TOPIC THREE

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Schools of thought in Psychology represent groups of psychologists who

showed the same theoretical opinion. Their opinion developed from the need
to explain the nature of human beings. In the early days of psychology
controversies arose among scholars on what should be the subject matter of
psychology. Different psychologists came up with different viewpoints and
this development led to various groupings of psychologists along different
line of thoughts. These lines of thoughts resulted in the emergence of
schools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The rise and fall of some of
these schools culminated in the history of modern psychology. The following
schools of thoughts are considered

Structuralism

Structuralism emerged through the leadership of Edward Titchener, an

Englishman who emigrated to the United States in 1892 and taught for
decades at Cornell University. Although Titchener earned his degree in
Wundt’s Leipzig laboratory and expressed great admiration for Wundt’s
work, he brought his own version of Wundt’s psychology to America
Structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is
to analyze consciousness into its basic elements and investigate
how these elements are related (Farrell, 2014). The Structuralists wanted
to identify the fundamental components of conscious experience, such as
sensations, feelings, and images. Although the Structuralists explored many
questions, most of their work concerned sensation and perception in vision,
hearing, and touch. To examine the contents of consciousness, the
Structuralists depended on the method of introspection, or the careful,
systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience
(Nevid, 2012). As practiced by the Structuralists, introspection required
training to make the subject—the person being studied—more objective and
more aware. Once trained, participants were typically exposed to auditory
tones, optical illusions, and visual stimuli such as pieces of fruit and were
asked to analyze what they experienced.

Functionalism

The functionalists took a different view of psychology’s task. Functionalism

was based on the belief that psychology should investigate the
function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure
(Nevid, 2012). The chief architect of functionalism was William James (1842–
1910), a brilliant American scholar. James’s formal training was in medicine.
He contended that psychology should investigate the functions rather than
the structure of consciousness. James also argued that the Structuralists’
approach missed the real nature of conscious experience. Consciousness, he
argued, consists of a continuous flow of thoughts. In analyzing consciousness
into its “elements,” the Structuralists were looking at static points in that
flow. James wanted to understand the flow itself, which he called the stream
of consciousness. James went on to provide enormously influential analyses
of many crucial issues in the emerging field of psychology. Among other
things, his discussions of how people acquired habits laid the groundwork for
progress in the study of learning, and his conception of the self provided the
foundation for subsequent theories of personality. Whereas Structuralists
naturally gravitated to the laboratory, functionalists were more interested in
how people adapt their behaviour to the demands of the real world around
them (Coon, 2015).
Psychodynamic/ Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), an Austrian physician, developed the first
psychodynamic theory. Psychoanalysis or psychodynamic theory, also known
as the "historical perspective," has its roots in Sigmund Freud, who believed
there were unconscious forces that drive behaviour. That is, internal
forces we do not understand push and pull us. In essence,
A psychodynamic theory relates personality to the interplay of
conflicting forces within the individual, including unconscious ones.
The techniques he developed, such as free association (freely talking to the
therapist about whatever comes up without censoring), dream analysis
(examining dreams for important information about the unconscious), and
transference (redirecting feelings about certain people in one's life onto the
therapist) are still used by psychoanalysts today.
In general, psychotherapists and counsellors who use this approach direct
much of their focus and energy on analysing past relationships and, in
particular, traumatic childhood experiences in relation to an individual's
current life. The belief is that by revealing and bringing these issues to the
surface, treatment and healing can occur. This theory is highly researched,
and as the field of neuroscience advances, counsellors are finding how
psychodynamic theory can actually positively affect a client's brain.
Psychodynamic theory can be more time-intensive in comparison to some
short-term theories because it involves changing deeply ingrained behaviors
and requires significant work on understanding oneself.
Freud's influence extends into sociology, literature, art, religion, and politics.
Nevertheless, here we are, about three-fourths of the way through this text
on psychology, and until now, I have barely mentioned Freud. Why? The
reason is that Freud's influence within psychology has declined substantially.
According to one psychologist, Frederick Crews (1996), "Independent studies
have begun to converge toward a verdict that was once considered a sign of
extremism or even of neurosis: that there is literally nothing to be said,
scientifically or therapeutically, to the advantage of the entire Freudian
system or any of its constituent dogmas." Think about that: nothing to be
said in favour of any of Freud's theories. Personality
How did Freud view personality?
Freud's model portrays personality as a dynamic system directed by three
mental structures: the id, the ego, and the Superego. According to Freud,
most behaviour involves the activity of all three systems. (Freud's theory
includes a large number of concepts.
The Id
The id is made up of innate biological instincts and urges. It is self-serving,
irrational, impulsive, and totally unconscious. The id operates on
the pleasure principle. That is, it seeks to express pleasure-seeking urges
of all kinds freely. If we were solely under the control of the id, the world
would be chaotic beyond belief. The id acts as a well of energy for the
entire psyche (sigh-KEY) or personality. This energy, called libido (lih-BEE-
doe), flows from the life instincts (or Eros). According to Freud, the libido
underlies our efforts to survive, as well as our sexual desires and pleasure-
seeking. Freud also described a death instinct. Thanatos, as he called it,
produces aggressive and destructive urges. Freud offered humanity's long
history of wars and violence as evidence of such urges. Most id energies,
then, are aimed at discharging tensions related to sex and aggression.
The Ego
The ego is sometimes described as the "executive" because it directs
energies supplied by the id. The id is like a blind king or queen whose power
is awesome but who must rely on others to carry out orders. The id can only
form mental images of things it desires. The ego wins power to direct
behaviour by relating the desires of the id to external reality. Are there other
differences between the ego and the id? Yes. Recall that the id operates on
the pleasure principle. The ego, in contrast, is guided by the reality
principle. The ego is the system of thinking, planning, problem-solving, and
deciding. It is in conscious control of the personality and often delays action
until it is practical or appropriate.
The Superego What is the role of the Superego? The Superego acts as a
judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of the ego. One part of the
Superego called the conscience, reflects actions for which a person has
been punished. When standards of the conscience are not met, you are
punished internally by guilt feelings. A second part of the Superego is
the ego ideal. The ego ideal reflects all behaviour one's parents approve of
or reward. The ego ideal is a source of goals and aspirations. When its
standards are met, we feel pride. The Superego acts as an "internalised
parent" to bring behaviour under control. In Freudian terms, a person with a
weak superego will be a delinquent, criminal, or antisocial personality. In
contrast, an overly strict or harsh superego may cause inhibition, rigidity, or
unbearable guilt.
FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
The Oral Stage: In the oral stage, from birth to about age 1-2, the infant
derives intense psychosexual pleasure from stimulation of the mouth, mainly
while sucking at the mother's breast. According to Freud, someone fixated at
this stage continues to receive great pleasure from eating, drinking, and
smoking and may also have lasting concerns with dependence and
independence.
The Anal Stage: At about age 2 – 3yrs, children enter the anal
stage, when they get psychosexual pleasure from the sensations of bowel
movements. If toilet training is too strict—or too lenient—the child becomes
fixated at this stage. Someone fixated on the anal stage goes through life
"holding things back"—being orderly, stingy, and stubborn—or, less
commonly, goes to the opposite extreme, becoming messy and wasteful.
The Phallic Stage: Beginning at about age 3, in the phallic stage, children
begin to play with their genitals and, according to Freud, become sexually
attracted to the opposite-sex parent. Freud claimed that boys are afraid of
being castrated, whereas girls develop "penis envy." These ideas have
always been controversial, and no clear evidence supports them.
The Latent Period: From about age 5 or 6 until adolescence, Freud said,
most children enter a latent period in which they suppress their
psychosexual interest. At this time, they play primarily with peers of their
sex. The latent period is a product of European culture and does not appear
in all societies.
The Genital Stage: Beginning at puberty, young people take a strong
sexual interest in other people. This is known as the genital
stage. According to Freud, anyone who was fixated on a great deal of libido
in an earlier stage has little libido left for the genital stage. However, people
who have successfully negotiated the earlier stages now derive primary
satisfaction from sexual intercourse.
Evaluation of Freud's Stages
It is undeniable that infants get pleasure from sucking, that toddlers go
through toilet training, that older children begin to notice their genitals, and
that adolescents become interested in sexual contact with other people.
However, the idea of fixation at various stages, central to much of Freud's
thinking, is difficult to test (Grünbaum, 1986; Popper, 1986). When it was
tested, the results were inconclusive. For example, the characteristics of
being orderly, stingy, and stubborn, which Freud attributed to anal fixation,
correlate with one another, suggesting that they relate to a single
personality trait. However, we have no evidence connecting them to toilet
training (Fisher & Greenberg, 1977).

Behaviourism

The debate between structuralism and functionalism was only the prelude to
other fundamental controversies in psychology. In the early 1900s, another
major school of thought appeared that dramatically altered the course of
psychology. Founded by John B. Watson (1878–1958), behaviourism is a
theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific
psychology should study only observable behaviour (Nevid, 2012). It is
important to understand what a radical change this definition represents.
Watson (1913, 1919) was proposing that psychologists abandon the study of
consciousness altogether and focus exclusively on behaviours that they
could observe directly. In essence, this theory is based on the belief
that behaviour is learned. In Watson’s view, mental processes are not a
proper subject for scientific study because they are ultimately private
events. After all, no one can see or touch another’s thoughts. Consequently,
if psychology was to be a science, it would have to give up consciousness as
its subject matter and become instead the science of behaviour. Behaviour
refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism
(Gross, 2017).
The emergence of behaviourism was partly attributable to an important
discovery made around the turn of the century by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist. Classic conditioning is one type of behavioural therapy that
stems from early theorist Ivan Pavlov's research. Pavlov (who is the father of
classical conditioning), executed a famous study using dogs, which focused
on the effects of a learned response (e.g., a dog salivating when hearing a
bell) through a stimulus (e.g., pairing the sound of a bell with food). Watson
embraced Pavlov’s model as a new way of thinking about learning and the
behaviourists eventually came to view psychology’s mission as an attempt to
relate overt behaviours (responses) to observable events in the environment
(stimuli). Because the behaviourists investigated stimulus-response
relationships, the behavioural approach is often referred to as stimulus-
response (S-R) psychology.
Also, B. F. Skinner developed another behavioural therapy approach called
operant conditioning. He believed in the power of rewards to increase the
likelihood of a behaviour and punishments to decrease the occurrence of a
behaviour. Behavioural therapists work on changing unwanted and
destructive behaviours through behaviour modification techniques such as
positive or negative reinforcement. Other behaviourists who contributed to
behaviourism are Edward Thorndike (1874–1949); Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886–
1959); Clark L. Hull (1884–1952); Kenneth W. Spence (1907–1967); Neal E.
Miller (1909–2002).

Humanism

Humanism is a school of thought that began in early 1950s and has become
influential in the field of psychology. humanism is a theoretical
orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans,
especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth
(Fernald, 2007). Humanists take an optimistic view of human nature. They
maintain that people are not pawns of either their animal heritage or
environmental circumstances. Humanistic point of view states that, instead
of expending energy on the past or negative behaviours, humanists
believe in the goodness of all people and emphasise a person's self-
growth and self-actualisation. Furthermore, these theorists say, because
humans are fundamentally different from other animals, research on animals
has little relevance to the understanding of human behaviour. The most
prominent architects of the humanistic movement have been Carl Rogers
(1902–1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908–1970). Rogers (1951) argued that
human behaviour is governed primarily by each individual’s sense of self, or
“self-concept”—which animals presumably lack. Both he and Maslow (1954)
maintained that to fully understand people’s behaviour, psychologists must
take into account the human drive toward personal growth. They asserted
that people have a basic need to continue to evolve as human beings and to
fulfil their potentials (Maslow, 1954). The humanists’ greatest contribution to
psychology has been their innovative treatments for psychological problems
and disorders.
Humanistic theories include client-centred, gestalt and existential schools of
thought.
Client-Centered (Person-Centered):
Founded by Carl Rogers (1902–1987), Psychologists who subscribe to this
school of thought emphasise the importance of empathy, unconditional
positive regard, and congruence in the therapeutic relationship. Rogers
believed that individuals possess the capacity for self-awareness, self-
acceptance, and self-actualisation, and therapy aims to facilitate these
qualities. The therapist (Psychologist) provides a supportive and
nonjudgmental environment where clients can freely explore their feelings,
thoughts, and experiences. The focus is on the individual's subjective
experience and their innate drive towards growth and fulfilment.
In Client-Centered Psychology, the therapist acts as a facilitator, encouraging
clients to express themselves authentically and providing reflective listening
and empathic understanding. The emphasis is on the individual's self-
exploration and self-discovery rather than on interpretation or diagnosis by
the Psychologist. Client-centred Psychology is non-directive, allowing people
to set their own goals and determine the direction of therapy.
Gestalt
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that originated in the early 20th
century and gained prominence in Germany. It represents a theoretical
orientation that underscores the holistic nature of human perception and
cognition. Gestalt psychologists assert that individuals organise
information into coherent wholes, emphasising the integration of
elements rather than their isolation (Fernald, 2007).
This psychological perspective takes a distinctive approach, highlighting
principles such as holism, closure, proximity, similarity, and continuity.
Holism emphasises perceiving experiences as unified wholes, while the
closure principle suggests that individuals tend to complete incomplete
information mentally. Additionally, the proximity and similarity principles
govern how elements are grouped in perception, contributing to the overall
organisation of experiences. Prominent figures in the Gestalt movement
include Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka. They challenged
reductionist approaches and contended that understanding perception
required examining it as a whole rather than breaking it into isolated
components. The Gestaltists rejected the idea that research on animals could
sufficiently inform the understanding of human behaviour, emphasising the
uniqueness of human perception and cognition. The contributions of Gestalt
psychology extend to various fields, including cognitive psychology and
visual perception. Its holistic perspective has influenced research
methodologies, particularly in studying how individuals perceive and
interpret complex stimuli. Though the prominence of Gestalt psychology as a
distinct school has diminished, its principles continue to shape our
understanding of human cognition and perception.
Existential:
Existential Psychology, founded by Viktor Frankl (1905–1997), Rollo May
(1909–1994), and Irvin Yalom (1931–2020), focuses on the exploration of
existential concerns such as the search for meaning, freedom,
responsibility, and the inevitability of death. It emphasises the
individual's subjective experience of existence and the importance of
personal choice and responsibility in shaping one's life. In
essence, Existential Psychologitss help people find meaning in their
lives by focusing on free will, self-determination, and
responsibility. Existential therapists view psychological distress as
stemming from the individual's struggle with existential themes and seek to
help clients confront these issues authentically.
Existential therapy is philosophical and experiential, encouraging clients to
explore their beliefs, values, and attitudes towards existence. Therapists
may use phenomenological exploration, role-playing, and existential
dialogue techniques to help clients gain insight into their lives and make
choices aligned with their authentic selves. The therapeutic relationship is
characterised by authenticity, empathy, and a willingness to engage with the
client's existential dilemmas without judgment.
Cognitive Psychology:
Cognitive psychology emerged as a distinct school of thought in the mid-
20th century, with influential figures like Ulric Neisser and Aaron Beck. Its
prominence grew in the 1950s and 1960s. The main tenets focus on
understanding mental processes such as perception, memory, and
problem-solving. Cognitive psychology has made significant progress,
impacting fields like education and therapy and contributing to the
development of cognitive therapies.
Biological/Psychobiological Psychology:
The biological or psychobiological perspective traces its roots to the early
20th century, with figures like Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson. It gained
prominence as a school of thought in the mid-20th century. This
perspective emphasises the physiological basis of behaviour,
studying the brain, nervous system, and genetics. Advances in
neuroimaging and genetic research have propelled the field forward,
influencing areas like neuropsychology and psychopharmacology.
Evolutionary Psychology:
Evolutionary psychology draws on the works of pioneers like Charles Darwin
and E.O. Wilson. Founded in the late 20th century, it gained influence in the
1980s and 1990s. The main tenet involves examining how
psychological traits evolved for adaptive purposes. Evolutionary
psychology has made notable progress in explaining human behaviour,
offering insights into mate selection, social cooperation, and cognitive
adaptations.
Sociocultural Psychology:
Sociocultural psychology has roots in early anthropological and sociological
work, gaining recognition as a psychological perspective in the mid-20th
century. Figures like Lev Vygotsky and Kurt Lewin played pivotal roles. This
perspective explores the impact of culture and society on
behaviour. It has made strides in cross-cultural research, diversity studies,
and understanding the influence of social context on mental processes.

In Summary

In the evolution of psychology, various schools of thought have emerged,

each offering distinct perspectives on human behaviour and mental
processes:

1. Structuralism: Led by Edward Titchener, Structuralism aimed to analyze

consciousness into its basic elements and understand how these elements
are related. Structuralists relied on introspection to study sensations,
feelings, and images.
2. Functionalism: Championed by William James, Functionalism focused on
investigating the purpose or function of consciousness rather than its
structure. James emphasized the continuous flow of thoughts, known as the
stream of consciousness, and examined how people adapt their behaviour to
real-world demands.

3. Behaviourism: Founded by John B. Watson, Behaviourism advocated for

studying only observable behaviour, dismissing the study of consciousness
as unscientific. Behaviourists focused on stimulus-response relationships,
viewing psychology as the science of behaviour rather than the mind.

4. Humanism: Humanism, spearheaded by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow,

emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, including their freedom and
potential for personal growth. Humanists take an optimistic view of human
nature and assert that individuals have an innate drive for self-actualization.

5. Psychodynamic: The psychodynamic school of thought, founded by

Sigmund Freud, emphasises the role of unconscious processes in shaping
human behaviour. Freud's theory posits that psychological conflicts
stemming from early childhood experiences, unconscious desires, and
defence mechanisms influence an individual's personality, thoughts, and
behaviours. The emphasis on the unconscious mind, the importance of
childhood experiences, and the interplay between conscious and
unconscious elements are key aspects of Freud's psychodynamic
perspective.

6. Gestalt Psychology: Originating in Germany, Gestalt psychology

emphasises the holistic perception of stimuli, considering how individuals
organise and interpret sensory information. It explores the idea that the
whole experience is more than the sum of its parts, emphasising the
importance of context and the gestalt principles. Gestalt principles influence
areas such as visual perception, problem-solving, and design, contributing to
our understanding of how individuals perceive and make sense of the world.

7. Client-centred, which focuses on the belief that people control their

destinies. At the same time, Existential psychologists help people find
meaning in their lives by focusing on free will, self-determination, and
responsibility.

Each school of thought offers valuable insights into understanding human

behaviour and mental processes, contributing to the tapestry of
psychological knowledge and practice.