter
Modulation
Amp Amp
Introduction - 2
Voltage Controlled Oscillators, Phase Noise, Phase Detectors
PHASE LOCKED OSCILLATOR
PLO - 1
Diagram
IF Output
Modulation
PLO
PLO

Modulation
Amp Amp
PLO - 2
Phase Locked Oscillators
• Resonators
• Voltage Controlled Oscillators
• Phase Locked Loop
• Phase Noise
– Measurement Techniques
PLO - 3
Resonance
Resonant circuits allow signals at one “resonant”
frequency to pass while blocking others.
jXL jXC
impedance
At f R : jX L  jX C  0
fR frequency
PLO - 4
Types of Resonators
• Coaxial — too long at low frequencies
• Ceramic Filled Coax
– Use barium tetratitanate to reduce velocity (&
length) by 10 times
• Microstrip spiral
• Multilayer low temperature cofired ceramic
(LTCC) with imbedded inductors and
capacitors
PLO - 5
Resonator Limitations
Problems
• Variation of resonator length (& frequency) with
ambient temperature
• Tuneability
Solution
• Add varactor diode to permit electronic tuning of
resonator
— varactor diode is a variable capacitance
semiconductor device
• Then add phase locked loop to determine tuning
voltage
PLO - 6
Varactor Diode for Tuning
P N
or METAL N
Current Current
Capacitance Capacitance
0.6 V 0.6 V
BIAS VOLTAGE BIAS VOLTAGE
- + - +
PLO - 7
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
Resonator types:
• Coaxial
• Dielectric
• Microstrip
DC Control Voltage Varactor Resonator • LC
Amplifier Coupler RF Output Signal
PLO - 8
Phase Locked Oscillator
• Hold frequency constant with temperature and other changes
• Allow frequency to be changed to different channels on demand
• Have low phase noise to minimize modulation errors
VCO
Loop
Amplifier Varactor Resonator
and Filter
Output Signal
Stable Amplifier Coupler Coupler
Phase
Quartz
Oscillator Detector
Variable Ratio Prescalar

Digital Divider (RF Divider)
Divide Ratio Signal
PLO - 9
Phase Noise
Noise here (amplitude) Results in frequency/phase shift here
VCO
Loop
Resonato
Amplifier Varactor
r
and Filter
Output Signal
Stable Amplifier Coupler Coupler
Phase
Quartz
Oscillator Detector
Variable Ratio Prescalar

Digital Divider (RF Divider)
Divide Ratio Signal
PLO - 10
Phase Noise
PLO - 11
Significance of Phase Noise in an RF
Communication System
• Digital information is modulated onto the RF carrier by
step phase changes. Phase noise can produce bit
errors.
• The effect of phase noise is determined by the
integrated phase noise (dBc/Hz) across the bandwidth
of the channel.
• The integral (dBc) can also be expressed as RMS phase.
• To not cause a problem, the RMS phase must be less
than 1/10 of the phase shift between states.
• As an example, the phase shift between states is 90°
for QPSK. Therefore the RMS phase noise must be less
than 9° in a QPSK system.
PLO - 12
Reciprocal Mixing
Phase noise degrades selectivity of the receiver
Amplitude
LO with
Phase Noise
Unwanted
2 2 Signal
1 1 Desired
Signal
Frequency
PLO - 13
Example Phase Noise Requirement
Signal Conditions (GSM) – 600 kHz offset
Power of desired -99 dBm
signal: D
Power of interfering -43 dBm LO with
signal: I 600kHz Phase Noise 600kHz
-43dBm
Minimum SNR 9 dB
Channel bandwidth 200 kHz
9dB
Phase noise ? At 600 kHz offset -99dBm
requirement
𝐿 600𝑘𝐻𝑧
= 𝐷 − 𝐼 − 𝑆𝑁𝑅 − 10 log 𝐵𝑊 Frequency
= −99 − −43 − 9 − 53
𝑑𝐵𝑐
= −118
𝐻𝑧
PLO - 14
Phase Noise Measurement of
Phase noise (dBc/Hz)
Qualcomm PLO
-70
-90
-110
-130
-150
100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz
Offset Frequency
PLO - 15
RMS Phase Noise of Qualcomm PLO
PLO - 16
Phase Noise Measurement Techniques
• Spectrum Analyzer
• Simple implementation, cannot measure within about
100 Hz from carrier.
• Phase detector
– Discriminator method
– PLL/reference source method
• Complex implementation, but can measure very close
to carrier
PLO - 17
Spectrum Analyzer Measurement of
Phase Noise
Reference
Delta Marker reports offset

frequency and noise power in dBc
PLO - 18
Delay Line Method
Adjustable
Phase Shifter
Phase Detector
90° Baseband
Test Set
Oscillator Delay Line Signal Conditioning

Under Test Baseband
Output Signal
• Longer delay lines improve sensitivity but limit the

maximum offset frequency that can be measured.
• This method is best used for free-running sources such
as LC oscillators or cavity oscillators.
PLO - 19
Reference Source/PLL Technique
Oscillator Under Phase

Test Detector
Baseband
Analysis
Hardware
Signal Conditioning
Baseband
Reference Source Output Signal
RF out PLL to maintain
90 degree
relationship
Tuning Voltage
• Overall best sensitivity and widest measurement coverage (e.g. the

frequency offset range is 0.01 Hz to 100 MHz).
• Insensitive to AM noise and capable of tracking drifting sources.
• Disadvantages of this method include requiring a clean, electronically
tunable reference source, and that measuring high drift rate sources
PLO - 20
requires reference with a wide tuning range.
Review
• Resonators
• Voltage Controlled Oscillators
• Phase Locked Loop
• Phase Noise
– Measurement Techniques
PLO - 21
References
1. E. Ngompe, “Computing the LO noise requirements in a GSM receiver,” Applied Microwave and Wireless
2. “Agilent Spectrum and Signal Analyzer Measurements and Noise,” AN-1303
literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5966-4008E.pdf
3. “Agilent’s Phase Noise Measurement Solutions,” cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5990-5729EN.pdf
PLO - 22
Input/Output Frequencies, Conversion Loss/Gain
UPCONVERTER
Upconverter - 1
Diagram
IF Output
Modulation
PLO
PLO

Modulation
Amp Amp
Upconverter - 2
Upconverters
• Upconverter Operation
• Schottky Diodes
• Generation of Sum and Difference
Frequencies
• Performance of Upconverter
Upconverter - 3
Modulator/Upconverter
Information
Crystal
Subcarrier Modulator
Oscillator
100 MHz 100 MHz +Mod

Modulated
Wireless
Carrier
Wireless UP- Filter

Carrier Converter
Oscillator
900 MHz 1000 MHz + Mod 1000 MHz + Mod

800 MHz + Mod
Upconverter - 4
Schottky Diode for Upconverter
METAL N
Current
Capacitance
0.6 V
BIAS VOLTAGE
- +
ALSO USED FOR DETECTOR AND MIXER

Upconverter - 5
Mathematical Derivation of Frequency
Mixing in a Non-Linear Device
(1) i  k1V  k2V 2  k3V 3  
(2) VRF  V sin2ft 
(3) VRF  V1 sin 2f1t   V2 sin 2f 2t  with 2 signals at f1 and f 2
k2 V1 sin2f1t   V2 sin2f 2t 

2
(4) Non linear output:
(5)Algebraic Expansion of (4):

k2 V1 sin 2 2f1t   2V1 sin2f1t V2 sin2f 2t   V2 sin 2 2f 2t 
2 2

(6) Trigonometric expansion of center term
V1V2 cos 2  f1  f 2 t  cos 2  f1  f 2 t 
Upconverter - 6
Upconverter Test Setup
SIGNAL 250 MHz UP 2450 MHz

GENERATOR SPECTRUM
CONVERTER
ANALYZER
2200 MHz
PLO
Upconverter - 7
Upconverter Measurements
5
Output RF power (dBm) and Conversion gain (dB)
Conversion gain
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Input IF power (dBm)
Upconverter - 8
Spectrum of IF and Upconverted Signal
IF signal with FM sidebands Upconverted signal @ 2.5 GHz

Signal level is - 10 dBm
Upconverter - 9
Spurious Signals from the Upconverter
IF power = 0dBm, with RF bandpass filter
Upconverter - 10
Upconverters
• Upconverter Operation
• Schottky Diodes
• Generation of Sum and Difference
Frequencies
• Performance of Upconverter
Upconverter - 11
Output Power, 1dB Compression Point, Harmonics
RF POWER AMPLIFIER
Power Amp - 1
RF Communication System
Block Diagram
IF Output
Modulation
PLO
PLO

Modulation
Amp Amp
Power Amp - 2
Power Amplifiers
• Transistors
• Nonlinearity
• Spectral Regrowth
• Measurements
– Gain
– P1dB, Harmonics
– ACP
– EVM
Power Amp - 3
Semiconductor Materials
• For reasonable performance, electrons must
move through the transistor in less than 10%
of the period of an RF cycle
• To achieve shorter transit times:
– Reduce spacings between transistor elements
– Use semiconductor materials in which electrons
move faster than they do in silicon
• GaAs
• SiGe
• GaN
Power Amp - 4
RF Transistor Types
• Silicon Bipolar -- Inexpensive,

useful to about 2 GHz
• GaAs MESFET -- Better
performance, to 10 GHz, 2X
costlier
• HEMT (High electron mobility
transistor) GaAs MESFET with
high mobility heterojunction
channel.
• HBT (Heterojunction bipolar
transistor) GaAs with bipolar fab
Power Amp - 5
Amplifier Non-Linearity
• Typical amplifier
Pout vs Pin efficiency is about 50% at
20 saturation.
• Most RF transistors draw
15 the same power from the
battery, regardless of
Output Power (dBm)
10
output power level.
• At small output power
levels, RF output power is
5 proportional to RF input
power. This is called the
0
“linear” range.
• Operation near saturation
causes distortion.
-5 Operation in the linear
range = low efficiency.
-10
-20 -10 0 10
PowerAllAmp
©Besser Associates - 6Reserved.
Rights
Spectral Regrowth with QPSK
LINEAR
Power Spectral Density (dB)

- 20
- 40
- 60
5 MHz
65 70 75 80 85
Frequency (MHz)

AT SATURATION
- 20
- 40
SYMBOL PERIOD: 200 nanosec - 60

SYMBOL RATE: 5 Mb/s
RF FREQUENCY: 75 MHz
65 70 75 80 85
Power Amp - 7 Frequency (MHz)

Spectral Regrowth with MSK
LINEAR

- 20
- 40
- 60
5 MHz
65 70 75 80 85
Frequency (MHz)

- 20 AT SATURATION
- 40
- 60
SYMBOL PERIOD: 200 nanosec
SYMBOL RATE: 5 Mb/s
RF FREQUENCY: 75 MHz
65 70 75 80 85
Frequency (MHz)
Power Amp - 8
Tests to be Performed on
Power Amplifiers
• Swept gain and power versus input power
– 1 dB compression point
• Swept phase versus input power
– AM to PM
• Second harmonic power
• ACP with digitally modulated signals
– Required backoff to meet ACP requirements
• EVM with digitally modulated signals
– Required backoff to meet EVM requirements
Power Amp - 9
Setup for Swept Measurements
VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER
Port1 Port2
POWER POWER
10 DB
BOOSTER AMPLIFIER
PAD
UNDER TEST
Power Amp - 10
Power Amplifier Swept Gain and
Output Power Versus Input Power
Power Amp - 11
Power Amplifier Swept Phase and
Output Power Versus Input Power
Power Amp - 12
Test Setup for Harmonic Power
Measurement
Power Amp - 13
Harmonic Power Measurement
Power Amp - 14
Fundamental and Second Harmonic
Versus Input Power
Fundamental Harmonic Values are in dBm
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-20 -10 0 10 20
Power Amp - 15
Distortion from Signal Sources
6.02
3.88
Max Uncertainty (+/- dB)
2.39
1.42
0.48 0.83
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.15 0.27
Over
-0.01 -0.02 -0.03 -0.05 -0.09 -0.16 -0.28
-0.50
-0.92 Under
-1.70
-3.30
-7.18
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
Signal Separation (dB)
𝑑
20𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 ± 10 20 𝑑𝐵
Power Amp - 16
Adjacent Channel Power
• Signals are designed to
occupy a specific Main Channel
bandwidth
• Distortions cause signal
energy to spread in to
neighboring channels
– Baseband filtering
– Intermodulation
Neighboring Channels
Power Amp - 17
Backoff Values for PA
Backoff Pout (dBm) Pin (dBm)
0 21 13.0
0.5 20.5 10.5
1 20 8.9
2 19 6.9
3 18 5.6
4 17 4.3
5 16 3.1
6 15 2.0
8 13 -0.1
10 11 -2.2
12 9 -4.2
Power All
©Besser Associates Amp - 18
Rights Reserved.
Determination of Backoff as a Function
of Input Power
Output power (dBm) and Backoff (dB) 25
20
15
Output Power
Backoff from Saturation
10
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15
Input power (dBm)
Power Amp - 19
ACP of pi/4 DQPSK Test Signal
Power Amp - 20
ACP of pi/4 DQPSK Signal for Various
Amounts of Backoff from Saturation
Test Signal 16 dB backoff
3 dB backoff Saturation
Power Amp - 21
ACP of GMSK Test Signal
Power Amp - 22
ACP of GMSK Signal
Test Signal 0 dB backoff
Power Amp - 23
ACP Versus Power AMP Backoff
0
-5
-10
ACP (dBc)
-15
pi/4 DQPSK
-20
GSM
-25 EDGE
-30
-35
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Backoff from Saturation
Power Amp - 24
EVM of pi/4DQPSK Test Signal
Power Amp - 25
EVM of pi/4DQPSK Signal Through
Power Amp with 9 dB Backoff
Power Amp - 26
Power Amp - 27
Power Amp - 28
Power Amp With 0 dB Backoff
Power Amp - 29
EVM Versus Power Amplifier Backoff
with pi/4DQPSK Signal
EVM (%) vs. Amplifier Backoff from
Saturation 20
15
10
EVM (%)
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Power Amp - 30
Power Amplifiers
• Transistors
• Nonlinearity
• Spectral Regrowth
• Measurements
– Gain
– P1dB, Harmonics
– ACP
– EVM
Power Amp - 31
Antenna Types, Measurements
ANTENNAS
Antennas - 1
Diagram
IF Output
Modulation
PLO
PLO

Modulation
Amp Amp
Antennas - 2
Antennas
• Antenna Parameters
• Antenna Types
• Measurements
• Duplexing
Antennas - 3
Antennas
• Broadcasts RF Power from transmitter, concentrates power in direction of
receiver
• Collects power at receiver
• Specifications for TX antenna

• Gain
• Bandwidth
• Pattern
• Polarization 4Area
• Impedance Match Gain 
2
• Specification for RX antenna
• Area
• Impedance Match
Antennas - 4
Antenna Pattern
Antennas - 5
Radiation Pattern of Dipole Antenna
• Gain (isotropic) = Gain
(with dipole reference)
+ 2 dB
• Gain (isotropic) must be
used in path loss
calculations
• Gain (dipole) is usually
measured during
antenna test
Antennas - 6
Types of Antennas
2 dBi 5-10 dBi
10 – 30 dBi
Antennas - 7
Antenna Examples
Collinear
Dipole Array
Flat Panel
Array
Parabolic
Dish
Antennas - 8
Antenna Test in Anechoic Chamber
Antennas - 9
Setup for Antenna Test
1. Adjust VNA to measure S21
over desired frequency range
2. Mount reference antenna and RECEIVING
connect to VNA port 1 ANTENNA
UNDER TEST
ANTENNA
RF WAVE
3. Calibrate VNA
4. Replace reference antenna with ROTATING
MOUNT
antenna under test
5. Measure S21. This is antenna 1
VNA
2
gain if isotropic reference
antenna has been used.
6. If dipole antenna has been
used, add 2.1 dB to measured REFERENCE
value to get antenna gain. ANTENNA
7. Adjust azimuth direction of test

antenna and repeat
measurement
Antennas - 10
Duplexer
Allows the transmitter and receiver to use the same antennas
Time division duplexing (TDD)
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
Antennas - 11
Summary
• Antenna Parameters
• Antenna Types
• Measurements
• Duplexing
Antennas - 12
Filter Types, Insertion Loss, Out of band Rejection, Group Delay
RF, IF FILTER
Filters - 1
Diagram
IF Output
Modulation
PLO
PLO

Modulation
Amp Amp
Filters - 2
Filters
• Filter Principles
• Filter Types
• Group Delay
Filters - 3
Filters
Filters - 4
Microstrip Filter at 2.4 GHz
1 inch
Filters - 5
RF Filters
Ceramic Block SAW

INTERDIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
Array of Staggered Resonators

Made of High Dielectric Surface Acoustic Wave
Barium Tetratitanate
Made of Piezoelectric Lithium
Filters - 6 Niobate
Group Delay
Group delay is the rate of change (slope) of the phase of a signal as a

function of frequency
Reference Coax Transmission Line

(Constant phase performance vs.
frequency, slope is constant)
Phase Shift
Device (Phase performance

varies with frequency, slope
varies with frequency)
Frequency
Phase Phase
Units :   Time
Frequency Phase/Time
Filters - 7
Filter Response Shapes
Transfer Function (dB) Group Delay (ns)

0 15
-10
10
-20
5
-30
Buterworth
Chebychev
Gaussian
-40 0
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
Filters - 8
Tests to be Performed on RF and IF
Filters
• IF filter
– In band loss versus frequency
– Out of band rejection versus frequency
– Group delay distortion
Filters - 9
Test Setup for Filter Measurements vs.
Frequency
VNA
Filter Under
Test
Filters - 10
Insertion Loss and Group Delay of IF
Filter
Filters - 11
Summary
• Filter Principles
• Filter Types
• Group Delay
Filters - 12
S-Parameters, Gain, 1dB Compression Point, Noise Figure
LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER
LNA - 1
Diagram
IF Output
Modulation
PLO
PLO

Modulation
Amp Amp
LNA - 2
Low Noise Amplifiers
• Thermal Noise
• Noise Figure
– Noise Figure Through Cascaded Components
• Input and Output Matching
• Example Measurements
LNA - 3
Thermal Noise
• Thermal noise is generated by all electronic parts, and by
all objects in antenna’s field of view
• Thermal noise power is constant with frequency at RF,
microwave, mm. That is why it is called “white” noise.
• Thermal noise power is determined by the temperature of
source.
• At room temperature, thermal noise power density is -174
dBm/Hz
– In 1 MHz, noise is -174dBm + 60 dB = -114dBm
– In 25 MHz, noise is -114dBm + 14dB = -100dBm
– In 0.1 MHz (100 kHz), noise is -114dBm -10dB = -124dBm
• Noise is only important in receiver front end, where signal
power is low.
LNA - 4
Low Noise Amplifiers
𝑆 𝐼𝑛 = −80𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡 = −50𝑑𝐵𝑚

30 dB
Gain
𝑁 𝐼𝑛 = −100𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑁 𝑂𝑢𝑡 = −65𝑑𝐵𝑚
𝑆 𝑆
= 20𝑑𝐵 = 15𝑑𝐵
𝑁 𝐼𝑛
𝑁 𝑂𝑢𝑡
Noise Figure = 5 dB
“Noise Figure” is the ratio of the signal to noise power going into a device compared to the
signal to noise ratio coming out.
Noise Figure of a passive device, like a filter, is equal to its attenuation.
LNA - 5
Low Noise Transistor –NEC NE38018
Data Sheet #1
LNA - 6
Data Sheet #2
LNA - 7
Data Sheet #3
LNA - 8
Input Matching of Low Noise
Transistors
• Transistors must be specially matched to achieve minimum noise figure
• Some tradeoff between noise performance and gain performance
Optimum
Gain Match
Optimum Noise
Figure Match
LNA - 9
Noise Figure of Chain of Components
• Noise Power is Additive
– Don’t sum noise with dB values, must convert to power ratio first
• Noise contribution of second stage is reduced by gain of first stage
– Amplified noise from first stage dominates over added noise from subsequent stages
Power
NF2
NF1 Noise floor
LNA - 10
Noise Figure for Items in Cascade
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
• G1 • G2 • G3
• NF1 • NF2 • NF3
Since noise is additive, to calculate total noise,

convert noise figure out of dB and use noise factor
(nf), denoted here with lower case letters.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =

𝑛𝑓 2 − 1 (𝑛𝑓)3 −1
𝑛𝑓 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑓 1 + + +⋯
𝑔1 𝑔1 𝑔2
LNA - 11
Cascade Noise Figure Calculation - I
Compute the effective noise figure of the circuit shown in the block diagram below:
50W Cable LNA Amp2

Gain = - 3dB Gain = 20dB Gain = 13dB
NF = 3dB NF = 1.5dB NF = 4dB
Item Noise Fig, Noise Gain, dB Gain, ratio

dB Factor
Cable 3 2 -3 0.5
LNA 1.5 1.41 20 100
Amp2 4 2.51 13 20
𝑛𝑓2 − 1 𝑛𝑓3 − 1
𝑛𝑓𝑇 = 𝑛𝑓1 + +
𝑔1 𝑔1 𝑔2
= 2 + 0.41/0.5 + 1.51/50 = 2.85
NF = 4.55dB
LNA - 12
Cascade Noise Figure Calculation - II
Same cascade, except the LNA is moved in front of the lossy cable:
LNA 50Ω Cable Ampl2

Gain1 = 20dB Gain2 = - 3dB Gain3 = 13dB
NF1 = 1.5dB NF2= 3dB NF3 = 4dB
Item Noise Fig, Noise Gain, dB Gain, ratio

dB Factor
LNA 1.5 1.41 20 100
Cable 3 2 -3 0.5
Amp2 4 2.51 13 20
nfT = 1.41 + 1/100 + 1.51/50 = 1.45
NF = 1.61dB
LNA - 13
Tests to be Performed on Low Noise
Amplifier (LNA)
• Gain and power versus input power
• 1 dB compression power
• Input and output mismatch
• S parameters
• Noise figure
• IP3
LNA - 14
Test Setup for Swept Frequency and
Swept Power Measurements on LNA
VNA
Low Noise
Amplifier
LNA - 15
LNA Gain versus Input Power
LNA - 16
LNA Output Power vs. Input Power
LNA - 17
S21 of LNA in Polar Format
LNA - 18
S12 of LNA in Polar Format
LNA - 19
S12 of LNA in dB Versus Frequency
LNA - 20
S11 of LNA in Smith Chart Format
LNA - 21
S22 of LNA in Smith Chart Format
LNA - 22
Calculation of Amplifier Gain and
Stability with S-Parameters
• Unilateral Gain with Matched • Example at 6 GHz:
𝑆21 |S11| = 0.6
Transistor =
1− 𝑆11 2 1− 𝑠22 2
|S21| = 2.34
𝑆21
• Maximum Stable Gain = |S12| = 0.1
𝑆12
|S22| = 0.39
• Gain of Unmatched Transistor
= 𝑆21 2 Unilateral Gain = 10.0 dB
MSG = 13.7 dB
Unmatched Gain = 7.38 dB
LNA - 23
Summary
• Thermal Noise
• Noise Figure
– Noise Figure Through Cascaded Components
• Input and Output Matching
• Example Measurements
LNA - 24
Mixer Types, Noise Figure
MIXER
Mixer - 1
Diagram
IF Output with
RF Filter LNA RF Filter Mixer Modulation
PLO
PLO

RF Filter Upconverter Modulation
Amp Amp
Mixer - 2
Mixers
• Mixer Operation
• Switching Action in Mixers
• Image Noise
• Zero IF (ZIF)
Mixer - 3
Mixers
Converts the RF signal to a lower frequency below the RF band

where it can be more easily amplified and filtered
Mixer - 4
Mixer Example
• FET Mixer: LO forces
transistor switches to Gate Bias
IF+
change polarity of RF/IF

connection. LO
• Double-Balanced
Design: RF and LO each
IF-
enter the mixer where
Channel Bias
the other is at ground.
RF
Mixer - 5
How Mixers Generate
the Difference Frequency
1 microsecond
LO
RF
Mixer - 6
Selection of Individual
Voice Channels
Mixer - 7
Image Noise Filter
Antenna RF Filter LNA RF Filter Mixer IF Amplifier
LO
S I Noise
Image noise filter removes amplified noise from LNA in image frequency
range. It would otherwise be folded into IF band in mixer
Mixer - 8
Zero IF Receiver Advantages
Conventional Receiver Zif Receiver
VCO
I-Q Modulator/Demodulator
RF/IF Converter ZIF Transceiver
BP Filters
Power amp
Power amp
IF SAW Filter
Mixer - 9
LO Leakage Mechanisms
Mixer - 10
Tests to be Performed on Mixer
• Gain and power versus input power
• 1 dB compression power
• Noise figure
• IP3
Mixer - 11
Mixer Test Setup
SIGNAL 2450 MHz 250 MHz

GENERATOR MIXER SPECTRUM
ANALYZER
2200 MHz
PLO
Mixer - 12
Mixer IF Output Power and Gain
Versus RF Input Power
Conversion gain (dB) 2
Conversion gain
0
-1
(dB)
-2
Mixer - 13
Summary
• Mixer Operation
• Switching Action in Mixers
• Image Noise
• Zero IF (ZIF)
Mixer - 14
NOISE FIGURE
Noise Figure - 1
Noise Figure
• Measurement Principles
– Y Factor Technique
• Example Measurement Results
• Cold Source Technique
Noise Figure - 2
Noise Figure Test Setup
PSA WITH NOISE FIGURE

PERSONALITY
28 volts
DUT
Noise Figure - 3
Basis of Noise Figure Measurement
Thermal Noise = kTB Noise Factor = Na + kToB
kToB
Noise power (W)
kBG
Total Output Noise
N2
N1 kB
NO
Thermal Input Noise
Output Added Noise {

( = G Na) (0,0) TO TC TH
Absolute
Noise Figure - 4 Temperature K
Y-Factor Noise Figure Formulas
• Y factor:
N2
Y
• Noise Factor: N1
 Th   Tc 
  1  Y   1
F o   o 
T T
• TH from ENR: Y 1
 ENR 
 
TH  TO10  10 
 TO
• TH = Hot temperature, TC = Cold temperature, TO = Room temperature. If
TC = TO, then note that the noise factor formula is simplified.
Noise Figure - 5
RF Receiver
Filter LNA Image Noise RF Mixer

Filter
• Reject • Amplify • Reject • Down-conver

signals from desired amplified t signal to IF
other signals noise at frequency
systems image
frequency
from output
of LNA
Noise Figure - 6
Noise Figure and Gain of LNA
Noise Figure - 7
Noise Figure of Filter
Noise Figure - 8
Noise Figure and Gain of Filter and
LNA
Noise Figure - 9
“Cold-source” Noise Figure
Measurement
TERMINATION DEVICE PREAMP SPECTRUM

UNDER TEST ANALYZER
NF = N(0) – DUT(LNA) – PREAMP (LNA) + 174

N(0) = NOISE MARKER (dBm/MHz) = -128.2 dB
DUT(LNA) = 20.4 dB
PREAMP (LNA) = 21.2 dB
Span = 1 MHz, RBW= 10 kHz, VBW = 100 kHz, VBW/RBW=.01
NF = -128.2 dB – 20.4/dB – 21.2 dB + 174 dB = 4.2 dB

NF (Measured with Noise Figure Meter) = 4.4 dB
Noise Figure - 10
Summary
• Measurement Principles
– Y Factor Technique
• Example Measurement Results
• Cold Source Technique
Noise Figure - 11
How intermods are generated, measurement of third order intercept
(TOI)
INTERMODULATION PRODUCTS
Intermods - 1
Intermods
• Intermod Principles
• Measurement of IP3
• Spur-free Dynamic Range
• IP2
Intermods - 2
Intermodulation Products
Output
Weak Interfering Signals
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.2
Desired signal
Strong Interfering Signals
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.2

Intermodulation product
reduces signal to noise ratio
Intermods - 3
Two Tone Intermodulation Products
from LNA
RF Input = -33dBm
RF Input = -23dBm
RF Input = -13dBm
Intermods - 4
Plot of IP3 for LNA
LNA Fundamental and Third Order Intermod Output Power
20
10
IP3
Fundamental and 3rd Order Output Power (dBm)
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60 RF Input Power (dBm)
Intermods - 5
Problems Caused by IM Products in
Mobile Receivers
• Signals from base station to all mobiles come into each mobile
receiver.
– There is no practical way to filter out a single user channel dynamically
at RF.
– Received signal strength is same for every signal.
• When received signals at mobile are large, receiver LNA and mixer
are driven into saturation, and intermods are generated.
– occurs when mobile is close to the base station
– These intermods jam nearby channels.
• Solution to this problem is to choose components that operate in
the linear range at maximum received power.
– The higher IP3 the better, however this requires more current drain on
the battery.
• GaAs or silicon LNA transistors have an IP3 that is approximately 10
dB above the 1 dB compression point.
• Silicon-germanium LNA transistors have a 5 dB higher IP3
Intermods - 6
Calculation of TOI
Pout

∆
𝐼𝑃3 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 +
2
Measurement must be taken in the linear

region of operation for the above
relationship to be valid.
Intermods - 7
One Button TOI Measurement
Intermods - 8
Spurious-Free Dynamic Range
The range of signal power an • Expressed in dB at the
amplifier or system can handle
without any noise or distortion is
output as:
called Spurious-Free Dynamic Range. 2
It is referenced to the power level 𝑆𝐹𝐷𝑅 = 𝑃𝐼𝑃3 + 174 − 10 log 𝐵 − 𝑁𝐹 − 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛
3
where the third order IMD products
just reach the noise floor.
Pout
PIP3
P1dB
PSF
SFDR
2F1 - F2 2F2 - F1
Noise Floor
F1 F2 F
Intermods - 9
Calculation of Maximum Allowed Input
Power
Calculation of maximum allowed input power

Pin(max) = IP3 - d(spec)/2 - Gain
Example: d(spec) = 20 dB, Gain = 20 dB, IP3 = 14 dBm
Pin(max) = IP3 - d(spec)/2 - Gain
=14 dBm -10 dB - 20dB = - 16 dBm
Intermods - 10
SHI: Second Harmonic Intercept
Fundamental Harmonic IP2 Values are in dBm

80
73
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-20 0 20 40 60 80
Intermods - 11
IP2
IP2 = Second Harmonic Intercept (dBm) + 6dB or

𝐼𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∆ Image courtesy Rohde-Schwarz
Intermods - 12
Amplifier IP2 and ½ IF Problem
If a spurious signal appears at an offset of ½ IF from
your LO, then its 2nd harmonic will mix with your 2nd
harmonic and the difference will land on top of your IF
signal. (Mostly a problem in receivers.)
Desired Signal 2,450 MHz
LO 2,200 MHz
IF = Signal – LO 250 MHz
½ IF interfering signal 2,325 MHz
2nd Harmonic of Desired 4,900 MHz
2nd Harmonic of Interferer 4,650 MHz
Difference Frequency 250 MHz = problem for your IF
Intermods - 13
Summary
• Intermod Principles
• Measurement of IP3
• Spur-free Dynamic Range
• IP2
Intermods - 14
References
• Measuring the Nonlinearities of RF Amplifiers Using Signal Generators and a Spectrum Analyzer
Application Note 1MA71_1E, Rohde & Schwarz
• Optimizing Dynamic Range for Distortion Measurements 5980-3079, Agilent Technologies
Intermods - 15
SYSTEM CALCULATIONS
System - 1
Overall Receiver
• System Performance Terms
• Cascaded Performance Formulas
• Example Calculation
• Evaluation of Results
System - 2
Receiver IF Output versus RF Input
System - 3
Formulas for Cascaded NF and IP3
System - 4
Calculation of Receiver Performance
System - 5
Calculation of Receiver Performance
(continued)
Noise Figure 5.6 dB
Gain 20 dB
System bandwidth 30 kHz
Required S/N 12 dB
MDS signal -124 dBm
Sensitivity -112 dBm
Output IP3 8.8 dBm
Input IP3 -11.2 dBm
Pin (dBm) Pout (dBm) S/N (dB) OIM3 (dBm) ORR3 (dB)
-112 -92 12 -294 202
-60 -40 64 -138 98
-20 -1 103 -18.5 17.5
System - 6
Link Calculation to Determine RF
Component Specs
Mobile to base
PT = Transmitter power (dBm) 27 dBm

GT = Transmitter antenna gain (dB) 0 dB
GR = Receiver antenna gain (dB) 13 dB
PL = Path Loss (dB) -150 dB
C = Received Power = PT + GT + GR + PL - 110 dBm
Whether or not this is enough received power depends on:

• Noise in receiver
• Required signal to noise ratio of system
System - 7
Summary
• System Performance Terms
• Cascaded Performance Formulas
• Example Calculation
• Evaluation of Results
System - 8

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RF Productivity Essentials

Part 4 – Components, Measurements

Power Driver IF Input with

PHASE LOCKED OSCILLATOR

Power Driver IF Input with

BIAS VOLTAGE BIAS VOLTAGE

Amplifier Coupler RF Output Signal

Variable Ratio Prescalar

Variable Ratio Prescalar

Phase noise degrades selectivity of the receiver

Delta Marker reports offset

Oscillator Delay Line Signal Conditioning

• Longer delay lines improve sensitivity but limit the

Oscillator Under Phase

• Overall best sensitivity and widest measurement coverage (e.g. the

Power Driver IF Input with

100 MHz 100 MHz +Mod

Wireless UP- Filter

900 MHz 1000 MHz + Mod 1000 MHz + Mod

ALSO USED FOR DETECTOR AND MIXER

k2 V1 sin2f1t   V2 sin2f 2t 

SIGNAL 250 MHz UP 2450 MHz

IF signal with FM sidebands Upconverted signal @ 2.5 GHz

IF power = 0dBm, with RF bandpass filter

Power Driver IF Input with

• Silicon Bipolar -- Inexpensive,

Power Spectral Density (dB)

Power Spectral Density (dB)

SYMBOL PERIOD: 200 nanosec - 60

©Besser Associates All Rights Reserved.

Power Spectral Density (dB)

Power Spectral Density (dB)

VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER

Input power (dBm)

Test Signal 0 dB backoff

Power Driver IF Input with

• Specifications for TX antenna

2 dBi 5-10 dBi

7. Adjust azimuth direction of test

Allows the transmitter and receiver to use the same antennas

Time division duplexing (TDD)

Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

Power Driver IF Input with

Ceramic Block SAW

Array of Staggered Resonators

Group delay is the rate of change (slope) of the phase of a signal as a

Reference Coax Transmission Line

Device (Phase performance

Transfer Function (dB) Group Delay (ns)

LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER

Power Driver IF Input with

𝑆 𝐼𝑛 = −80𝑑𝐵𝑚 𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡 = −50𝑑𝐵𝑚

Block 1 Block 2 Block 3

Since noise is additive, to calculate total noise,

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =

50W Cable LNA Amp2

Item Noise Fig, Noise Gain, dB Gain, ratio

LNA 50Ω Cable Ampl2

Item Noise Fig, Noise Gain, dB Gain, ratio

Power Driver IF Input with