Model_Answer_End_Sem_170105931038619498265641aeeddc04

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 16

Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad

End Semester Examination (Monsoon Semester), Academic Year 2023-24


Geophysical Prospecting (GPE 202)

Model Answer

Section-A

Solutions:

1a)
Surface gravity anomalies due to some buried bodies

The general equa�on is:

where:
γ is the gravita�onal constant
∆ρ is the density contrast
r is the distance to the observa�on point
α is the angle from ver�cal
V is the volume
Ques�on: Why a cosine term?

Solu�on for a sphere:

x/z

z
a

Surface gravity anomalies due to some buried bodies


An infinitely long horizontal cylinder
The expression for a horizontal cylinder of a radius a and densityρ:

It is interes�ng to compare the solu�on for cylinder with that of a sphere.

cylinder sphere

This highlights the importance of a 2-D gravity survey.


Surface gravity anomalies due to some buried bodies

What should be the spa�al extent of the surveyed region?

To answer this ques�on it is useful to compute the anomaly half-distance, X1/2, i.e. the distance
from the anomaly maximum to it’s medium. For a sphere, we get:

• The signal due to a sphere buried at a depth Z


can only be well resolved at distances out to 2-3
Z.

• Thus, to resolve details of density structures of


the lower crust (say 20-40 km), gravity
measurements must be made over an extensive
area.

The ambiguity of surface gravity anomalies

In the preceding slide we have looked at the result of aforward modelingalso referred to as the
direct problem:

In prac�ce, however, theinverse modelingis of greater importance:

Ques�on: Can the data be inverted to obtain the density, size and shape of a buried body?

• Inspec�on of the solu�on for a buried sphere reveals a non-uniqueness of that problem. The
term ∆ρa3 introduces an ambiguity to the problem, and differentcombina�ons of densi�es and
radii can produce iden�cal anomalies.
Solution 1b)

Drift correction is calculated by subtracting observed value at base at 8am, and observed value at
base at 11am and dividing by time duration. Therefore, Drift rate= (4121-4120)/180 mGal/min

Since drift corrected reading is provided in the table, we will treat the drift corrected reading as the
new observed reading for gravity, and apply the gravity corrections to compute the bouguer
anomaly at Base, Station 1 and Station 2 using the theoretical gravity value provided.

The assumption for calculation of bouguer anomaly is FAC= 0.3086h, Bouguer correction =
0.0491ρh, where ρ is the density. For the crust we use 2.67g/cc as the standard value of density.
Accordingly, the calculations have to be computed.

Solution 2a)
Solution 2b)

Magnetic field of the Earth


From the point of view of the magnetic exploration we can divide the Earth’s
magnetic field onto three components:

1. The main field originating within the Earth’s interior and changing relatively
slowly.

2. A small field (compared to the main field) which varies relatively rapidly and
originates outsideof the Earth.

3. Spatial variations of the main field, usually smaller than the main field and
usually invariant in the time and place, caused by the inhomogeneitiesof the Earth’s
crust. These are the target of the magnetic exploration.

Solution 2c)
Thermoremanent magnetization is created when magnetic material is cooled below the Curie
temperature in the presence of external magnetic field (usually the Earth’s magnetic field ). Its
direction depends on the direction of the external field at the time and place where the rock
cooled.

Detrital magnetization have fine -grained sediments. When magnetic particles slowly settles
they are oriented into a direction of an external field. Various clays exhibit this type of
remanence.

Chemical remanent magnetization is created during a grown of crystals or during an alteration of


existing minerals. The temperature must be low (below the Curie point). This type might be
significant in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks .

Isothermal remanent magnetization is the residual left following the removal of an external
field. Its amplitude is low unless it was created within very large magnetic field like during
the lightning strike .

Viscous remanent magnetization is produced by a long exposure to an external field. It grows


with a logarithm of time. It is common for all rock types, the direction is usually close to the
direction of present magnetic field, is quite stable and an amplitude could be up to 80% of the
induced magnetization .

Dynamic remanent magnetization is created when a rock is exposed to variate pressures


within a magnetic field. The pressures could be of various types ranging from tectonic or
seismic pressures up to hammer strikes.

Solution 2d)
Magnetic field data has a dipolar change unlike the gravity field data, apart from that, some of the
crucial factors required are:

Magne�c Survey Land

The operator must:


• record the time at which readings were taken, for drift correction,
• stay away from interfering objects, e.g., wire fences, railway lines, roads,
• not carry metal objects e.g., mobile phones, and
• take multiple readings at each station to check for repeatability .

Reduction of the observations is much simpler than for gravity :

1. The diurnal correction


This may be up to 100 γ. Observatory data may be used if the observatory is within about 100 km and no
major magnetic bodies occur in between, which might cause phase shifts in the temporal magnetic
variations. A magnetic storm renders the data useless.

2. Regional trends
These are corrected for in the same way as for gravity, i.e., a linear gradient or polynomial surface is fit to
regional values, and subtracted.

Another method is to subtract the predicted IGRF (International Geomagnetic Reference Field) which is a
mathematical description of the field due to the Earth’s core.
There are several such formulae to choose from, all based on empirical fits to observatory or satellite data.
The other corrections made to gravity readings are not necessary in magnetic surveys. In particular, small
elevation changes have a negligible effect on magnetic anomalies, and thus elevation-related corrections
are not needed for most surveys.

Thereby, making magnetic field data interpretations more difficult as compared to gravity field data.
Solution 3)

Flux Gate Magnetometer

• Uses electromagne�c induc�on concepts


• Two permeable coils are woundin opposi�on
opposite direc�ons
1. Coils driven with AC signal
2. Cores are driven to satura�on

• A secondary coil is wound around both cores:


1. Detects changes in magne�c field
2. In absence of external magne�c field, signals
in primary coils will cancel
3. In presence of external magne�c signal, one
primary coil will saturate before the other,
crea�ng an imbalance in magne�c field to be
detected via EM induc�on in secondary coil

• It may be aligned in different


direc�on

Flux Gate Magnetometer

Advantages
• Can make vector (direc�onal)
measurements
• Can record con�nuously

Disadvantages
• Sensi�ve to temperature
• Only measures field in direc�on
of coils.
• With good insula�on, 1nT
accuracy can be achieved (typical
accuracy 5 to 10nT)
Section-B

4. What is the primary difference between Wenner and Schlumberger array? Write down name
of the necessary equipment to conduct a resistivity survey. 5 + 5
Answers:
When doing resistivity sounding surveys, one of two survey types is most commonly used. For both of
these survey types, electrodes are distributed along a line, centred about a midpoint that is considered
the location of the sounding.

For a Wenner array, the two current electrodes (green or C1 and C2) and the two potential electrodes
(red or P1 and P2) are placed in line with each other, equidistant from one another, and centred on
some location as shown below.

Or

𝑉𝑉
Apparent resistivity is 𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐼𝐼

For a Schlumberger array, the two current electrodes (C1, C2 or green) and the two potential
electrodes (P1, P2 or red colour) are still placed in line with one another and centred on some
location, but the potential and current electrodes are not placed equidistant from one another.

𝜋𝜋𝐿𝐿2 ∆𝑉𝑉
𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎 ≈ 2𝑙𝑙 𝐼𝐼
Or

Necessary equipment lists are as follows:


(i) Current sources
(ii) Ammeter
(iii) Voltmeter
(iv) Electrodes
(v) Cables
(vi) Reel

5. Four types of curves are shown in the below figure. Name each of this curve type. What do
you able to infer about resistivity variations of consecutive multiple horizontal beds based on
crude interpretation technique? 2 + 5
Answers:
Name of the curve types are shown in the below diagram (Top left – Type H, Top right – Type K;
Bottom left – Type A; Bottom right – Type Q):
Types H and K have a definite minimum and maximum, indicating a bed, or beds, of anomalously low
or high resistivity, respectively, at intermediate depth. Types A and Q show fairly uniform change in
resistivity, the first increasing, the second decreasing with depth.

Although, in general, the characteristic sounding curves illustrated in Figure represent multiple layers,
in their crudest form they may be considered for two beds over a basement.

On this assumption each of the four sets has particular properties that may be roughly classified. For H-
and K-type curves ρ1 > ρ2 < ρ3 and ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3, respectively, and we may be able to draw some
conclusions about the relative values of ρ1 and ρ3 if the spread has been extended sufficiently.

The A- and Q-type curves correspond to ρ1 < ρ2 < ρ3 and ρ1 > ρ2 > ρ3, respectively. Some idea of
the relative bed thicknesses may be obtained from the horizontal extent of the maxima and minima as
well as the flanking portions in all cases.

6. Compute apparent resistivity of a two-layer horizontal beds using Schlumberger expanding


array for a range of current electrode spacing of 10, 20, 40, 80, 120, 240, 480, 960 m, potential
electrode spacing of 2m and ∆V/I ratio of 10 and then plot apparent resistivity (ρa) with half-
electrode spacing. What do you able to comment about the depth of the upper bed and two-
layer resistivities from the plot. 6 + 4

Answers:
Using the given formula (L = half current electrode spacing (AB/2), l = half potential electrode
spacing= 1 m, ∆V/I = 10), apparent resistivity is calculated for a Schlumberger expanding array

2L L Apparent resistivity
10 5 785.3981634
20 10 3141.592654
40 20 12566.37061
80 40 50265.48246
120 60 113097.3355
240 120 452389.3421
480 240 1809557.368
960 480 7238229.474

When we plot the datasets, it looks like below where x-axis is plotted in log scale to help in
interpretation. We know that for small electrode spacings the apparent resistivity should approximate
the resistivity of the top layer. As the electrode spacing increases, the apparent resistivity should
approach the resistivity of the halfspace. These are the features that are shown in the plot.
Schlumberger array
8000000
Apparent resistivity (ohm.m)

6000000

4000000

2000000

0
1 10 100 1000
Electrode spacing (L in m) in log scale

For two-layer horizontal beds, the above curve gives the upper layer resistivity at small spacing, but it
is not so clear what the value of second layer may be. Point of inflection is close to 100 m which can
be approximated as the depth of the top layer.
OR
Which type of resistivity survey is suitable for identifying dyke structure? What are the primary sources
of noise of a resistivity survey? Compute formation resistivity of subsurface rock filled with water
having water resistivity of 0.10 ohm-m consisting of porosity ϕ= 0.20 and empirical constants of a=1,
m=n=2. Why do we not able to measure earth resistivity by using only two current electrodes?
2 + 4+ 2 + 2
Answers:
Dyke mostly appears as near-vertical to vertical structure cutting through horizontal beds. To identify
this kind structure, resistivity profiling is required.

There are a number of sources of noise that can affect our measurements of voltage and current from
which we will compute apparent resistivities.

• Electrode Polarization
• Telluric Currents
• Presence of Nearby Conductors
• Low Resistivity at the Near Surface
• Near-Electrode Geology and Topography
• Current Induction in Measurement Cables

Subsurface rock filled with water indicates saturation S=1. Other empirical constants are a= 1,
m=n=2. Therefore, the equation becomes,

𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 = 𝜑𝜑2

Inserting value of water resistivity ρw = 0.1 ohm-m and porosity = 0.20, formation resistivity ρe is 2.5
ohm-m.
In practice, however, it is difficult to obtain reliable information from two current electrodes because
what we measure is more a function of the contact resistance between the earth and the current
electrodes than of the resistivity of the Earth. The contact resistance is the resistance that is encountered
by current flow because the electrode does not make perfect electrical contact with the earth. Contact
resistances can be quite large, on the order of kilo-ohms (10^3 ohms). If a large (infinite) impedance
voltmeter is used, however, to make the voltage measurement across two separate voltage electrodes,
little current actually flows through the voltage electrodes and contact resistance is unimportant to the
measurement.

7. Estimate SP magnitude of an inclined buried polarized rod having length of 40 m at 10 m depth


and dip angle 30 deg with 5 m station spacing. Assume charge value q = 1. If dip angle is
reduced to 10 deg, compute percentage of SP amplitude change? Discuss the correction method
of raw SP data before interpretation. 3+2+3

Answers:
After inserting relevant values, the SP magnitude for 30 deg buried inclined polarized rod is 0.0657 V.
When dip is changed to 10 deg, SP magnitude is 0.0633 V.
Percentage of error value is 3.6 %

After completion of a SP survey, all of the SP values of the interconnected profiles are corrected through
several steps that will connect the whole data set to a unique reference station, which is set to 0 mV.
This process requires two consecutive corrections of the raw SP data: (1) the reference correction and
(2) the closure (or loop, or drift) correction.
The reference correction is applied to connect all of the sections of a single SP profile together. It must
be applied for each SP profile, section by section, to connect each section to the end of the previous
one. Only the first section will remain unchanged, whereas the others will be corrected section by
section along the direction in which the measurements were acquired.
Closure correction: In the case of a closed profile, the first point is geographically the same as the
last one: The measured SP value should theoretically be the same as the well. This would be true if no
environmental perturbations occurred within the time span when the first and last measurements were
made. However, during a survey, the measurement conditions can change (e.g., rain events inducing
variations in the soil moisture, the soil temperature, instrument error such as the progressive increase
of potential between the two electrodes themselves, etc.); consequently, a drift in the measurements will
be observed.
The closure correction is SPc = SPr – (D/N)*n where SPc is the SP value after the closure correction,
SPr is the SP value after the reference correction, D is the observed drift, N is the total number of data
points in the profile excluding the reference, and n is the place of the data point in the profile,
determining, together with D and N, the correction factor.
Section-C

8.
a.
h = 10km; The critical distance, in this case, is given by,

Marks distribution: Correct answer with diagram – 5; Only evaluation without diagram – 4; Part
derivation – 2 to 3; only diagram – 1; wrong answer – 0.

b. For a focus at depth h = H/2, the travel times of the critically refracted (t3) rays and the critical
distance are given by the expressions,
Marks distribution: Correct answer with diagram – 5; Only evaluation without diagram – 4; Part
derivation – 2 to 3; only diagram – 1; wrong answer – 0.

9.

Vibroseis does not use explosions; it uses a vibrator shaking the surface of the ground.
With
Vibroseis, seismic exploration can be conducted along roads, past buildings, and even through
towns. The value of this technique is enormous. In some places we can obtain seismic results
where they were impossible before; in others we can obtain them at less cost. It is true that there
are also some disadvantages, and that we have to make an intelligent choice - whether to use
Vibroseis or not - according to the circumstances. But the choice is often Vibroseis; on a
worldwide basis, two-fifths of land work now uses this method.
A hydraulic vibrator is programmed to vibrate a sinusoidal wave signal of continuously varying
frequency over a time called sweep and the data is recorded for a length of time called listening
time. The sweep signal is modified by the reflection coefficients to generate uncorrelated
vibroseis trace. Autocorrelation of this sweep produces a 40 ms wavelet. The electronic sweep
signal is stored in correlator unit (pilot trace). This sweep is then cross-correlated with the
recorded field data to recover seismic reflections.
Vibroseis is the most common non-explosive source used for reflection surveying. It uses truck-
mounted vibrators to pass into the ground an extended vibration of low amplitude and
continuously varying frequency, known as a sweep signal. A typical sweep signal lasts from
several seconds up to a few tens of seconds and varies progressively in frequency between
limits of about 10 and 80 Hz. The field recordings consist of overlapping reflected wave trains
of very low amplitude concealed in the ambient seismic noise. . In order both to increase the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and to shorten the pulse length, each recorded seismogram is
crosscorrelated with the known sweep signal to produce a correlated seismogram or
correlogram.

The three main components of the Vibroseis system are:


• a black box to generate the sweep,
• a vibrator to emit the sweep into the earth, and
• a white box to compress the long sweep into a short reflection pulse.
The main parts of the geophone are:
• the moving mass, made up by the coil and the "former" on which it is wound.
• the coil suspension, usually two at springs, one at the top and one at the bottom, to avoid
lateral displacement of the coil.
• the case, with the magnet and polar pieces inside a cylindrical container which protects
the other elements against dust and humidity.

a. Moving Coil Geophone


b. Moving Magnet Geophone
Marks distribution: Consider all correct points – 3 & 2; part marking – 1/1; wrong answer – 0
10.

Marks distribution: Correct answer with diagram – 5; Only evaluation without diagram – 4; Part
derivation – 2 to 3; only diagram – 1; wrong answer – 0.
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logs show the permeability of the rocks in the well by calculating the electrical
currents generated between the drilling fluids and formation water held in the pore spaces. SP is used many
times to determine between shale and sandstone.

• Good indicator of water salinity, understand of Rw


• Two different concentrations of Nacl solution and migration of higher concentration to lower
concentration
• Na+ and Cl- cations and anions: Na+ heavy and Cl- lighter and speeds are different
• The current flows from weaker solution to stronger solution
• The effect is known as liquid junction effect
• Most borehole mud filtrate weaker solution
• Electric potential between solution is known as liquid junction potential (Eij)
• Greater contrast of salinity between mud filtrate and formation water, Eij will be larger
• Battery effect due to molecular concentration of shale bed
• Clay surface exchange of surface where cations “cling”temporary
• This surface conductance affects the conductivity of shaly sands
• As a result, shale is more permeable for Na+ cations than Cl- anions and shale acts as ionic sieve
• Na+ cations manage to penetrate in the shale bed from saline formation water to less saline mud column
• Due to this another potential is created that is called membrane potential (Em)

Membrane Potential SP

liquid junction effect

Marks distribution: Correct answer with diagram – 5; Only evaluation without diagram – 4; Part
derivation – 2 to 3; only diagram – 1; wrong answer – 0.

You might also like