Chapter 1_1(1)

Chapter One
Basic Mathematical concepts
Contents
Chapter One..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Basic Mathematical concepts .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Propositional Logic and Set Theory ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Propositional Logic .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2. Elementary property of set ............................................................................................................. 15
1.2. Vectors, matrices and determinants ................................................................................................... 24
1.2.1. Vectors: ......................................................................................................................................... 24
1.2.2. Matrices and determinate ............................................................................................................... 24
1.3. System of linear equation and linear programming .......................................................................... 31
1.3.1. System of linear equations ............................................................................................................. 31
1.3.2. System of linear inequalities .......................................................................................................... 34
1.3.3. Linear programming ...................................................................................................................... 35
1.3.3.1. Solving LPP using Graphical methods ........................................................................................ 38
1.1. Propositional Logic and Set Theory

1.1.1. Propositional Logic
Definition 1: A proposition (or statement) is a declarative sentence which has a truth value (either True or False but not
both).
It is used to judge the correctness of a chain of reasoning (in particular, a "mathematical proof") exclusively on the basis
of the form (and not the content) of the sequence of statements which make up the chain. Within the context of logic
itself, this is "classical" symbolic logic.
Example 1: Consider the following sentences.
a. 2 is an even number. d. Give me that book.
b. A triangle has four sides. e. What is your name?
c. May God bless you!
The first three sentences are declarative sentences. The first one is true and the second one is false but the last three
sentences have not truth value. So they are not declaratives.
NB: Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by ) or false (denoted by ).
 Compound (or complex) propositions and Logical connectives
we modify a sentence by connecting sentences with the words “and”, “or”, “if . . . then (or implies)”, and “if and only if”.
These five words or combinations of words are called propositional connectives.
Note: Letters such as , , , etc. are usually used to denote actual propositions.
 Conjunction:
Re: Edited by Amanuel W Page 1

When two propositions are joined with the connective “and,” the proposition formed is a logical conjunction. “and” is
denoted by “ ”. So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, and , is written:
∧ , read as “ and ,” or “ conjunction ”.
p and q are called the components of the conjunction. ∧ is true if and only if both is true and is true.
The truth table for conjunction is given as follows:
∧
Example 2: Consider the following propositions:

: 3 is an odd number. (True)
: 27 is a prime number. (False)
: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
a. ∧ : 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
b. ∧ : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
 Disjunction
a. When two propositions are joined with the connective “or,” the proposition formed is called a logical
disjunction. “or” is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical disjunction of two propositions, and , is written:
b. ∨ read as “ or ” or “ disjunction .”
c. ∨ is false if and only if both and are false.
The truth table for disjunction is given as follows:
∨
Example 2: Consider the following propositions:

: Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
a. ∨ : 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
b. ∨ : 27 is a prime number or Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Note: The use of “or” in propositional logic is rather different from its normal use in the English language. For example, if Solomon
says, “I will go to the football match in the afternoon or I will go to the cinema in the afternoon,” he means he will do one thing or the
other, but not both. Here “or” is used in the exclusive sense. But in propositional logic, “or” is used in the inclusive sense; that is, we
allow Solomon the possibility of doing both things without him being inconsistent.
 Implication

When two propositions are joined with the connective “implies,” the proposition formed is called a logical implication.
“implies” is denoted by “ .” So, the logical implication of two propositions, and , is written ⟹ read as “
implies .”
The function of the connective “implies” between two propositions is the same as the use of “If … then …” Thus ⟹
can be read as “if , then .”
⟹ is false if and only if is true and is false.
This form of a proposition is common in mathematics. The proposition is called the hypothesis or the antecedent of
the conditional proposition ⟹ while is called its conclusion or the consequent.
The following is the truth table for implication.
⟹
Examples 3: Consider the following propositions:

: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
⟹ : If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is prime. (False)
⟹ : If 3 is an odd number, then Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
We have already mentioned that the implication ⟹ can be expressed as both “If , then ” and “ implies .” There
are various ways of expressing the proposition ⟹ , namely:
 If , then .  implies .  is sufficient for .
 if .  only if .  is necessary for
 Bi-implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “bi-implication,” the proposition formed is called a logical bi-
implication or a logical equivalence. A bi-implication is denoted by “ ”. So the logical bi-implication of two
propositions, and , is written: ⟺ .
⟺ is false if and only if and have different truth values.
The truth table for bi-implication is given by:
⟺
Examples 4:
1. Let : 2 is greater than 3. (False)
: 5 is greater than 4. (True)

Then: ⟺ : 2 is greater than 3 if and only if 5 is greater than 4. (False)
2. Consider the following propositions:
: 2 is a prime number. (True)
⟺ : 3 is an odd number if and only if 2 is a prime number. (True)
There are various ways of stating the proposition ⟺ .
 if and only if (also written as iff ),  is necessary and sufficient for
 implies and implies ,  is equivalent to
 is necessary and sufficient for
 Negation
Given any proposition , we can form the proposition  called the negation of . The truth value of  is if is and if is .
We can describe the relation between and  as follows.

Example 5: Let : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)

 : Addis Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Exercises
1. Which of the following sentences are propositions? For those that are, indicate the truth value
a. 123 is a prime number. d. Multiply 5 + 2 by 3.
b. 0 is an even number. e. What an impossible question!
c. − 4 = 0.
2. State the negation of each of the following statements.
a) √2 is a rational number. b) 0 is not a negative integer. c) 111 is a prime number.
3. Let : 15 is an odd number.
: 21 is a prime number.
State each of the following in words, and determine the truth value of each.
a. ∨ . c.  ∨ . e. ⟹ . a.  ⟹  .
b. ∧ . d. ∧ . f. ⟹ . g.  ⟹  .
4. Complete the following truth table.
 ∧
Definition 2: The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by connective(s) is called a compound
statement.

Examples 6:
1. Suppose and are true and and are false.
What is the truth value of ( ∧ ) ⟹ ( ∨ )?
- Since is true and is false, ∧ is false.
- Since is true and is false, ∨ is true.
- Thus by applying the rule of implication, we get that ( ∧ ) ⟹ ( ∨ ) is true.
2. Suppose that a compound proposition is symbolized by ( ∨ ) ⟹ ( ⟺ s) and that the truth values of , , ,
and are , , , and , respectively.
Then the truth value of ∨ is , s is , ⟺ s is . So the truth value of ( ∨ ) ⟹ ( ⟺ s) is .
Remark: When dealing with compound propositions, we shall adopt the following convention on the use of parenthesis.
Whenever “ ” or “ ” occur with “ ” or “ ”, we shall assume that “ ” or “ ” is applied first, and then “ ” or “ ”
is then applied.
For example,  ∧ ⟹ means ( ∧ ) ⟹   ⟹  means ( ) ⟹ ( )
 ∨ ⟺ means ( ∨ ) ⟺   ⟹ ⟺ means (( ) ⟹ ) ⟺
However, it is always advisable to use brackets to indicate the order of the desired operations. .
Definition 3: Two compound propositions and are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth
value for all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions occurring in both and .
In this case we denote ≡ .
Example 7: Let : ⟹ .
:  ⟹ p.
  ⟹  ⟹ p
Then, is equivalent to , since columns 5 and 6 of the above table are identical.
Example 8: Let : ⟹ .
: ⟹  .
Then
  ⟹  ⟹
Looking at columns 5 and 6 of the table we see that they are not identical. Thus ≢ .
It is useful at this point to mention the non-equivalence of certain conditional propositions. Given the conditional
⟹ , we give the related conditional propositions:-
a. ⟹ Converse of ⟹
b.  ⟹  Inverse of ⟹
c.  ⟹ 

Contra-positive of ⟹
Do not confuse the contra-positive and the converse of the conditional proposition. Here is the difference:
Converse: The hypothesis of a converse statement is the conclusion of the conditional statement and the
conclusion of the converse statement is the hypothesis of the conditional statement.
Contra-positive: The hypothesis of a contra-positive statement is the negation of conclusion of the conditional
statement and the conclusion of the contra-positive statement is the negation of hypothesis of the conditional
statement.
Example 9:
1. If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.
- Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
- Contra-positive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does not live in Addis Ababa.
- Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not live in Ethiopia.
2. If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.
- Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.
- Contra-positive: If the sun is not in the east, then it is not morning.
- Inverse: If it is not morning, then the sun is not the east.
 Laws on logical connectives
1) Idempotent Laws 4) Distributive Laws
a. ≡ ∨ . a. ∨ ( ∧ ) ≡ ( ∨ ) ∧ ( ∨ ).
b. ≡ ∧ . b. ∧ ( ∨ ) ≡ ( ∧ ) ∨ ( ∧ ).
2) Commutative Laws 5) De Morgan’s Laws
a. ∧ ≡ ∧ .
a. ( ∧ ) ≡  ∨  .
b. ∨ ≡ ∨ .
b. ( ∨ ) ≡  ∧ 
3) Associative Laws
6) Law of Contra-positive: ⟹ ≡ ⟹
a. ∧( ∧ )≡( ∧ )∧ .
7) Complement Law: ( ) ≡ .
b. ∨( ∨ )≡( ∨ )∨ .
 Tautology and contradiction
Definition 4: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth values of its component
propositions. on the other hand, a compound proposition is always false regardless of its component propositions, we say
that such a proposition is a contradiction.
Examples 10:
1. Suppose is any proposition. Consider the compound propositions ∨  and ∧ .
 ∨ ∧
Observe that ∨  is a tautology while ∧  is a contradiction.

2. For any propositions and . Consider the compound proposition ⟹ ( ⟹ ). Let us make a truth table and
study the situation.
⟹ ⟹( ⟹ )
T
T
T
T
We have exhibited all the possibilities and we see that for all truth values of the constituent propositions, the
proposition ⟹ ( ⟹ ) is always true. Thus, ⟹ ( ⟹ ) is a tautology.
3. The truth table for the compound proposition ( ⟹ ) ⟺ ( ∧  ).
 ∧ ⟹ ( ⟹ )⟺( ∧ )
Exercises
1. For statements , and , use a truth table to show that each of the following pairs of statements is logically
equivalent.
a. ( ∧ ) ⟺ and ⟹ . d. ⟹ ( ∨ ) and ( ) ⟹ ( ⟹ ).
b. ⟹ ( ∨ ) and  ⟹ ( ∨ ). e. ⟹ ( ∨ ) and (( ) ∧ ) ⟹ .
c. ( ∨ ) ⟹ and ( ⟹ ) ∧ ( ⟹ ).
2. For statements , , and , show that the following compound statements are tautology.
a. ⟹ ( ∨ ).
b. ( ∧ ( ⟹ )) ⟹ .
c. ( ⟹ ) ∧ ( ⟹ ) ⟹ ( ⟹ ).
3. For statements and , show that ( ∧  ) ∧ ( ∧ ) is a contradiction.
4. Write the contra-positive and the converse of the following conditional statements.
a. If it is cold, then the lake is frozen.
b. If Solomon is healthy, then he is happy.
c. If it rains, Tigist does not take a walk.
5. Let and be statements. Which of the following implies that ∨ is false?
a.  ∨  is false. d. ⟹ is true.
b.  ∨ is true. e. ∧ is false.
c.  ∧  is true.
6. Suppose that the statements , , , and are assigned the truth values , , , and , respectively. Find the truth
value of each of the following statements.
a. ( ∨ ) ∨ . f. ( ∨ ) ⟺ ( ∧  ).

b. ∨ ( ∨ ). g. ( ⟺ ) ⟹ ( ∨ ).
c. ⟹ ( ∧ ). h. ( ∧  ) ⟹ ( ⟺ ).
d. ⟹ ( ⟹ ). i. ( ∧ ) ⟹ ( ⟹ ( ∨ )).
e. ⟹ ( ∨ ). j. ( ∨  ) ∨ ⟹ ( ∧  ).
7. Suppose the value of ⟹ is ; what can be said about the value of  ∧ ⟺ ∨ ?
8. a. Suppose the value of ⟺ is ; what can be said about the values of ⟺  and  ⟺ ?
b. Suppose the value of ⟺ is ; what can be said about the values of ⟺  and  ⟺ ?
9. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
a. ⟹ ( ⟹ ). d. ( ⟹ ) ⟺ ( ∨ ).
b. ( ∨ ) ⟺ ( ∨ ). e. ⟹ ( ∧ ) ∨ ( ∧ ).
c. ⟹ ( ∧ ). f. ( ∧ ) ⟹ (( ∧  ) ⟹ ( ∧ )).
10. For each of the following determine whether the information given is sufficient to decide the truth value of the
statement. If the information is enough, state the truth value. If it is insufficient, show that both truth values are
possible.
a. ( ⟹ ) ⟹ , where = . d. ( ∨ ) ⟺ ( ∧  ), where ∨ = .
b. ∧ ( ⟹ ), where ⟹ = . e. ( ⟹ ) ⟹ ( ⟹  ), where = .
c. ∨ ( ⟹ ), where ⟹ = . f. ( ∧ ) ⟹ ( ∨ ), where = and = .
 Open propositions and quantifiers

Definition 5: An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more variables and whose
truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables. We represent an open statement by a capital letter
followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g., ( ), ( ) etc.
Example 11: Here are some open propositions:
a. is the day before Sunday.
b. is a city in Africa.
c. is greater than .
d. + 4 = −9.
If individuals are substituted for the variables, then each one of them is a proposition or statement. For example, we
may have the following.
a. Monday is the day before Sunday.
b. London is a city in Africa.
c. 5 is greater than 9.
d. –13 + 4= –9
Definition 6: Two open proposition ( ) and ( ) are said to be equivalent if and only if ( ) = ( ) for all individual
. Note that if the universe is specified, then ( ) and ( ) are equivalent if and only if ( ) = ( ) for all ∈ .
Example 12: Let ( ): − 1 ≥ 0.

( ): | | ≥ 1. They are equivalent on = ℛ}.
Definition 7: Let be the universal set. An open proposition ( ) is a tautology if and only if ( ) is always true for all
values of ∈ .
Example 13: The open proposition ( ): ≥ 0 is a tautology.
An open proposition can be converted into a proposition by substituting the individuals for the variables. However,
there are other ways that an open proposition can be converted into a proposition, namely by a method called
quantification.
Let ( ) be an open proposition over the domain . Adding the phrase “For every ∈ ” to ( ) or “For some
∈ ” to ( ) produces a statement called a quantified statement.
Consider the following open propositions with universe .
a. ( ): ≥ 0. Then ( ) is always true for each ∈ ℝ,
b. ( ): ( + 2)( − 3) = 0. ( ) is true only for = −2 and = 3,
c. ( ): < 0. ( ) is always false for all values of ∈ ℝ.
Hence, given an open proposition ( ), with universe , we observe that there are three possibilities.
a. ( ) is true for all ∈ .
b. ( ) is true for some ∈ .
c. ( ) is false for all ∈ .
Now we proceed to study open propositions which are satisfied by “all” and “some” members of the given universe.
 The phrase "for every " is called a universal quantifier. We regard "for every ," "for all ," and "for each " as
having the same meaning and symbolize each by “(∀ ).” If ( ) is an open proposition with universe , then
(∀ ) ( ) is a quantified proposition and is read as “every ∈ has the property .”
 The phrase "there exists an " is called an existential quantifier. We regard "there exists an ," "for some ," and
"for at least one " as having the same meaning, and symbolize each by “(∃ ).” Think of the symbol as the
backwards capital (representing exists). If ( ) is an open proposition with universe , then (∃ ) ( ) is a
quantified proposition and is read as “there exists ∈ with the property .”
Remarks:
1. To show that (∀ ) ( ) is , it is sufficient to find at least one ∈ such that ( ) is . Such an element
∈ is called a counter example.
2. (∃ ) ( ) is if we cannot find any ∈ having the property .
Example 14:
1. Write the following statements using quantifiers.
a. For each real number > 0, + − 6 = 0.
Solution: (∀ > 0)( + − 6 = 0).
b. There is a real number > 0 such that + − 6 = 0.
Solution: (∃ > 0)( + − 6 = 0).

c. The square of any real number is nonnegative.
Solution: (∀ ∈ ℝ)( ≥ 0).
2.
a. Let ( ): + 1 ≥ 0. The truth value for (∀ ) ( ) [i.e (∀ )( + 1 ≥ 0)] is .
b. Let ( ): < . The truth value for (∀ )( < ) is . = is a counterexample since ∈ ℝ but
< . On the other hand, (∃ ) ( ) is true, since −1 ∈ ℝ such that −1 < 1.
c. Let ( ): | | = −1. The truth value for (∃ ) ( ) is since there is no real number whose absolute
value is −1.
 Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers
If ( ) is a formula in , consider the following four statements.
a. (∀ ) ( ): Everything has property . c. (∀ ) ( ): Nothing has property .
b. (∃ ) ( ): Something has property . d. (∃ ) ( ): Something does not have property .
Let ( ) be an open proposition. Then (∀ ) ( ) is false only if we can find an individual “ ” in the universe such that
( ) is false. If we succeed in getting such an individual, then (∃ ) ( ) is true. Hence (∀ ) ( ) will be false if
(∃ ) ( ) is true. Therefore the negation of (∀ ) ( ) is (∃ ) ( ).
 Hence we conclude that: (∀ ) ( ) ≡ (∃ ) ( ).
 Similarly, we can easily verified that: (∃ ) ( ) ≡ (∀ ) ( ).
Example 15:
Let = ℝ. a. (∃ )( < ) ≡ (∀ )( < ) ≡ (∀ )( ≥ ).
b. (∀ )(4 + 1 = 0) ≡ (∃ )(4 + 1 = 0) ≡ (∃ )(4 + 1 ≠ 0).
Given propositions containing quantifiers we can form a compound proposition by joining them with connectives in the
same way we form a compound proposition without quantifiers.
For example: If we have (∀ ) ( ) and (∃ ) ( ) we can form (∀ ) ( ) ⟺ (∃ ) ( ).
Consider the following statements involving quantifiers. Illustrations of these along with translations appear below.
a. All Rationals are Reals. (∀ )(ℚ( ) ⟹ ℝ( )).
b. No Rationals are Reals. (∀ )(ℚ( ) ⟹ ℝ( )).
c. Some Rationals are Reals. (∃ )(ℚ( ) ∧ ℝ( )).
d. Some Rationals are not Reals. (∃ )(ℚ( ) ∧ ℝ( )).
Example 16:
Let = The set of integers.
Let ( ): is a prime number.
( ): is an even number.
( ): is an odd number.
Then
a. (∃ )[ ( ) ⟹ ( )] is ; since there is an , say 2, such that (2) ⟹ (2) is .

b. (∀ )[ ( ) ⟹ ( )] is . As a counterexample take 7. Then (7) is and (7) is .
Hence (7) ⟹ (7).
c. (∀ )[ ( ) ∧ ( )] is .
d. (∀ )[( ( ) ∧ ( )) ⟹ ( )] is .
 Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
If we consider cases in which universal and existential quantifiers occur in combination, we are lead to essentially new
logical structures. The following are the simplest forms of combinations:
1. (∀ )(∀ ) ( , ): “for all and for all the relation ( , ) holds”;
2. (∃ )(∃ ) ( , ): “there is an and there is a for which ( , ) holds”;
3. (∀ )(∃ ) ( , ): “for every there is a such that ( , ) holds”;
4. (∃ )(∀ ) ( , ): “there is an which stands to every in the relation ( , ).”
Example 17:
Let = The set of integers.
Let ( , ): + = 5.
1. (∃ ) (∃ ) ( , ) means that there is an integer and there is an integer such that + = 5. This statement
is true when = 4 and = 1, since 4 + 1 = 5. Therefore, the statement (∃ ) (∃ ) ( , ) is always true for this
universe. There are other choices of and for which it would be true, but the symbolic statement merely says
that there is at least one choice for and which will make the statement true, and we have demonstrated one
such choice.
2. (∃ ) (∀ ) ( , ) means that there is an integer such that for every , + = 5. This is false because no
fixed value of will make this true for all in the universe; e.g. if = 1, then 1 + = 5 is false for some .
3. (∀ ) (∃ ) ( , ) means that for every integer , there is an integer such that + = 5. Let = , then
= 5− will always be an integer, so this is a true statement.
4. (∀ ) (∀ ) ( , ) means that for every integer and for every integer , + = 5. This is false, for if = 2
and = 7, we get 2 + 7 = 9 ≠ 5.
Example 18:
1. Consider the statement:
For every two real numbers and , + ≥ 0.
If we let: ( , ): + ≥0
where the domain of both and is , the statement can be expressed as
(∀ ∈ ℝ)(∀ ∈ ℝ) ( , ) or as (∀ ∈ ℝ)(∀ ∈ ℝ)( + ≥ 0).
Since ≥ 0 and ≥ 0 for all real numbers and , it follows that + ≥ 0 and so ( , ) is true for all real
numbers and . Thus the quantified statement is true.
2. Consider the open statement: ( , ): | − | + | − | ≤
where the domain of the variable is the set of even integers and the domain of the variable is the set of odd
integers. Then the quantified statement: (∃ ∈ )(∃ ∈ ) ( , ) can be expressed in words as:

There exist an even integer and an odd integer such that | − | + | − | ≤ .
Since (2,3): 1 + 1 ≤ 2 is true, the quantified statement is true.
3. Consider the open statement: ( , ): =
where the domain of both and is the set ℚ of positive rational numbers. Then the quantified statement
(∀ ∈ ℚ )(∃ ∈ ℚ ) ( , ); can be expressed in words as
For every positive rational number , there exists a positive rational number such that = 1.
It turns out that the quantified statement is true. If we replace ℚ by , then we have
(∀ ∈ ℝ)(∃ ∈ ℝ) ( , ) .
Since = 0 and for every real number , = 0 ≠ 1, (∀ ∈ ℝ)(∃ ∈ ℝ) ( , ) is false.
4. Consider the open statement: ( , ): is odd, where the domain of both and is the set of natural
numbers. Then the quantified statement: (∃ ∈ ℕ)(∀ ∈ ℕ) ( , ), expressed in words, is
- There exists a natural number such that for every natural numbers , is odd. The statement is false.
- In general, from the meaning of the universal quantifier it follows that in an expression (∀ )(∀ ) ( , ) the two
universal quantifiers may be interchanged without altering the sense of the sentence. This also holds for the
existential quantifies in an expression such as (∃ )(∃ ) ( , ).
Exercises
1. In each of the following, two open statements ( , ) and ( , ) are given, where the domain of both and is .
Determine the truth value of ( , ) ⟹ ( , ) for the given values of and .
a. ( , ): − = 0. and ( , ): = . ( , ) ∈ {(1, −1), (3,4), (5,5)}.
b. ( , ): | | = | |. and ( , ): = . ( , ) ∈ {(1,2), (2, −2), (6,6)}.
c. ( , ): + = 1. and ( , ): + = 1. ( , ) ∈ {(1, −1), (−3,4), (0, −1), (1,0)}.
2. Let denote the set of odd integers and let ( ): + 1 is even, and ( ): is even. be open statements over the
domain . State (∀ ∈ ) ( ) and (∃ ∈ ) ( ) in words.
3. State the negation of the following quantified statements.
a. For every rational number , the number is rational.
b. There exists a rational number such that = 2.
4. Let ( ): is an integer. be an open sentence over the domain . Determine, with explanations, whether the
following statements are true or false:

a. (∀ ∈ ℤ) ( ).
b. (∃ ∈ ℤ) ( ).
5. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
a. (∃ ∈ ℝ)( − = 0). e. (∃ ∈ ℝ)(∃ ∈ ℝ)( + + 3 = 8).
b. (∀ ∈ ℕ)( + 1 ≥ 2). f. (∃ ∈ ℝ)(∃ ∈ ℝ)( + = 9).
c. (∀ ∈ ℝ)(√ = ). g. (∀ ∈ ℝ)(∃ ∈ ℝ)( + = 5).

d. (∃ ∈ ℚ)(3 − 27 = 0). h. (∃ ∈ ℝ)(∀ ∈ ℝ)( + = 5)
6. Consider the quantified statement
For every ∈ and ∈ , − 2 is prime.
where the domain of the variables and is = {3,5,11}.
a. Express this quantified statement in symbols.
b. Is the quantified statement in (a) true or false? Explain.
c. Express the negation of the quantified statement in (a) in symbols.
d. Is the negation of the quantified in (a) true or false? Explain.
7. Consider the open statement ( , ): < 1. where the domain of is = {2,3,5} and the domain of is
= {2,4,6}.
a. State the quantified statement (∀ ∈ )(∃ ∈ ) ( , ) in words.
b. Show quantified statement in (a) is true.
8. Consider the open statement ( , ): − < 0. where the domain of is = {3,5,8} and the domain of is
= {3,6,10}.
a. State the quantified statement (∃ ∈ )(∀ ∈ ) ( , ) in words.
b. Show quantified statement in (a) is true.
 Argument and validity
Definition 8: An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements , , ,…, , called
hypotheses or premises, yield another statement , called the conclusion. Such a logical deduction is denoted by:
, , ,…, ├ or
⋮
Example 19: Consider the following argument:

If you study hard, then you will pass the exam. Let : You study hard. ⟹
q
You did not pass the exam. : You will pass the exam. 
Therefore, you did not study hard The argument form can be written as:
Definition 9: An argument form 1
, 2
, 3
,…, ├ is said to be valid if is true whenever all the premises
1
, 2
, 3
,…, are true; otherwise it is invalid.
Example 20: Investigate the validity of the following argument:
1. p  q,  q   p
2. p  q,  q  r  p
3. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
Solution:
 Rules of inferences
Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences.
1. Modes Ponens 5. Principle of Adjunction 8. Modes Ponendo Tollens
a. ( ∧ )
⟹
∧ 
2. Modes Tollens b. 9. Constructive Dilemma
∨
 ( ⟹ )∧( ⟹ )
6. Principle of Detachment
⟹ ∨
 ∧ ∨
3. Modes Tollens , 10. Principle of Equivalence
7. Modes Tollendo Ponens
 ⟺
⟹ 
 ∨
4. Principle of Syllogism 11. Principle of Conditionalization
⟹
⟹ ⟹
⟹
 Formal proof of validity of an argument
Definition 10: A formal proof of a conclusion given hypotheses 1
, 2
, 3
,…, is a sequence of stapes, each of
which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously proven statements (antecedent) to yield a new true
statement (the consequent).
A formal proof of validity is given by writing on the premises and the statements which follows from them in a single
column, and setting off in another column, to the right of each statement, its justification. It is convenient to list all the
premises first.
Example 21: Show that ⟹  , ├ is valid.
(1) is true premise
(2) ⟹ premise
(3) ⟹ contra-positive of (2)
(4)  Modes Ponens using (1) and (3)
Example 22: Show that the hypotheses Then:
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday. 1.  ∧ Hypothesis
If we go swimming, then it is sunny. 2.  simplification using (1)
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip. 3. ⟹ Hypothesis
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset 4.  Modus Tollens using (2) and (3)
The conclusion: We will be home by sunset. 5.  ⟹ Hypothesis
Let : It is sunny this afternoon. 6. Modus Ponens using (4) and (5)
: It is colder than yesterday. 7. ⟹ Hypothesis
: We go swimming. 8. Modus Ponens using (6) and (7)
: We take a canoe trip.
: We will be home by sunset.

Exercises
1. Use the truth table method to show that the following argument forms are valid.
a.  ⟹  , ├ . d.  ∨  , ( ⟹ ) ⟹ ├  .
b. ⟹ , , ⟹ ├ . e. ⟹ , ⟹ , ⟹ ├  ⟹ .
c. ⟹ ,  ⟹  ├ ⟹  .
2. For the following argument given a, b and c below:
a. Identify the premises.
b. Write argument forms.
c. Check the validity.
a) If he studies medicine, he will get a good job. If he gets a good job, he will get a good wage. He did not get a
good wage. Therefore, he did not study medicine.
b) If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here, then the team is can play the game. The
team is late. Therefore, the referee is not here.
c) If the professor offers chocolate for an answer, you answer the professor’s question. The professor offers
chocolate for an answer. Therefore, you answer the professor’s question
3. Give formal proof to show that the following argument forms are valid.
a.  ⟹  , ├ . d. ⟹ , ⟹  ├  ⟹  . g.  ∧  , ( ∨ ) ⟹ ├ .
b. ⟹ , , ⟹ ├ . e.  ∧  , ( ⟹ ) ⟹ ├  . h. ⟹ ( ∨ ),  , ├ .
c.  ∨ , ⟹ , ├ . f. ⟹,  ⟹ , ⟹ ├  ⟹ i.  ⟹  , ⟹ , ├ .
4. Prove the following are valid arguments by giving formal proof.
a. If the rain does not come, the crops are ruined and the people will starve. The crops are not ruined or the people
will not starve. Therefore, the rain comes.
b. If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here then the team can play the game. The team
is late. Therefore, the referee is not here.
1.1.2. Elementary property of set

Definition: a set is defined as the collection well-defined objects that share a certain properties, theses objects are called
elements denoted by∈ . The term “well-defined” here means that the set is described in such a way that one can decide
whether or not a given object belongs in the set.
 Description of sets
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.
1. Verbal Method: In this method, an ordinary English (or other language) statement with minimum mathematical
symbolization of the property of the elements is used to describe a set.
Example 23:
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.”
c. The set of all countries in Africa.
2. Roster/Complete Listing Method: If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all between a pair of
braces without repetition separating by commas, and without concern about the order of their appearance. Such a
method of describing a set is called the roster/complete listing method.
Examples 24:
d. The set of vowels in English alphabet may also be described as { , , , , }.
e. The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}.
Remark:
1. We agree on the convention that the order of writing the elements in the list is immaterial. As a result the sets
{ , , }, { , , } and { , , } contain the same elements, namely , and .
2. The set { , , , , } contains just two distinct elements; namely and , hence it is the same set as { , }. We list
distinct elements without repetition.
Example 25:
a. Let = { , , { }}. Elements of are , and { }.
Notice that and { } are different objects. Here { } ∈ but ∉ .
b. Let = { } . The only element of is { }. But ∉ .
c. Let = { , , { , }, { , { }}}. Then C has four elements.
The readers are invited to write down all the elements of C.
3. Partial Listing Method: In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be too large to list them all; and
in other occasions there may not be an end to the list. In such cases we look for a common property of the elements
and describe the set by partially listing the elements. More precisely, if the common property is simple that it can
easily be identified from a list of the first few elements, then with in a pair of braces, we list these few elements
followed (or preceded) by exactly three dotes and possibly by one last element.
Example 26:
a. The set of all counting numbers is ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4, … }.
b. The set of non-positive integers is {… , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0}.
c. The set of multiples of 5 is {… , −15, −10, −5, 0 5, 10, 15, … }.
d. The set of odd integers less than 100 is {… , −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, … 99}.
4. Set-builder Method: When all the elements satisfy a common property , we express the situation as an open
proposition ( ) and describe the set using a method called the Set-builder Method as follows:
= { | ( )} = { : ( )}
We read it as “ is equal to the set of all ’s such that ( ) is true.” Here the bar “| ‟ and the colon “ ” mean “such
that.” Note that: the letter is only a place holder and can be replaced throughout by other letters. So, for a property ,
the set { | ( )}, { | ( )} and { | ( )} are all the same set.
Example 27: The following sets are described using the set-builder method.
(1) = { | is a vowel in the English alphabet}.

(2) = { | is an even integer}.
(3) ={ | is a natural number and 2 – 15 is negative}.
(4) ={ | – – 6 = 0}.
(5) = { | is an integer and – 1 < 0 ⟹ – 4 > 0}.
Exercise: Express each of the above by using either the complete or the partial listing method.
Definition 11: The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and is denoted by or {}.
Example 28: The set of ∈ ℝ such that + 1 = 0 is an empty set.
 Relationships between two sets
Definition 12: Set is said to be a subset of set (or is contained in ), denoted by ⊆ , if every element of is an
element of , i.e., (∀ )( ∈ ⟹ ∈ ).
It follows from the definition that set is not a subset of set if at least one element of is not an element of . i.e.,
⊈ ⟺ (∃ )( ∈ ⟹ ∉ ). In such cases we write ⊈ or ⊉ .
Remarks: For any set , ⊆ and ⊆ .
Example 29:
1. If = { , }, = { , , } and = { , , }, then ⊆ and ⊆ . On the other hand, it is clear that: ⊈ ,
⊈ and ⊈ .
2. If ={ | is a multiple of 6} and = { | is even integer}, then ⊆ since every multiple of 6 is even.
However, 2 ∈ while 2 ∉ . Thus ⊈ .
3. If = { , { }}, then { } ⊆ and { } ⊆ . On the other hand, since ∉ , { } ⊈ , and {a, } ⊈ .
Definition13: Sets and are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same elements. In this case, we write = .
That is, (∀ )( ∈ ⟺ ∈ ).
Example 30:
a. The sets {1, 2, 3}, {2, 1, 3}, {1, 3, 2} are all equal.
b. { | is a counting number} = { | is a positive integer}
Definition 14: Set is said to be a proper subset of set if every element of is also an element of , but has at least
one element that is not in . In this case, we write ⊂ . We also say is a proper super set of A, and write ⊃ . It is
clear that: ⊂ ⟺ [(∀ )( ∈ ⟹ ∈ )∧( ≠ )].
Definition 15: Let be a set. The power set of , dented by ( ), is the set whose elements are all subsets of . That is,
( )={ : ⊆ }.
Example 31: Let = { , , }. As noted before, and are subset of . Moreover, { }, { }, { }, { , }, { , } and { , }
are also subsets of . Therefore, ( ) = { , { }, { }, { }, { , }, { , }, { , }, }.
Frequently it is necessary to limit the topic of discussion to elements of a certain fixed set and regard all sets under
consideration as a subset of this fixed set, called universal set or the universe and denoted by .
Exercises
1. Which of the following are sets?
a) 1,2,3 c) {{1},2},3 e) {1,2,a,b}.

b) {1,2},3 d) {1,{2},3}
2. Which of the following sets can be described in complete listing, partial listing and/or set-builder methods?
Describe each set by at least one of the three methods.
a. The set of the first 10 letters in the English alphabet.
b. The set of all countries in the world.
c. The set of students of Addis Ababa University in the 2018/2019 academic year.
d. The set of positive multiples of 5.
e. The set of all horses with six legs.
3. Write each of the following sets by listing its elements within braces.
a) = { ∈ ℤ: −4 < ≤ 4} c) = { ∈ ℕ: < 5} e) = { ∈ ℝ: + 1 = 0}.
b) = { ∈ ℤ: < 5} d) = { ∈ ℝ: − = 0}
4. Let be the set of positive even integers less than 15. Find the truth value of each of the following.
a) 15 ∈ d) 12 ⊂ f) {2,3,4} ⊆ h) ⊂
b) −16 ∈ e) {2, 8,14} g) {2,4} ∈ i) {246} ⊆
c) ∈
5. Find the truth value of each of the following and justify your conclusion.
a. ⊆ c. ∈ for any set A e. 5, 7 ⊆ {5, 6, 7, 8} g. For any set , ⊂
b. {1,2} ⊆ {1,2} d. { } ⊆ , for any set A f. ∈ {{ }} h. { } =
6. For each of the following set, find its power set.
a. { } b. {1, 1.5} c. { , } d. { , 0.5, }
7. How many subsets and proper subsets do the sets that contain exactly 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10 and 20 elements have?
8. If is a whole number, use your observation in Problems 6 and 7 to discover a formula for the number of
subsets of a set with elements. How many of these are proper subsets of the set?
9. Is there a set A with exactly the following indicated property?
a. Only one subset d. Exactly 4 subsets g. Exactly 14 proper subsets
b. Only one proper subset e. Exactly 6 proper subsets h. Exactly 15 proper subsets
c. Exactly 3 proper subsets f. Exactly 30 subsets
10. How many elements does A contain if it has:
a. 64 subsets? c. No proper subset?
b. 31 proper subsets? d. 255 proper subsets?
11. Find the truth value of each of the following.
a. ∈ ( ) c. , ∈ ( )
b. , ⊆ ( ) d. , ⊂ ( ).
12. For any three sets , and , prove that:
a. If ⊆ and ⊆ , then ⊆ .
b. If ⊂ and ⊂ , then ⊂
 Set Operations and Venn diagrams
Given two subsets and of a universal set , new sets can be formed using and in many ways, such as taking
common elements or non-common elements, and putting everything together. Such processes of forming new sets are
called set operations
Definition 16: The union of two sets and , denoted by ∪ , is the set of all elements that are either in or in (or
in both sets). That is: ∪ = { :( ∈ ) ∨ ( ∈ )}. As easily seen the union operator “ ” in the theory of set is the
counterpart of the logical operator “ ”.
Definition 17: The intersection of two sets and , denoted by ∩ , is the set of all elements that are in and . That
is, ∩ = { : ( ∈ ) ∧ ( ∈ )}. The intersection operator “ ” in the theory of sets is the counterpart of the logical
operator “ ”.
Note: - Two sets and are said to be disjoint sets if ∩ = .
Example 32:
1. Let = {0, 1, 3, 5, 6} and = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7}. Then, ∪ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and ∩ = {1, 3, 6}.
2. Let = The set of positive even integers, and
= The set of positive multiples of 3. Then,
∪ = { : is a positive intger that is either even or a multiple of 3}
= {2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, … }
∩ = { | is a positive integer that is both even and multiple of 3}
= {6, 12, 18, 24, … } = { | is a positive multiple of 6. }
Definition 18: The difference between two sets and , denoted by − or \ , is the of all elements in and not in
; this set is also called the relative complement of with respect to . Symbolically,
− ={ : ∈ ∧ ∉ }.
Example 39: If = {1,3,5}, = {1,2}, then − = {3,5} and − = {2}.
Note: The above example shows that, in general, − are − disjoint.
Definition 19: Let be a subset of a universal set . The absolute complement (or simply complement) of , denoted by
′ (or or ̅ ), is defined to be the set of all elements of that are not in .
That is, ={ : ∈ ∧ ∉ } or ∈ ⟺ ∉ ⟺ ( ∈ ).
Notice that taking the absolute complement of is the same as finding the relative complement of with respect to the
ʹ
universal set . That is, = − .
Example 1.34:
ʹ
1) If = {0,1,2,3,4}, and if = {3,4}, then = {3,4}.
2) Let = {1, 2, 3, … , 12}
={ | 12} and = { | }.
Then,  = {5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11},  = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12},
( ∪ ) = (8, 10},  ∪  = {2, 4, 5, 6, … , 12},
 ∩  = {8, 10}, and ( \ ) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}.
3) Let = { , , , , , , , ℎ}, = { , , , ℎ} and = { , , , , ℎ}. Then
 = { , , , },  = { , , }, – = { , , },
– = { , }, and ( ∪ )ʹ = { }.
Find ( ∩ )ʹ,  ∩ ʹ,  ∪ ʹ. Which of these are equal?
Theorem 1.1: For any two sets and , each of the following holds.
1. ( ) = . 3. – =  ʹ. 5. (  ) =  ʹ.
2. = – . 4. (  ) =  ʹ. 6. ⊆ ⟺ ʹ ⊆ ʹ.
Now we define the symmetric differences of two sets.
Definition 20: The symmetric difference of two sets and , denoted by , is the set
= ( − ) ∪ ( − ).
Example 35: Let = {1,2,3, … ,10} be the universal set, = {2,4,6,8,9,10} and = {3,5,7,9}. Then − = {3,5,7}
and − = {2,4,6,8,10}. Thus ΔB = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10}.
Theorem 2: For any three sets , and , each of the following holds.
(1) ∪ = ∪ . ( is commutative)
(2) ∩ = ∩ . ( is commutative)
(3) ( ∪ ) ∪ = ∪ ( ∪ ). ( is associative)
(4) ( ∩ ) ∩ = ∩ ( ∩ ). ( is associative)
(5) ∪ ( ∩ ) = ( ∪ ) ∩ ( ∪ ). ( is distributive over )
(6) ∩ ( ∪ ) = ( ∩ ) ∪ ( ∩ ). ( is distributive over )
Let us prove property “e” formally.
∈ ∪( ∩ ) ⟺( ∈ )∨( ∈ ∩ ) (definition of )
⟺ ∈ ∨( ∈ ∧ ∈ ) (definition of )
⟺( ∈ ∨ ∈ )∧( ∈ ∨ ∈ ) ( is distributive over )
⟺( ∈ ∪ )∧( ∈ ∪ ) (definition of )
⟺ ∈( ∪ )∩( ∪ ) (definition of )
Therefore, we have ∪ ( ∩ ) = ( ∪ ) ∩ ( ∪ ).
The readers are invited to prove the rest part of theorem (1.2).
 Venn diagrams
A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the sets involved in the discussion. Usually sets are
represented as in circles, each of which is enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the universal set .
In some occasions, we list the elements of set inside the closed curve representing .

Example 36:
1. If = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and = {2, 4, 6}, then a Venn diagram representation of these two sets looks like the
following.
2. Let = { | is a positive integer less than 13}

= { | ∈ and is even}
= { | ∈ and is a multiple of 3}.
A Venn diagram representation of these sets is given below.
Example 37: Let U = The set of one digits numbers

A = The set of one digits even numbers
B = The set of positive prime numbers less than 10
We illustrate the sets using a Venn diagram as follows.
A B U
0 4 3 1
2
6 5 9
8
7
1. Illustrate ∩ by a Venn diagram
A B U
A  B : The shaded portion
Illustrate A’ by a Venn diagram

U
A’ : The shaded portion
Illustrate A\B by using a Venn diagram
A B U
A \ B: The shaded portion
Now we illustrate intersections and unions of sets by Venn diagram.

Cases Shaded is ∪ Shaded ∩
Only some common A B A B

elements
B B
⊆
A A
A B A B
No common
element
A  B =
Exercises
ʹ
1. If ⊆ , ∩ = {1,4,5} and ∪ = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, find .
2. Let = {2,4,6,7,8,9},
= {1,3,5,6,10} and
={ : 3 + 6 = 0 or 2 + 6 = 0}. Find
a. ∪ .
b. Is ( ∪ ) ∪ = ∪ ( ∪ )?

3. Suppose = The set of one digit numbers and
={ : is an even natural number less than or equal to 9}
Describe each of the sets by complete listing method:
a. ʹ. c. ∪ ʹ. e. − . g. ʹ
b. ∩ ʹ. d. ( ʹ)ʹ f. ʹ
4. Suppose = The set of one digit numbers and
={ : is an even natural number less than or equal to 9}
Describe each of the sets by complete listing method:
a) ʹ. c) ∪ ʹ. e) − . g) ʹ
b) ∩ ʹ. d) ( ʹ)ʹ f) ʹ
5. Use Venn diagram to illustrate the following statements:
a. ( ∪ )ʹ = ʹ ∩ ʹ. b. ( ∩ )ʹ = ʹ ∪ ʹ. c. If ⊈ , then \ ≠ . d. ∪ ʹ
= .
6. Let = {5,7,8,9} and = {6,7,8}. Then show that ( \ )\ = ( \ ).
7. Perform each of the following operations.
a. ∩{ } b. { , { }} – {{ }} c. { , { }} – { } d. {{{ }}} –
8. Let = {2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15},
= { | is a positive prime factor of 66}
={ ∈ | is composite number } and = { ∈ | – 5 ∈ }. Then find each of the following.
∩ ,( ∪ ) ∩ ,( – ) ∪ ,( – )– , –( – ), ( – )– ( – ),  ∩  ∩ 
9. Let ∪ = { , , , , , , , } and ∩ = { , , }.
a. – = { , }, then = ________________________
b. – = , then = _________________________
c. = { , , , }, then – = ____________________
10. Let = {1, 2, … , 10}, = {3, 5, 6, 8, 10}, = {1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9},
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} and = {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}. Verify each of the following.
a. ( ∪ ) ∪ = ∪ ( ∪ ). d. – = ∩ .
b. ∩( ∪ ∪ ) = ( ∩ ) ∪ ( ∩ ) ∪ ( ∩ ). e. ∩ ( ∩ ) = ( – )∪( – ).
c. ( ∩ ∩ ∩ ) =  ∪  ∪  ∪ .
11. Depending on question No. 10 find.
a. ∆ . b. ∆ c. ( ∆ )∆ . d. ( ∪ )\ ( ∆ ).
12. For any two subsets and of a universal set , prove that:
a. ∆ = ∆ . c. ∆ = .
b. ∆ = ( ∪ ) – ( ∩ ). d. ∆ = .
13. Draw an appropriate Venn diagram to depict each of the following sets.

a. U = The set of high school students in Addis Ababa.
A = The set of female high school students in Addis Ababa.
B = The set of high school anti-AIDS club member students in Addis Ababa.
C = The set of high school Nature Club member students in Addis Ababa.
U = The set of integers.
A = The set of even integers.
B = The set of odd integers.
C = The set of multiples of 3.
D = The set of prime numbers
1.2. Vectors, matrices and determinants

1.2.1. Vectors:
1.2.2. Matrices and determinate

Definition 1.1: A Matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions (objects), arranged
in rows and columns enclosed by brackets [ ] or parenthesis ( ). The individual items in a matrix are called elements
or entries.
A matrix can be denoted by an upper case (capital) letter such as A, B, C, … or a matrix can be denoted by a
representative elements enclosed in brackets, as a , b meaning; a matrix can be denoted by a rectangular array
of numbers as
a a a … a
a a a … a
A= ⋮
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a a a … a
We call this matrix as a matrix of order (size) or dimension by or × matrix inℝ, if all elements are real
numbers. Here, is the number of rows, is the number of columns and is the element found in the row
and in the column. The matrices are primarily real matrices, meaning the entries contain real numbers and they
are used to solve systems of linear equations.
4 1
4 3 3
Example 1.1:A = is 2 × 3 matrix, B = 3 0 is 3 × 2 matrix are examples of real matrices
1 0 2
3 2
 Equality of Matrices:
Definition 1.2: Two matrices of the same order are said to be equal if their corresponding entries are equal. That is,
matrices A = and B = of order (size) × are said to be equal if and only if = for all 1 ≤ ≤ and
1≤ ≤ .
 Types of Matrices:
Column matrix: is a matrix formed by a single column, or if the size of the given matrix is × 1, then it is called
column matrix or simply a vector.

Row matrix: is a matrix containing only one row, or if the size of the given matrix is1 × , then it is called a row
matrix or simply called a row vector. The matrix that has only one row, such as matrix in C in example 3.2 is a row
matrix.
Zero (Null) matrix ( ): is a matrix of size × with all elements are zero, and it is denoted by . Let
0 0 0 0 0
say , are zero matrices.
0 0 0 0 0
Square matrix: A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns. If the number of rows
(or columns) is , then its order is × or simplify .The elements ’s (where = or simply ) of the matrix
represent the principal (main) diagonal. The secondary diagonal is formed by the elements such that + =
+ 1.
1 2 3 0 0 0
1 2
For example:(2), , 4 5 6 , 0 0 0 etc.
3 4
5 8 8 0 0 0
 Diagonal matrix: It is a square matrix in which all elements above and below the main diagonal are all zeros.
Symbolically = if ≠ . Here, there is no any information about the elements in the main diagonal .
I.e., the elements in the main diagonal may or may not be zero. For instance
1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
, , , 0 4 0 etc are diagonal matrices.
0 3 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
 Scalar matrix: It is a diagonal matrix in which the principal diagonal elements are all equal. For example
0
for ∈ ℝ, zero square matrix is also scalar matrix.
0
 Unit (identity) matrix ( ): It is a diagonal matrix (or a scalar matrix) in which the principal diagonal’s elements
are all equal to one.
1, if = 1 0 0
1 0
In symbol = . For example , 0 1 0 are identity matrices.
0, ≠ 0 1
0 0 1
 Triangular matrix: We can classify triangular matrices into two, these are
 Upper triangular matrix: An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements located below the main
diagonal are all zero. We can express upper triangular matrix symbolically as = such that = > .
Here, there is no any information about the other elements.
1 5 2
3 0
For example: 0 0 3 , .
0 2
0 0 4
 Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix is called lower triangular if it has all zero entries above its main diagonal.
We can express lower triangular matrix symbolically as
1 0 0
= such that = < . For instance 5 0 0
2 3 4
Note: A diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular matrix.

 Regular (Non singular) Matrix: is a square matrix that has an inverse and singular matrix is a square matrix that has
no inverse.
Note: Let and be two matrices such that the product = = (identity matrix), then matrix is the inverse of
matrix A denoted by .
 Operations with Matrices:
Addition/Subtract of Matrices:
We can add/subtract two matrices of the same size by adding/subtracting their corresponding elements. If =
and = are matrices of size × , then their sum is also m × n matrix given by + =
× ×
+ ×
.
Note: The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undetermined.

Example 1.2:
1 2 3 1 0 2 1 2 3 1 0 2 2 2 5
1. A = 3 2 1 ,B = 6 2 3 , then+ = 3 2 1 + 6 2 3 = 9 4 4 .
2 5 6 2 5 2 2 5 6 2 5 2 4 10 8
2 1 0 0 1
2. The sum of A = 4 0 −1 and B = −1 3 does not exist because of their sizes.
3 −2 2 2 4
Scalar Multiplication
If A = is a matrix and is any number (or simply a scalar), then the scalar multiple of A by α is the matrix given
by = .
Note: Use – A to represent the scalar product (−1) A. If A and B are matrices of the same size, A − B represents the
sum of A and (−1)B; that is A − B = A + (−1)B.
1 3 4 2 0 0
Example 1.3: Let A = 3 0 1 and B = 1 −4 3 , then find 3A − B
2 1 2 −1 3 2
1 3 4 3(1) 3(3) 3(4) 3 9 12
Solution: A = 3 3 0 1 = 3(3) 3(0) 3(1) = 9 0 3
2 1 2 3(2) 3(1) 3(2) 6 3 6
2 0 0 −2 0 0
−B = (−1)B = −1 1 −4 3 = −1 4 −3
−1 3 2 1 −3 −2
3 9 12 −2 0 0 1 9 12
Then, 3A − B = 9 0 3 + −1 4 −3 = 8 4 0
6 3 6 1 −3 −2 7 0 4
Properties of Matrix addition: If A, B and C are × matrices and α and β are scalars, then the following
properties hold true.
1. A + B = B + A (commutative property of addition)
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (associative property of addition)
3. (αβ)A = α(βA) (associative property of scalar multiplication)
4. α(A + B) = αA + αB (left distributive property over addition)

5. (α + β)A = αA + βA (right distributive property on addition)
6. 1A = A
Note: One important property of addition of real numbers is that the number 0 serves as the additive identity. That is,
α + 0 = α,∀ ∈ ℝ. Similar property holds for matrices. Specifically, if A is an × matrix and 0 × is the zero matrix,
then + = . The matrix O is the additive identity for the set of all m by n matrices. Let say, the matrix
0 0 0
O = is the additive identity for the set of all 2 × 3 matrices.
0 0 0
Property of zero matrices: If A is a matrix of order × and is a scalar, then the following properties hold.
1. A + O =A
2. A + (−A) = O (− is called the additive inverse of )
3. If αA = O , then either α = 0 orA = O
Matrix Multiplication: The third basic operation on matrices is matrix multiplication. This operation is associated
with dot product of two vectors.
Let ⃗ = ( , , ,…, ) and ⃗ = ( , , ,…, ) be two vectors, then the dot product of the two vectors is
⃗∙ ⃗= + + +⋯+ =∑
a a a … a r b b b … b
a a a … a r b b b … b ⎞
Let A = ⋮ = ⋮ ,B=⎛ ⋮ = c ,c ,...,c
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
a a a … a r ⎝b b b … b ⎠
Where, r = ( , , ,…, ), r = ( , , ,…, ), …, r = ( , ,…, )
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
=⎜ ⎟, =⎜ ⎟, =⎜ ⎟,…, =⎜ ⎟.
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Therefore, the product of the two matrices as we express in terms of dot product is given by
∙ ∙ ∙ … ∙
∙ ∙ ∙ … ∙
= ⋮ . Based on this idea we have the following definition.
∙ ∙ ∙ … ∙
Definition 1.2: If A = ( ) is an × matrix and B = is an × matrix (that is the number of columns of
matrix A is equal to the number of rows of B), then the product AB is a matrix of order × given by AB = C =
, where =∑ = + + +⋯+ .
1 0
1 2 0
Example 1.4: Let A = 4 2 and = , then find the product and .
1 2 2
5 0
Solution: The product AB is defined because A has size 3 × 2 and B has size 2 × 3, and the product AB is a matrix of size
3 × 3 given by
1 0 c c c
1 2 0 c c c
4 2 = ,where, c = 1(1) + 0(1) = 1,
1 2 2 c c c
5 0
c = (1)(2) + 0(2) = 2, c = 1(0) + 0(2) = 0, c = 4(1) + 2(1) = 6,

c = 4(2) + 2(2) = 12, c = 4(0) + 2(2) = 4, c = 5(1) + 0(1) = 5,
c = 5(2) + 0(2) = 10 and c = 5(0) + 0(2) = 0.
1 0 1 2 0
1 2 0
Therefore, AB = 4 2 = 6 12 4 .
1 2 2
5 0 5 10 0
Similarly, is evaluated as follows
1 0 c c
1 2 0
4 2 = c c , Where, c = 9, c = 4, c = 19, c = 4.
1 2 2
5 0
1 0
1 2 0 9 4
Therefore, BA = 4 2 = .
1 2 2 19 4
5 0
Properties of Matrix Multiplication:
If A, B and C are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix products are defined), I is identity matrix and α is a
scalar, then the following are true.
1. ( )=( ) (associative property of matrix multiplication)
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC (left distributive of multiplication over addition)
3. (A + B)C = AC + BC (right distributive of multiplication over addition)
4. α(AB) = (αA)B = A(αB)
5. IA = A or BI = B if it exists
Note:
2 2 3
1. is an expression to represent the product of a square matrix A with itself as = , similarly use = , etc.
2. Multiplication of matrices may or may not be commutative. We can prove this by counter example and show that
the two matrices AB and BA are not equal.
1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1 2 7
That is, Let A = and = then AB = =
2 1 0 2 2 1 0 2 4 4
2 1 1 3 4 7
BA = = . Thus, AB ≠ BA.
0 2 2 1 4 2
 Multiplication of diagonal matrices of the same size satisfies the commutative property. In particular,
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Let = and = , then = = = .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The elements of the product of two diagonal matrices of the same size are the product of their corresponding diagonal
elements.
3. Matrix multiplication does not have a general cancellation property. I.e., if AC = BC this does not mean thatA = B.
This idea is verified using counter example as:
3 1 0 4 1 2
Let A = , B= and C = in this A ≠ B
1 0−2 3 1 2
1 3 1 2 4 8 0 4 1 2 4 8
AC = = and BC = =
0 1 1 2 1 2 −2 3 1 2 1 2
Therefore, we can say that if AC = BC does not mean that A = B, but the converse is true.
That is, if = then = (if the product exists).
 The Transpose of a Matrix:

Let A be a matrix, the transpose of matrix A is other new matrix where the elements in the columns and rows have been
swapped. In other words, the rows become the columns and the columns become the rows. The transpose of a matrix
=( ) × , denoted and given by =( ) × , is the matrix formed by interchanging columns and rows of A as
shown below.
11
… 1
12 13 11 21 31
… 1
21 22 23
… 2 12 22 32
… 2
= ⋮ , then = ⋮
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
1 2 3 … 1 2 3 …
Note: If A and B are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix operations are defined) andα is a scalar, then the
following properties are true.
1. (At )t = A Transpose of a transpose
2. (A + B)t = At + Bt Transpose of a sum
3. (αA)t = αAt Transpose of a scalar multiple
4. (A B)t = Bt At Transpose of a product
t )t t
5. (AA = AA
1 2
1 3 5
Example 1.5: LetA = 3 4 , then the transpose of is At = .
2 4 6
5 6
Note:
1. Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix =( ) of order is said to be symmetric matrix if = ∀ , or it is a
square matrix which satisfies A = At, where At is the transpose.
2. Skew-symmetric matrix: a square matrix =( ) of order is said to be a skew-symmetric matrix if =− or
it is a square matrix that satisfies A = −At.
Note: The elements in the main diagonal of a skew-symmetric matrix are all zeros. I.e., =0
 Elementary Row ( or Column) Operations
Definition 1.3: Elementary Row/Column Operations: we have three types of elementary row operations.
1. Rescaling: Multiply the row/column by a non-zero scalar , denoted by ⟶ or ⟶ .
2. Pivoting: Add a scalar multiple of the row/column to the row/column where ≠ , denoted by ⟶ +
, or ⟶ + .
3. Swapping: interchange the and rows/columns, where≠ . ⟷ . or ⟷ .
Definition 1.4: Equivalence matrices:
Let A and B be any two × matrices. Then matrix B is row/column-equivalent with A, denoted by A ≅ B, if B is
obtained from A using finite number of elementary row/column operations.
A square matrix is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained from identity matrix by applying finite number
of elementary row/column operations.
Definition 1.5: Let A be any matrix, then the matrix A is in row echelon form (REF) if it satisfies the following properties.
1. All rows consisting entirely of zeros occur at the bottom of the matrix (if any), they are known as zero rows.
2. The first nonzero element in every nonzero row is 1, it is known as a leading 1.

3. In any two successive (nonzero) rows, the leading 1 in the lower row lies to the right of the leading 1 in the previous
row.
1 0 1 2
Example 1.5: Consider the matrix = 0 0 1 1 , and then it is not in row echelon form because criteria (3) fail.
0 1 0 1
2 0 2 0
1 1 3
Similarly the matrix = 0 1 0 0 is not in row echelon form because of criteria (2) fails. But is in row
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
echelon form because it satisfies all the three criteria.
1 0 1 2
Similarly, the matrix = 0 1 1 1 is also in row echelon form.
0 0 0 1
Definition 1.6: A given matrix A is said to be in row reduced echelon form (RREF) if it satisfies the following conditions.
1. Matrix A is in row echelon form.
2. If a column in the given matrix contains a leading1, then all other entries in this column are zeros.
Note:
1. If a matrix is in Row Reduced Echelon form, then it also is in row echelon form.
2. Every matrix has unique equivalence matrix in row reduced echelon form.
3. Every matrix can be brought to (reduced) row-echelon form by a series of elementary row operation
1 0 3
Example 1.6: The matrix = is in row reduced echelon form because all the properties for RREF are
0 1 1
1 0 2 0
1 1 3
satisfied. Similarly, the matrix = 0 1 0 0 is also in row reduced echelon form. But the matrix is not in
0 0 1
0 0 0 1
row reduced echelon form because criteria (2) fail to satisfy. That is, column 3 of the given matrix contains a leading 1,
1 0 2 1
but the other entries in that column are not all zeros. Similarly, = 0 1 0 2 is not in row reduced echelon form.
0 0 0 1
Example 1.7: Reduce the given matrices in to row reduced echelon form.
1 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1
1. =
2 3 4 2. = 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4. = 2 1 2 1 2
3. =
1 0 1 0 1 2 3 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 2 3
Solution:
1 2 3 1 0 −1
1. 2 ⟶ −( 2 − 2 1) 1 ⟶ 1 −2 2 . Now, it is in row reduced echelon form.
0 1 2 0 1 2
⟶ 1− 2 1 0 1
2⟶ −( 2 − 2 1 ) 1 2 1 1
2. 0 2 0 : 3 ⟶ 3 − 2 0 1 0 , which is in row-reduced echelon form.
3 ⟶ −( 3 − 1 )
0 2 0 2 ⟶ 0.5 2 0 0 0
1
1 1 1 1 0−1−2
2 ⟶ 2− 1 0
0 0 0 ⟶ 1− 0 1 2 3
3. ⟶ : 1 3
, which is in row reduced echelon form.
4 4− 3 0
2 1 3 2 ⟷ 3 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 1 2 1 ⟶ 2−3 3 1 0 1 0 1
2
4. 2 ⟶ −( 2 − 2 1 ) 0 3 0 3 0 : 0 0 0 0 0
1 ⟶ 1−2 3
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1
2 ⟷ 3 0 1 0 1 0 . Now, it is in row reduced echelon form.
0 0 0 0 0
1.3. System of linear equation and linear programming
1.3.1. System of linear equations
Definition 1.8:
1. Linear Equation with Variables: A linear equation with variables 1, 2, 3, … , has the form 1 1 + 2 2 +
3 3 +⋯ = where 1, 2, 3, … are coefficients and the constant term is real number, the number 1 is
the leading coefficient, and 1 is the leading variable.
The given function is said to be linear function if it satisfies ( + )= ( )+ ( ), ∀ , ∈ ℝ (I.e. =
( 1, 2, 3, … ) ∈ ℝ .) and , ∈ ; linear equation is expressed as ( ) = , where ∈ .
2. Systems of Linear Equations: A system of linear equations with variables (or unknowns) is a set of equations
which has of the form:
11 1 + 12 2 + 13 3 + …+ 1 = 1
21 1+ 22 2+ 23 3 + …+ 2 = 2
31 1+ 32 2+ 33 3 + …+ 3 = 3
⋮
1 1+ 2 2+ 3 3 +⋯+ =
It is possible to express system of linear equation in matrix form as = , where is called the coefficient matrix, is
unknown vector (column matrix), and is column matrix (constant).
11 1 + 12 2 + 13 3 + …+ 1 = 1
⎧ + + + …+ =
⎪ 21 1 22 2 23 3 2 2
31 1+ 32 2+ 33 3 + …+ 3 = 3
⎨ ⋮
⎪
⎩ 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 +⋯+ =
11 1 + 12 2 + 13 3 + …+ 1 1
⎛ 21 1+ 22 2+ 23 3 + …+ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
⟹⎜ 31 1+ 32 2+ 33 3 + …+ 3 ⎟=⎜ 3⎟
⋮ ⋮
⎝ 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 +⋯+ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
11 12 … 1 13 1 1
⎛ 21 22 23 … 2 ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
2
or ⎜ 31 32 33 … 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟ = ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⟹ = , where
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⎝ 1 2 3 …+ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
11 12 13 … 1 1 1
⎛ 21 22 23 … 2 ⎞ 2
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
= ⎜ 31 32 33 … 3 ⎟, = ⎜ 3 ⎟and = ⎜ 3 ⎟
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⎝ 1 2 3 … ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For a system of linear equations with variables, one of the following conditions hold.
1. The system has exactly one solution (consistent system).
2. The system has infinite many solutions (consistent system).
3. The system has no solution (inconsistent system).

In the system of linear eqautions, there is an agumented matrix of A with B denoted by
11 12 13 … 1 1
⎛ 21 22 23 … 2 2 ⎞
( | )=⎜ 31 32 33 … 3 3 ⎟
⋮ ⋮
⎝ 1 2 3… ⎠
The Gaussian Elimination with Backward Substitution Method
Let us take system of linear equations in matrix form = and follow the following steps to solve system of linear
equations using Gauss elimination method.
Step 1. Find the agumented matrix of A with B denoted by ( | )
Step 2: Reduce the agumented matrix to row echelon form or to the form of ( | ), using elementary row operations,
where U is upper triangular matrix and C is column matrix.
That is, ( | ) ( | )
Step 3: Use Backward substitution. Write the system of linear equations corresponding to the matrix in row-echelon
form, and use back-substitution to find the solution.
Note: Two systems of linear equations are called equivalent if they have the same solution .
The matrix ( | ) is obtained from the augmented matrix ( | ) using elementary row operations, and hence they are
row equivalent ( | ) ≅ ( | ).
Therefore, the system of linear equations = and = are row equivalent and have the same solution.
Example Solve the following system of linear equations using Gauss elimination method.
2x − 3y − 3z = −11
x + 8y + 9z = 24
7x + 8y + 10z = 19
Solution:
2 −3 −3 −11
Step 1: The augmented matrix will be (A|B) = 1 8 9 24
7 8 10 19
Step 2: Reduce the augmented matrix to row echelon form as follows
1 8 9 24 R ⟶ R − 2R 1 8 9 24
R1 ⟷ R2 2−3 −3 −11 R2 ⟶ R2 − 7R1 0 −19 −21 −59
3 3 1
7 8 10 19 0 −48 −53 −149
1 8 9 24 1 8 9 24
R ⟶ R − 2R 0 −19 −21 −59 R ⟶ R − 2R 0 1 1 3
0 −10 −11 −31 0 −10 −11 −31
1 8 9 24 1 8 9 24
R ⟶ −(R + 10R ) 0 1 1 3 ⟹ U = 0 1 1 , and C = 3
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
Step 3: Use backward Substitution to solve the vector , and we have

1 8 9 x 24 x + 8y + 9z 24
UX = C, that is 0 1 1 y = 3 ⟹ y+z = 3
0 0 1 z 1 z 1
x + 8y + 9z = 24 x + 16 + 9 = 24 x = −1
y+z=3 or y = 2 or y = 2
z=1 z=1 z=1
The solution is x = −1, y = 2 and z = 1.
Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method
Step One: Like Gauss Elimination mathod, take a system of linear equations in matrix form AX = B and find the
augumented matrix of with , ( | ).
Step Two: Continue the reduction process of the augmented matrix until row reduced echelon form or a matrix of the
form ( | ) is obtained using elementary row operations, where is identity matrix and is column matrix.
( | )Elementary row operation( | ).
Step Three:Finally the solution is =
The matrix ( | ) is obtained from the augmented matrix ( | ) using elementary row operations. They are row
equivalent, that is,( | ) ≅ ( | ), and then the two system of linear equations = and = ⟹ = are
row equivalent. Therefore, they have the same solution.
Note:
1. During solving system of linear equations, the system may have no solution. In the elimination process we obtain a
row with all zeros except for the last entry, then it is unnecessary to continue the elimination process. we simply
conclude that the system is inconsistent and has no solution.
2. During the elimination process, if we obtain a zero row, then it has infinitly many solutions.
Example 1.9: Solve the given system of linear equations using Gauss Jordan method.
x − 2y + 3z = 9
−x + 3y = −4
2x − 5y + 5z = 17
x − 2y + 3z = 9 1 −2 3 x 9
Solution: −x + 3y = −4 ⟹ −1 3 0 y = −4 . That is,
2x − 5y + 5z = 17 2 −5 5 z 17
1 −2 3 x 9
A = −1 3 0 , = y , B = −4
2 −5 5 z 17
1 −2 3 9
( | )
The augumented matrix of A with B is given by A B = −1 3 0 −4
2 −5 5 17
Reduce this augmented matrix until we get row reduced echelon form or the form of (I|D)

R ⟶R +R 1 −2 3 9 R ⟶ R + 2R 1 0 9 19
R ⟶ R − 2R 0 1 3 5 , R ⟶ R +R 0 1 3 5
0 −1 −1 −1 0 0 2 4
1 0 9 19 R ⟶ R − 9R 1 0 0 1 x 1
1
R ⟶ R 0 1 3 5 , R ⟶ R − 3R 0 1 0 −1 , ⟹ x = y = D = −1
2 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 z 2
The solution will be x = 1, y = −1, and z = 2 .
 × system: Basic solutions
Consider Systems of Linear Equations expressed in matrix form as = , where is called the coefficient matrix, is
unknown vector(column matrix), and is constant column matrix.
Where
…
…
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
=⎜ … ⎟, = ⎜ ⎟and = ⎜ ⎟
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
⎝ … ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Definition 1.9: If the matrix B is zero column matrix, then the system of linear equation = is called Homogenouse
system of linear equation.
Consider Homogenous system of linear equation = , where is × matrix, then
 If is square matrix of order with rank , then the system has only the trivial solution.
 If is square matrix of order with rank less than , then the system has infinitely many solution, but finite basic
solutions (linearly independent solutions).
 If is less than , then the system has infinitely many solution, but finite basic solutions (linearly independent
solutions).
1.3.2. System of linear inequalities
Definition 1.10:
 Linear Inequality with Variables: A linear inequality with variables , ,…, has the form + +
+⋯ <, >, ≤, ≥ where , , ,… are coefficients.
 Systems of Linear Inequality: A system of linear inequality with variables (or unknowns) is a set of inequality
which has of the form:
+ + + …+ <, >, ≤, ≥
+ + + …+ <, >, ≤, ≥
+ + + …+ <, >, ≤, ≥
⋮
+ + +⋯+ <, >, ≤, ≥
It is possible to express system of linear inequality in matrix form as <, >, ≤, ≥ , where A is called the coefficient
matrix, X is unknown vector(column matrix), and B is column constant matrix.
Exercise
1. Sketch the graph of each of the following relations
i. = {( , ): ≥ 0; x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ}
ii. = {( , ): ≥ 0, x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ}

iii. = {( , ): ≥ 0 ≥ 0; , x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ}
2. Sketch the graph of each of the following relations
a. R = {(x, y): y > , ℎ x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ} d. R = {(x, y): y ≥ x , x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ}
b. R = {(x, y): y ≤ 2x, x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ} e. = {( , ): ≥ +2 > − , x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ}
c. R = {(x, y): y ≥ x + 1, x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ} f. = {( , ): ≥ +2 > − , x ∈ ℝ and y ∈ ℝ}.
3. Sketch the graph = {( , ): <2 > − } and determine its domain and Range.
4. Sketch the graph = {( , ): ≤ 2 − 1, <− +4 ≥ 0} and determine its domain and Range.
Sketch the graph of the relation = {( , ): + 2 ≤ 8, 3 + 2 ≤ 12, ≥ 0 ≥ 0} and determine its domain
and Range.
1.3.3. Linear programming

Numerous applications of linear programming can be found in today’s competitive business environment and other field
such as Engineering, science and technology. Generally, linear programming is a problem-solving approach developed to
help managers in make decisions.
Definition 2.2:Linear programming (LP, also called linear optimization) is part of an important area of mathematics
called "optimization techniques" and a method to achieve the best (most) optimized solution to the given problem or
outcome (let say, maximum profit or lowest cost) in a mathematical model whose all requirements are linear
relationships.
A Mathematical optimization or just an optimization problem has the form:
Minimum ( )
S.t. ( )≤ , = 1,2,3, …
Here, the vector =( , , ,… ) is an optimization (decision) variable of the problem.
The function : ℝ ⟶ ℝ is an objective function and the functions : ℝ ⟶ ℝ, = 1,2,3, … are (Equality and
inequality) constraints function with constants , , ,… .
This problem is called linear programming (LP) if both objective and constraints , , ,… are linear.
Note:
More formally, linear programming is a technique for the Optimization of a linear objective function, subject to
linear equality and linear inequality constraints.
It’s feasible region is a convex, polyhedron, which is a set defined as the intersection of finitely many half spaces,
each of which is defined by a linear inequality.
Its objective function is a real-valued affine (linear) function defined on this polyhedron. A linear programming
algorithm finds a point in the polyhedron where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if such a point exists.
 General Linear programming problem:
A general Mathematical way of representing a linear programming problem (LPP) is given below:
Max/Min: = + +⋯ Object function

Subject to: + +⋯ ≤, =, ≥
+ +⋯ ≤, =, ≥ Structural constraints
+ +⋯ ≤, =, ≥
…
+ +⋯ ≤, =, ≥
, , ,… ≥ 0 Non-negativity constraints
Where all ʹ , ʹ and ʹ are constants and ʹ are decision variables
Linear programs are problems that can be expressed in Canonical Form as
Max/Min
Subject to ≤ and ≥0
where represents the vector of variables (to be determined), and are known vectors of coefficients, is a known
matrix of coefficients and (. ) is the transport.
Example: 2.1
Maximize = 3 +5
Subject to ≤4
2 ≤ 12
3 + 2 ≤ 18; and , ≥0
 The basic components of linear programming are as follows:
1. Decision variables: - These are the quantities to be determined.
2. Objective function - This represents how each decision variable would affect the cost, or, simply, the value that
needs to be optimized.
3. Constraints - These represent how each decision variable would use limited amounts of resources.
4. Data - These quantify the relationships between the objective function and the constraints
Example 2.2: A company manufactures two products and , which require, the following resources. The resources are
the capacities machine , , and . The available capacities are 50, 25 and 15 hours respectively in the planning
period. Product requires 1 hour of machine and 1 hour of machine . Product requires 2 hours of
machine , 2 hours of machine and 1 hour of machine . The profit contribution of products and are 5 Birr
and 4 Birr respectively.
The contents of the statement of the problem can be summarized as follows:
Machines Products Availability in hours
0 2 50
1 2 25
1 1 15
Profit in Birr per unit 5 4
In the above problem, Products and are competing candidates or variables; Machine capacities are available
resources and profit contribution of products and are given.
Let the company manufactures units of and units of . As the profit contributions of and are 5 Birr and Birr 4
respectively.
The objective of the problem is to maximize the profit , hence objective function is:

Maximize = + ⟶Objective function
This should be done so that the utilization of machine hours by products x and y should not exceed the available
capacity. This can be shown as follows:
For Machine 0x + 2y ≤ 50
For Machine 1x + 2y ≤ 25 Linear structural constraints.
For machine 1x + 1y ≤ 15
Moreover, the company can stop production of and or can manufacture any amount of x and y. It cannot
manufacture negative quantities of x and y. That is, both , ≥ 0: Non-negative constraint.
As the problem has got objective function, structural constraints, and non-negativity constraints and there exist a linear
relationship between the variables and the constraints in the form of inequalities, the problem satisfies the properties of
the Linear Programming Problem.
 The steps for formulating the linear programming
1. Identify the unknown decision variables to be determined and assign symbols to them.
2. Identify all the restrictions or constraints in the problem and express them as linear equations or inequalities of
decision variables.
3. Identify the objective or aim and represent it also as a linear function of decision variables.
Exercise:
 Maximization models Construct linear programming model for the following problems:
1. A retail store stocks two types of shirts and . These are packed in attractive cardboard boxes. During a week the
store can sell a maximum of 400 shirts of type A and a maximum of 300 shirts of type B. The storage capacity,
however, is limited to a maximum of 600 of both types combined. Type A shirt fetches a profit of 2 Birr per unit and
type B a profit of 5Birr per unit. How many of each type the store should stock per week to maximize the total
profit? Formulate a mathematical model of the problem.
2. A ship has three cargo holds, forward, center and aft. The capacity are:
 Forward: 2000 tons, 100,000 ; Center: 3000 tons, 135,000 cubic meters and Aft: 1500 tons, 30,000 cubic meters.
 The following cargoes are offered, the ship owners may accept all or any part of each commodity:
Commodity Amount in tons Volume/ton in Profit in ton in Birr
A 6000 60 60
B 4000 50 80
C 2000 25 50
In order to preserve the order of the ship the weight in each hold must be proportional to the capacity in tons. How
should the cargo be distributed so as to maximize profit? Formulate this as linear programming.
Hint:
 Problem variables are commodities, A, B, and C
 The total weight capacity is 6,500 tons( 2000 + 3000 + 1500)
 The total volume capacity is 2,65,000 (100,000 + 135,000 + 30,000)
 For commodity A, we have 6000 tones and each ton occupies 60 ; = 100 is available; similarly, there is
= 80 and = 80 for B and C respectively.

The above information is summarized in the next table:
Commodity Maximum
A B C capacity
Weight in tons 6000 4000 2000 6,500
Volume in 100 80 80 2,56,000
Profit in Birr 60 80 50
 Minimization models
3. Patients consult a doctor to check up his ill health. Doctor examines him and advises him that he is having deficiency
of two vitamins, vitamin A and vitamin D. Doctor advises him to consume vitamin A and D regularly for a period of
time so that he can regain his health. Doctor prescribes tonic X and tonic Y, which are having vitamin A, and D in
certain proportion. Also advises the patient to consume at least 40 units of vitamin A and 50 units of vitamin daily.
The cost of tonics X and Y and the proportion of vitamin A and D that present in X and Y are given in the table below.
Formulate LPP to minimize the cost of tonics.
Vitamins Tonics Daily use in units
A 2 4 40
D 3 2 50
Cost in Birr per unit 5 3
4. A machine tool company conducts a job-training program at a ratio of one for every ten trainees. The training
program lasts for one month. From past experience it has been found that out of 10 trainees hired; only seven
complete the program successfully. (The unsuccessful trainees are released). Trained machinists are also needed for
machining. The company's requirement for the next three months is as follows:
 January: 100 machinists, February: 150 machinists and March: 200 machinists.
 In addition, the company requires 250 trained machinists by April. There are 130 trained machinists available at the
beginning of the year.
 Pay roll cost per month is: Each trainee 400 Birr per month, each trained machinist (machining or teaching): 700 Birr
per month and each trained machinist who is idle: 500 Birr per month. Build a LPP for produce the minimum costs
hiring and training schedule and meet the company’s requirement.
5. A candidate wishes to use a combination of Radio and television advertisement in his campaign. Researcher has
shown that each one minute spot on television reaches 90,000 people and each one minute spot on Radio reaches
6,000. The candidate feels he must reach at least 2.16 million people and must buy a total of at least 80 minutes of
advertisements. How many minutes of each medium should be minimize cost, if television cost 500 Birr per minutes
and Radio costs 100 Birr per minutes.
1.3.3.1. Solving LPP using Graphical methods

 Graphical Method
1. The Graphical Method: To deal with more decision variables by graphical method will become complicated, because
we have to deal with planes instead of straight lines. Hence in graphical method let us limit ourselves to
two variable problems.

2. The Simplex method: When the problem is having more than two decision variables, Simplex method is the most
powerful method to solve the problem. It has a systematic program, which can be used to solve the problem. One
problem with two variables is solved by using both graphical and simplex method, so as to enable the reader to
understand the relationship between the two.
In graphical method, the inequalities (structural constraints) are considered to be equations. This is because; one cannot
draw a graph for inequality. Only two variable problems are considered, because we can draw straight lines in two-
dimensional plane ( -axis and -axis). Moreover, as we have non negativity constraint in the problem, i.e. all the
decision variables must have positive values always the solution to the problem lies in first quadrant of the graph.
Some times the value of variables may fall in quadrants other than the first quadrant. In such cases, the line joining the
values of the variables must be extended in to the first quadrant. The procedure of the method will be explained in
detail while solving a numerical problem.
 The Corner Point theorem
The next two theorems are necessary for the process of graphically solving linear programming problem: the corner
point theorem and existing of solution theorem.
Corner point theorem: states that: In a linear programming problem, If the objective function has maximum or
minimum (Optimal solution), it occurs at one of the corner points.
Let say: consider an optimization problem given by
Minimize = 3 + 4
Subject to: 2 + 3 ≥ 6
2 − ≥ 4 and , ≥ 0
Therefore, the optimal solution of this problem is occur either at A or at B
Existence of solution theorem: Given a linear programming problem with feasible region S and objective function =
+ , then either of the following exists
a. If S is bounded, then has both a maximum and minimum value over .
b. If S is unbounded and > 0, > 0, then has a minimum value over but not maximum value.
c. If S is the empty set, then z has neither a maximum nor minimum value over S.
 The characteristics of Graphical method:
a. Generally, this method is used to solve the problem, when we have two decision variables.
b. For three or more decision variables, the graph deals with planes and requires high imagination to identify the
solution area (feasible region).
c. Always, the solution to the problem lies in first quadrant.
d. This method provides a basis for understanding the other methods of solution.

Example 3.1:
1. A company manufactures two products, X and Y by using three machines A, B and C. Machine A has 4 hours of
capacity available during the coming week. Similarly, the available capacity of machines B and C during the coming
week is 24 hours and 35 hours respectively. One unit of product X requires one hour of Machine A, 3 hours of
machine B and 10 hours of machine C. Similarly one unit of product Y requires 1 hour, 8 hour and 7 hours of
machine A, B and C respectively. When one unit of X is sold in the market, it yields a profit of 5 Birr per product and
that of Y is 7 Birr per unit. Solve the problem by using graphical method to find the optimal product mix.
Solution: The details in the problem are given in the table below:
Products Availability capacity
Machines (time require in hours) in hours
A 1 1 4
B 3 8 24
C 10 7 35
Profit per unit in Birr 5 7
Let the company manufactures x units of X and y units of Y, and then the L.P. model is:
Maximize = 5 + 7
St. + ≤4
3 + 8 ≤ 24
10 + 7 ≤ 35 and , ≥ 0
Now, draw the feasible region and identify the coordinates of the corners.
Evaluate the objective function at the selected corners (points). I.e., evaluate the value of = 5 + 7 at the points
A, B, C, D and O, and then select the maximum value which is the required solution.
 = (0,3) ⟹ = 5 + 7 = 5(0) + 7(3) = 21
 = (3.5,0) ⟹ = 5 + 7 = 5(3.5) + 7(0) = 17.48
 = , ⟹ = 5 + 7 =5 +7 = = 23.33
 = (1.6,2.4) ⟹ = 5 + 7 = 5(1.6) + 7(2.4) = 24.8
In the above figure, the point = (1.6,2.4) on the feasible region is the point that yields highest profit. That is, optimal
profit = 5 × 1.6 + 7 × 2.4 = 24.80
2. The cost of materials A and B is 1 birr per unit respectively. We have to manufacture an
alloy by mixing these to materials. The process of preparing the alloy is carried out on three facilities X, Y and Z.
Facilities X and Z are machines, whose capacities are limited. Y is a furnace, where heat treatment takes place and
the material must use a minimum given time (even if it uses more than the required, there is no harm). Material A
requires 5 hours of machine X and it does not require processing on machine Z. Material B requires 10 hours of
machine X and 1 hour of machine Z. Both A and B are to be heat treated at last one hour in furnace Y. The available

capacities of X, Y and Z are 50 hours, 1 hour and 4 hours respectively. Find how much of A and B are mixed so as to
minimize the cost.
Solution: The above information is summarized in the next table
Facilities Material Capacity
A B
X 5 10 50
Y 1 1 1
Z 0 1 4
Cost 1 1
Let use materials A, material B manufactures the alloy and be the total cost, based on the above table, the
model is:
Minimize = +
St. 5 + 10 ≤ 50
+ ≥1
≤ 4 and , ≥ 0
Now, draw the feasible region and identify the coordinates of the corners.
Evaluate the objective function = + at the selected corners (points). That is, evaluate at the points A, B, C, D and
E, and then select the minimum value which is the required solution.
 = (1,0) ⟹ = + = 1 + 0 = 1
 = (0,1) ⟹ = + = 0 + 1 = 1
 = (0,4) ⟹ = + = 0 + 4 = 4
 = (2,4) ⟹ = + = 2 + 4 = 6
 = (10,0) ⟹ = + = 10 + 0 = 10
In the above figure, any the point on the line = − + 1 ⟹ + = 1 on the feasible region yields the minimum cost
of the materials. That is, optimal solution = + =1 . Such problems have infinitely many solutions.
3. Solve graphically the given linear programming problem. (Minimization Problem).
Minimize = 3 + 5
St. −3 + 4 ≤ 12
2 − ≥ −2
2 + 3 ≥ 12
≤ 4, ≥ 2 and , ≥0
Solution:

Evaluate the objective function = 3 + 5 at the selected corners (points). Evaluate at the points A, B, C and D, and
then select the minimum value which is the required solution.
 = (4,6) ⟹ = 3 + 5 = 3(4) + 5(6) = 42
 = (4,2) ⟹ = 3 + 5 = 3(4) + 5(2) = 22
 = (3,2) ⟹ = 3 + 5 = 3(3) + 5(2) = 19
 = (0.75,3.5) ⟹ = 3 + 5 = 3(0.75) + 5(3.5) = 19.75
 In the above figure, point (3,2) on the feasible region yields the minimum cost of the problem. That is,
optimal solution = 3 + 5 = 3(3) + 5(2) = 19 .
4. Maximize = 0.75 +
St. + ≥ 0
−0.5 + ≤ 1 and , ≥0
Solution:
The polygon is not closed one, the feasible area is unbound, the problem is said to have an unbound solution.
1.4. Sequences and Series
Arithmetic sequences
Geometric sequences
Series:
1.5. Indices (Powers) and Elementary (transcendental ) functions,
1.6. Differential calculus
1.7. Integral calculus,

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Chapter One

Basic Mathematical concepts

1.1. Propositional Logic and Set Theory

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Example 2: Consider the following propositions:

Example 2: Consider the following propositions:

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Examples 3: Consider the following propositions:

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Example 5: Let : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)

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Observe that ∨  is a tautology while ∧  is a contradiction.

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 Open propositions and quantifiers

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< . On the other hand, (∃ ) ( ) is true, since −1 ∈ ℝ such that −1 < 1.

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a. For every rational number , the number is rational.

b. There exists a rational number such that = 2.

following statements are true or false:

c. (∀ ∈ ℝ)(√ = ). g. (∀ ∈ ℝ)(∃ ∈ ℝ)( + = 5).

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Example 19: Consider the following argument:

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1.1.2. Elementary property of set

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2. Let = { | is a positive integer less than 13}

Example 37: Let U = The set of one digits numbers

1. Illustrate ∩ by a Venn diagram

A  B : The shaded portion

Illustrate A’ by a Venn diagram

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A’ : The shaded portion

Illustrate A\B by using a Venn diagram

A \ B: The shaded portion

Now we illustrate intersections and unions of sets by Venn diagram.

Only some common A B A B

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1.2. Vectors, matrices and determinants

1.2.2. Matrices and determinate

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Note: The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undetermined.

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Step Three:Finally the solution is =

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