Nuclear Physics

Syllabus:
 Explain how nucleus was discovered
 Convey the meaning of mass number, atomic number
 Calculate the expression of nuclear density
 Explain the existence of different isotopes of the same element
 Describe main theme of Einstein’s mass energy relation and state the relation
 Explain the meaning of mass defect and cause of it
 Describe the terms creation and annihilation
 Derive the relation of binding energy and binding energy per unit nucleon of different
nuclei
 Plot a graph between BE per nucleon and mass number of different nuclei
 Define nuclear fusion and fission and explain the mechanism of energy release
 Solve numerical problems related to nuclear physics

Nuclear Physics:
The branch of physics dealing with the study of atomic nucleus is called nuclear physics. It includes
the study of properties of nucleus, nuclear phenomena, interaction of nuclei, nuclear
transmutation and their application.

Nucleus:
Nucleus is highly dense central core of the atom where almost all of the mass and all the positive
charge of the atom are concentrated in a very small region as compared to the atom.

Constituents of a Nucleus:
All the atomic nuclei are made up of elementary particles called protons and neutrons.

 Proton is positively charged particles which carries charge 1.6 × 10−19𝐶 and
rest mass 1.67 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔.
 Neutron is chargeless particle which has rest mass 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔.
 The proton and neutron of an atom are collectively called nucleons.
 The number of protons present in a nucleus is known as atomic number and is denoted by
Z.
 The total number of nucleons (i.e protons and neutrons) is known as mass number of
nucleus and is denoted by A.
 The number of neutrons in a nucleus is 𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍.
  The species of nucleus is known as nuclide. If a nucleus X has atomic number Z and mass
number A, then it is symbolically represented by 𝑧𝑋𝐴.
For example, 6𝐶12, 7𝑁14, 11𝑁𝑎23 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
General properties of nucleus:
Some general properties of atomic nucleus are as following:
I) Nuclear size:
The size of nucleus is very small. According to Rutherford, the size of nucleus (i.e. radius) is
10−14 𝑚 𝑡𝑜 10−15 𝑚 while that of atom is about 10−10 𝑚. The radius of nucleus is almost
10,000 times smaller than the size of an atom. The empirical formula for nuclear radius is
𝟏
𝑹 = 𝒓𝒐 𝑨 𝟑 , where A is mass number and 𝑟𝑜 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚 = 1.2 F𝑚.
II) Charge:
The nuclei consist of protons and neutrons. Proton are positively charged
and neutrons are chargeless or neutral. So, nuclei are positively charged.
Nuclear charge(𝑞) = +𝑍𝑒 , where 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C
III) Mass:
Since the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. So, the mass of nucleus is the sum
of mass of the protons and mass of neutrons.

Nuclear mass , 𝑀 =𝑍 𝑚 + 𝑁 𝑚 = 𝑍 𝑚 + (A-Z) 𝑚

Where Z is atomic number (No of proton), 𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 a 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛, N is number of

neutrons, 𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 a 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛, and A is the Mass number.

iv) Nuclear density:

Nucleus has its own mass and volume. The mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called
nuclear density. If we consider a nucleus having mass number A and radius R, then its
density is

𝜌=

𝑹 = 𝒓𝒐 𝑨 𝟑 ]

( 𝒓𝒐 )
 𝟑 𝒎𝒏
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝒐 𝟑

Where, 𝑚n = 1.66 × 10−27𝑘𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛.

𝟑×𝟏.𝟔𝟔×𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟕 𝟏𝟕 𝟑
Therefore, 𝟏𝟓 )𝟑
𝟒 𝝅 (𝟏.𝟐×𝟏𝟎
The density of nucleus is independent of mass number A.
So, all nuclei have approximately same density.
Task:
All nuclei have nearly the same density. Why?
Types of Nuclei:
The nuclei can be classified on the basis of number of protons, neutrons and
radioactive character
I) Isotopes: (Iso means same and P stands for proton)
The nuclei having same atomic number but different mass number are called
isotopes. They have same chemical properties due to same atomic number but
different physical properties due to their masses. Some of the examples of
isotopes are:
Hydrogen:1𝐻1, 1𝐻2, 1𝐻3
Helium: 2He3, 2He4
II) Isobars: (iso means same and baros means weight or mass)
The nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are called
isobars. These are the nuclei of different elements having different physical and
chemical properties. Some of the examples of isobars are:
i) 6𝐶14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7𝑁14 ii) 7𝑁16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8𝑂16 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
Iii) Isotones: (Iso means same and N stands for neutron):
Nuclei which have same number of neutrons but different mass number and
atomic number are called isotones. Some examples of isotones are:
i) 1H2 and 2He3 ii) 2He4 and 1H3 etc.

Atomic mass unit (amu):

The atomic and sub-atomic particles have very small masses and it would be very difficult to
express such mass in regular unit. So, a unit is used in 1960 to express such small mass is known
as atomic mass unit.

One atomic mass unit is defined as th of the mass of one 6𝐶12 atom.
It is abbreviated as amu.
∴𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = (1⁄12) 𝑡ℎ × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 6𝐶12 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

As 12 grams of 6𝐶12 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 6.023 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 6𝐶12

Mass of 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚= 𝑔𝑚

. ×

So, 1 amu= ×( ) 𝑔𝑚
. ×

= 1.66 × 10 gm

= 1.66 × 10 kg

∴ 𝟏𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟕
kg

Einstein’s mass energy relation:

Before 20th century, it was assumed that the mass and energy are two distinct physical quantities.
In 1905, Einstein explained the interrelationship between mass and energy in his special theory of
relativity. According to this theory, mass and energy are interchangeable i.e. mass can be
converted into energy and vice versa.
According to Einstein, the energy equivalent of a mass ∆𝑚 is

𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐2, where 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 is speed of light in vacuum. This equation

represents the Einstein’s mass energy relation.

According to this relation, 1 kg of mass of any matter is equivalent to 9 × 1016 𝐽.

Atomic mass unit (amu) in terms of Energy:

Since, 1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.66 × 10 kg

𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝐶 = 1.66 × 10 × (3 × 10 ) = 1.49 × 10 𝐽

But, 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10 𝐽

. ×
∴𝐸= = 0.931 × 10 𝑒𝑉 =931MeV [∴ 𝟏𝑴 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 ]
. ×

∴ 𝟏𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏𝑴𝒆𝑽
Mass defect:
A nucleus contains protons and neutrons. The mass of nucleus is the sum of masses of its nucleons
present in nucleus. However, it is observed that the rest mass of nucleus is always found to be
slightly less than the expected mass of nucleus. The difference between the sum of the masses
of the nucleons constituting a nucleus and rest mass of the nucleus is called mass defect. It is
denoted by ∆𝑚.

Mass defect (∆𝑚) = [𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 ] − 𝑀

Where,
Z= atomic number
(A-Z) = No of neutron
𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
M= rest mass of nucleus (or mass of neutral atom)

Binding energy:
The size of nucleus is very small (i.e. in the order of 10−14𝑚). So, to confine the protons and
neutrons in such small region some energy is required. The minimum energy required to bind
the nucleons to form a stable nucleus is called binding energy. In other words, the energy
equivalent to mass defect is known as binding energy of the nucleus.
When protons and neutrons combine to form a nucleus, some mass is lost. This disappearing
mass is converted into energy according to Einstein’s mass energy relation 𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐2. This energy
binds the nucleons in the nucleus.
Thus,

Binding energy (𝐵. 𝐸) = ∆𝑚𝑐2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒f𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑐 = 3 × 108𝑚/𝑠 is velocity of light in
vacuum.

Since, ∆𝑚 = [𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 ] − 𝑀

𝐵. 𝐸 = [𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 − 𝑀] 𝑐2 Joules

If masses are measured in a.m.u then,

𝐵. 𝐸 = [𝑍 𝒎𝒑 + (𝑨 − 𝒁)𝒎𝒏 − 𝑀] × 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽

If B.E > 0, the nucleus is stable

if B.E < 0, the nucleus is unstable

Packing fraction:
Packing fraction of a nucleus is defined as the mass defect per nucleon. The energy equivalent to
packing fraction is required to remove a nucleon from the nucleus. It is related to binding energy
per nucleon.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 ∆𝑚
∴ 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴

Binding energy per nucleon and Binding energy curve:

Figure: Binding energy per nucleon

The total binding energy of a nucleus per nucleon is called binding energy per
nucleon. It is the energy required to bind one nucleon in the nucleus. In other words,
it is the energy required to separate one nucleon from the nucleus. It is average
binding energy of a nucleus.
Binding energy per nucleon,
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝑩. 𝑬
𝑩. 𝑬 = =
𝑵𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒐𝒏 𝑨

Binding energy per nucleon explains the stability of the nucleus. The greater the value of binding
energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus and vice versa. The variation of binding
energy per nucleon with mass number is shown in figure.
The graph rises steeply at first and then gradually until it reaches a maximum value of 8.39MeV
corresponding to 26𝐹𝑒56. Then it drops slowly to 7.6 MeV at the highest mass number of 92U 238
Hence, the graph shows the maximum value of Binding energy per nucleon is for 26𝐹𝑒56 𝑠𝑜,
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 92𝑈235.
Task:
1. How many protons and how many neutrons are there in a nucleus of the most
common isotope of Thallium 81𝑻𝒍𝟐𝟎𝟓 . [Ans: Z=81 and N=124]

2. The radius of a nucleus with mass number 16 is 3Fm.Calculate the radius of a

nucleus with mass number 128. [Ans: 6Fm]

3. Calculate the binding energy of a nitrogen nucleus in MeV from the following
Data.
𝒎𝑯 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟖𝟑 𝒖, 𝒎𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟕 𝒖, 𝒎(𝟕𝑵𝟏𝟒 ) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟕𝒖
[𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏: 𝟏𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏𝑴𝒆𝑽]
Hint:
Mass defect (∆𝑚) = [𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 ] – 𝑀
= [7× 1.00783 +(14 − 7) × 1.00867] – 14.00307
= 0.11243 u
Now, binding energy (B.E) =∆𝑚× 931 MeV=102.3MeV
4. The most common isotope of uranium 𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟖 has atomic mass 238.050783
u, mass of proton, 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒖, mass of neutron, 𝒎𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝒖.
Calculate a) the mass defect b) the binding energy in MeV c) binding energy
per nucleon. [𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏: 𝟏𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟓𝑴𝒆𝑽] [Ans:1.8836u, 1754.66MeV, 7.37 Mev]
Hint:
92𝒎𝒑 + (𝟐𝟑𝟖 − 𝟗𝟐)𝒎𝒏 → 𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟖
a) Mass defect (∆𝑚) = [𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 ] – 𝑀
b) binding energy (B.E) =∆𝑚× 931.5 MeV
.
c) 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛(𝐵. 𝐸 ) =

5. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 26Fe53.

 Given mass (26Fe56) = 55.934939 u , m (neutron)= 1.005665 u ,
m (proton) =1.007825 u and 1 u=931 MeV [Ans: 8.79Mev]

6. Calculate the energy released in the following reactions.

𝟑𝑳𝒊𝟔 + 𝒐𝒏𝟏 → 𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆𝟒
Given,
Mass of 𝟑𝑳𝒊𝟔 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝒖
Mass of H3= 3.016049 u
Mass of He4 = 4.002604 u
Mass of on1 = 1.008665 u
[𝟏𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽]

Nuclear Fission and Fusion:

Nuclear Fission:

The process of splitting of a heavier nucleus into two or more light nuclei is called nuclear fission.
Hence, Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with
low energy neutrons which split the nucleus into smaller nuclei. An abundant amount of energy
is released in this process. Nuclear fission reactions are used in nuclear power reactors since it is
easy to control and produces large amounts of energy.

Example:
When uranium, 92U235 is bombarded with a slow neutron, the uranium nucleus captures the
neutron and an unstable compound nucleus is formed. This new unstable nucleus immediately
splits into two or more fragments with some additional neutrons.
The fission reaction is given by
𝒐𝒏𝟏 + 𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 → [𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟔 ] → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂𝟏𝟒𝟏 + 𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓𝟗𝟐 + 𝟑𝒐𝒏𝟏 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚(~𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑴𝒆𝑽)

Energy released in fission of Uranium:

We know,
Mass of neutron, 𝑜𝑛 = 1.008665 𝑢
Mass of uranium, 92𝑈 = 235.045733 𝑢
Mass of barium, 56𝐵𝑎 = 140.91770 𝑢
Mass of krypton, 36𝐾𝑟 = 91.8854 𝑢
Now,
total initial mass = 1.008665 + 235.045733 = 236.054398 𝑢
And
Total final mass = 140.91770 + 91.8854 + 3 × 1.008665 = 235.8291 𝑢
Mass difference, (∆𝑚) = 236.054398 − 235.8291 = 0.2253 𝑢
So,
Energy released per fission = 0.2253× 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ≈ 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑴𝒆𝑽

This is very large amount of energy.

Task:
1) Calculate the energy released by 1 kg of uranium of 𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 .
Given, Energy released per fission of 𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑴𝒆𝑽
Ans:
here, energy released by one atom of 92𝑈 = 200 𝑀𝑒𝑉
We know,
235 gm of 92𝑈 = 6.023× 10 atoms

. ×
1 gm of 92𝑈 = atoms

. ×
1000gm (=1kg) of 92𝑈 = atoms
Hence,
. ×
Energy released by 1 kg of Uranium = × 200𝑀𝑒𝑉

. ×
= × 200 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 𝐽

= 8.2 × 10 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
2) The energy liberated in the fission of single uranium-235 atom is 𝟑. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 .
Calculate the power production corresponding to the fission of 1 g of uranium per day.
Assume Avogadro constant as 6.023× 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝟏 [Ans: 9.48 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕]
Nuclear Fusion:
The process in which two or more lighter nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus is called
nuclear fusion.

Example:

When two deuterium nuclei 1H2 are fused together, a single helium nucleus is formed with the
released of energy about 24 MeV. This fusion reaction is written below:
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 24 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Deuteron atoms are heated to a very high temperature of about 107 K so that the deuteron gas
is completely ionized. The ionized state is called plasma state (the fourth state of matter). This
plasma state is brought under high pressure so that two atoms fuse to give helium along with the
release of energy. Such reaction that takes place at such high temperature is also called thermo-
nuclear reaction. Nuclear fusion process is not practically possible till now
Any uncontrolled form of such reaction would lead to the production of huge energy called
hydrogen bomb.
Note:
 The energy radiated from the sun and stars is considered due to nuclear fusion on its
surface.
 For nuclear fusion, large temperature and pressure is required
 Hydrogen bomb is an example of the uncontrolled nuclear fusion.
 The energy released during fusion is much less than that in fission. However, energy
released per nucleon during fusion is much greater that that liberated during fission.
Energy released during fusion reaction:

1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 24 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Mass of deuteron, 1𝐻 =2.01471 amu
Mass of helium nucleus = 4.00388 amu
Now,
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡(∆𝑚) = 4.00388 − 2 × 2.01471 = 0.02554 𝑎𝑚𝑢
So,
energy released = 0.02554 × 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 ≈ 𝟐𝟒 𝑴𝒆𝑽
Difference between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
The process of splitting of a heavier The process of combining of lighter nuclei
nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei is to give a heavier nucleus is called nuclear
called nuclear fission fusion.
𝑜𝑛 + 92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 24 𝑀𝑒𝑉
3𝑜𝑛 + 200𝑀𝑒𝑉
Energy released per nucleon is about 0.8 Energy released per nucleon is about
MeV 6 MeV
It can occur in room temperature and Very high temperature and pressure is
normal pressure required.
Uranium is used as source which is in The fuel is almost available in unlimited
limited amount. amount.
Radiation is released as by product which No harmful by products are produced.
is harmful for living beings.
Atom bomb is based on this principle Hydrogen bomb is based on this principle

Multiple choice Question:

1) For an isobaric family member of nuclei, which of the following condition is true?
a) neutron number remains same
b) atomic number remains same
c)both neutron and proton numbers remain same
d) mass number remains same

2) The diameter of an atom is of the order of:

a) 10 𝑐𝑚 b) 10 𝑐𝑚 c) 10 𝑐𝑚 d) 10 𝑐𝑚

3) In a nuclear reaction, a deuteron particle is bombarded with a target nucleus, then energy is
released along with a neutron and a product. The new product has the atomic mass:
a) smaller than a parent nucleus b) greater than the parent nucleus
c)equal to the parent nucleus d) can’t be concluded

4) The ratio between the radii of nuclei with mass number27 and 125 is
a) 5:3 b) 3:5 c) 27:125 d) 125:27

5) The energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit is

a) 1.6 × 10 𝐽 b) 6.02 × 10 𝐽 c) 931MeV d) 9.31 MeV

Ans: 1d, 2a, 3b,4b,5c