Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

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Sensors International
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Study and overview of the novel corona virus disease (COVID-19)

Krishna Mohan Agarwal a, Swati Mohapatra b, Prairit Sharma a, Shreya Sharma c,
Dinesh Bhatia d, *, Animesh Mishra e
a
Mechanical Engineering Department, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
b
Department of Microbial Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
c
Department of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, 201301, India
d
Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Eastern Hill University, Shillong, 793022, Meghalaya, India
e
Department of Cardiology, North Eastern Indira Gandhi Regional Institute of Health and Medical Sciences, Shillong, 793018, Meghalaya, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In December 2019, a new disease with pneumonia-like symptoms was spreading throughout Wuhan in China
COVID-19 which was entitled as novel coronavirus disease or COVID -19 caused by the virus SARS CoV-2. Within a span of a
Coronavirus few days, this disease became a global threat and was termed as a pandemic by the World Health Organization
Epidemiology
(WHO) on March 11, 2020, since then the disease has affected more than 1.5 crore people worldwide and around
Wuhan
6.9 lakh people in India as of July 5, 2020. The origin of the COVID-19 disease has been traced back to the bats,
but the intermediary contact is unknown. The disease spreads by respiratory droplets and contaminated surfaces.
In most cases, the virus shows mild symptoms like fever, fatigue, dyspnea, cough, etc. which may become severe if
appropriate precautions are not adhered to. For people with comorbidities (usually elderly) the disease may turn
deadly and cause pneumonia, Acute Respiratory Disease Syndrome (ARDS), and multi-organ failure, thereby
affecting a person's ability to breathe leading to being put on the ventilator support. The reproduction number
(Rℴ) of COVID-19 is much higher than its predecessors and genetically similar diseases like SARS-CoV and MERS-
CoV. This paper discusses the epidemiological characteristics of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, its phylogenetic rela-
tionship with the previous pandemic causing viruses such as SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV and analyzes the various
responses to this global pandemic worldwide, focusing on the actions taken by India and their outcomes.

1. Introduction 2020, there is no clinically approved antiviral drug treatment or vaccine

available to be used against COVID-19, however, in the month of July
The current global pandemic is caused by the “novel coronavirus 2020 certain organizations worldwide are claiming to be working on a
disease (2019-nCoV) or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 vaccine to treat the novel coronavirus. Drugs like Remdesivir (GS-5734)
(SARS-CoV-2) popularly known as COVID-19 disease” originated in the and Dexamethasone are being evaluated in late-stage clinical trials but
city of Wuhan in Hubei Province, China, during December in 2019. The have not been approved anywhere. The transmission of COVID-19 is
virus quickly spread throughout the world. Many countries reacted too confirmed to be through human to human interactions [21], the
late to implement preventive measures leading to a sudden upsurge in the maximum amount of viral load shedding is done by symptomatic car-
number of cases worldwide. Genomic analysis of the virus SARS-CoV-2 riers, however, there are confirmed cases of asymptomatic carriers also
was found to be phylogenetically similar to other bat originated coro- transmitting the disease [4].
naviruses like SARS-Cov-1 and MERS-CoV, thereby confirming that bats
are the primary reservoir of the virus, however, the intermediate source
of origin and its transfer to humans is not yet known [4,42]. As of July 5,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bhatiadinesh@rediffmail.com (D. Bhatia).

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100037
Received 7 July 2020; Received in revised form 2 September 2020; Accepted 2 September 2020
Available online 6 September 2020
2666-3511/© 2020 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 1. Timeline depicting the major events that lead to the declaration of COVID-19 as a Global Pandemic.

2. Epidemiology of the novel coronavirus 2020, shortly after this the lockdown was extended to other parts of
Hubei province. Flights were barred from China and screening of pas-
During December 2019 in Wuhan, the capital city of Hubei Province sengers with temperature monitors was started at airports. Soon local
China, strange cases of severe pneumonia had been identified and started transmission was observed in diversified countries outside of China [12,
spreading. Most of the initial cases found had a travel history to the 13,40] and it was found that asymptomatic carriers could also carry out
Hunan wholesale seafood market which also sold live animals. In China, load shedding of the virus following which almost all international travel
the intelligence system which was established after the SARS outbreak in came to a halt [4,10,11].
2003 was immediately alerted and samples of the patients were sent to
labs for aetiological inspection. This was followed by China notifying the 2.1. The structure of SARS -CoV- 2
world of an outbreak on December 31, 2019, subsequently, on January 1,
2020, the Hunan seafood market was sealed, on 7th January roughly a The size of coronaviruses ranges from 60 to 140 nm in diameter, its
week after China's notification of a possible outbreak the disease was linearly stranded and positive-sense RNA genome is quite large, ranging
confirmed to be the novel coronavirus disease or COVID-19 which has from 26 to 32 Kb in size [18,43]. These spherical or pleomorphic viruses
more than 95% homology with bat coronavirus and almost 70% simi- have envelopes that contain helical nucleocapsid of nucleoproteins(N)
larity to the SARS CoV-1 virus [8,43]. which is associated with the RNA genome. Embedded in the envelope is a
Environmental samples collected from the Hunan seafood market 2 nm trimer of spike glycoprotein (S) that facilitates the virus's attach-
were tested positive with traces of COVID-19, indicating it as the origin of ment to the receptor of host cells. Its envelopes also consist of integral
the virus [9,43]. In the ensuing days, more cases started to appear in membrane (M) and envelope (E) proteins. Coronaviruses that belong to
China, some of which with no travel history to the Hunan seafood mar- the genus Beta-coronavirus have additional membrane glycoprotein
ket, confirming that human to human transmission was taking place. The hemagglutinin esterase which forms 5–7 nm long spikes (N.J., et al.,
period of January being the month of Chinese New Year incited trans- 2019) these spike-like projections on its surface give it a crown-like
mission of the virus with people migrating within China as well as appearance under the electron microscope, hence the name coronavi-
internationally. Cases were reported from Thailand, South Korea, Japan rus [37]. The common cold which has a mild effect on our respiratory
and those infected had a travel history to Wuhan. To contain the spread, system is also a form of coronavirus.
the entire city of Wuhan was placed under lockdown on January 23,

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 2 1. A): Structure of the coronavirus [1].

Fig. 2 2A. The phylogenetic tree of representative Coronaviruses, with the new coronavirus, 2019-nCoV highlighted in red [5].

2.2. The phylogenetic relationship of the coronaviruses disease was referred to as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome).
The second instance was the MERS-CoV (Middle Eastern Respiratory
The crossover of animal beta coronaviruses with humans has resulted Syndrome coronavirus) in 2012, where a similar bat originated virus was
in severe life-threatening diseases in the past. The first case was wit- transmitted via an intermediary host the dromedary camels which
nessed in the years 2002–2003 when a new coronavirus whose origin emerged in Saudi Arabia [19,20]. (see Figs. 1 and 2.1)
was traced back to bats, crossed over with humans via an intermediary Whole Genome sequencing of the current coronavirus illustrates that
host “palm civet cats” in Guangdong Province, China [17,43]. The it belongs to the subfamily Coronavirinae in the family of Coronaviridae

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 2.3A. Reproduction Numbers for various coronaviruses Data Collected Fig. 2.3B. A comparison of total cases caused by different pandemic causing
from Ref. [20] (Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), coronaviruses as of July 5, 2020. Data Collected From Ref. [20,38] (Middle East
2020) [33]. respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), 2020).

of the order Nidovirales. This subfamily comprises of four genera

Alphacoronavirus, Betacoronavirus, Gammacoronavirus and
Deltacoronavirus(Fig. 2.2A). The phylogenetic analyses depict that the
SARS-CoV, MERS, and SARS- CoV-2 all belong to the same genus of
Betacoronavirus [5].
SARS-CoV-2 showcases a similar genomic structure to other beta-
coronaviruses. As per the data available in the research domain resem-
bling other coronaviruses, its genome has 14 open reading frames (ORF)
which code for 27 proteins. The ORF1 and ORF 2 are present at the 50
terminal of the genome and codes for 15 non-structural proteins that are
considered essential for virus replication [30,47] It's 30 terminal of the
genome codes for various structural proteins like the spike protein (S)
that give it a unique structure, the envelope protein (E), membrane
protein (M) and nucleocapsid (N), this region also has additional codons
for certain accessory proteins [30,47].
Sequence analysis conducted by researchers depicts that the SARS-
CoV- 2 virus has a typical genome structure of the Coronaviruses and
belongs to the cluster of beta-coronaviruses which includes Bat-SARS-like
(SL)-ZC45, Bat-SL ZXC21, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV. Based on the
phylogenetic tree of Coronaviruses, 2019-nCoV is more closely related to
bat-SL-CoV ZC45 and bat-SL-CoV ZXC21 (isolated from horseshoe bats in
China in the year 2015–2018) and is more distantly related to SARS-CoV
and that they belong to a different clade from MERS-CoV, as evident from
Fig. 2.3C. Case Fatality Rates for different coronaviruses Data collected from
the phylogenetic tree in the (Fig. 2.2A) [5,33].
[20,33].
This explains that the SARS-CoV- 2 although from the same genus of
SARS and MERS has a different viral evolution from them, involving bats
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) was 8 days [4].
as a wild reservoir [35].
The transmission of COVID-19 occurs mainly through respiratory
droplets generated during coughing and sneezing mostly by symptomatic
2.3. Pathogenicity and transmissibility of Covid-19 and other patients however, studies suggest that asymptomatic patients also
coronaviruses possess the ability to transmit the virus [4]. The highest amount of viral
load is found in the nasal cavity as compared to the throat [48]. These
Genomic analysis of the various beta-coronavirus suggests that the respiratory droplets may spread from 1 m to 2 m and get deposited on
human cell receptor source used to enter a host cell is the same in the various surfaces, where they can remain viable for days. Infection is ac-
SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV is called angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 quired either by inhalation of droplets or touching a contaminated sur-
(ACE2), whereas the human cell receptor used by the MERS-CoV is face and then touching the nose, mouth, or eyes. There is currently no
dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) [35]. evidence of transplacental transmission nonetheless neonatal disease due
The SARS-CoV-2 virus binds to the angiotensin receptor 2 or ACE2 to postnatal transmission is elucidated [28]. Traces of viral load have
receptor found in the respiratory tract. The Basic Case Reproduction rate been found in the stool of infected patients where the virus can be alive
or BCR ranges within 2–6.47 which suggests that one person can infect 2 until 30 days. It has been also suggested contamination of sewage water
to 6 people [6].The incubation period for this virus ranges from 2 days to and subsequent transmission due to aerosolization or fecal-oral route
14 days with an average of 5 days for the onset of symptoms [27]. The [43].
average period from the commencement of symptoms to the state of COVID-19 and the other deadly beta-coronaviruses are phylogeneti-
breathlessness was 5 days, the need for hospitalization was 7 days and cally similar but their effects on the population are different in terms of

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 2.4A. A Visual Representation of a cohort of >44,000 patients in China and

their varying illness severity. Source: (Interim Clinical Guidance for Manage-
ment of Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19), 2020).

Fig. 2 3D. This Graph depicts the viability of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in different
mediums and surfaces. Table 1
Table comparing Underlying health conditions with CFR, having comor-
bidities puts patients at risk of death due to COVID-19. Source: (Interim
their reproduction number (R∘ ) and fatality rate (See Figs. 2.3A, 2.3B and
Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Corona-
2.3C) virus Disease (COVID-19), 2020).
From the above data, we can infer that the R∘ of COVID-19 is much
Underlying Health Condition Case Fatality Rate
higher than that of SARS or MERS, hence the total number of cases is also
exponentially higher than those of other similar viruses. On the other Cardiovascular Disease 10.5%
Diabetes 7.3%
hand, SARS and MERS are much deadlier than COVID-19 with their fa-
Chronic Respiratory Disease 6%
tality rates at 9.5% and 35%, respectively. A greater number of people Hypertension 6%
succumbed to the virus with the ratio of those infected. Cancer 6%
Other than the varying R∘ and fatality rate the three viruses are quite
similar in their mode of transmission and general effect on the health of
an individual suffering from these diseases. All three diseases had bats as ARDS is a type of respiratory failure mainly defined by the onset of
their primary reservoir and were crossed with humans via an interme- inflammation in the lungs especially in the alveoli that helps in gas ex-
diary host (which is not yet confirmed in the case of COVID-19). The change and maintains the stability of the flow and surface tension of the
disease is transmitted by human to human contact, generally through lungs. In the case of COVID-19, an extreme rise in inflammatory cyto-
respiratory droplets. The viruses cause ARDS (Acute Respiratory Disease kines, monocytes, neutrophils, etc. leads to vasodilation [43] which leads
Syndrome) in their worst cases forcing the patient to be put on ventilators to the symptoms including shortness of breath, rapid breathing, and
to aid in their breathing. bluish skin coloration. (Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of
According to a research which tested the viruses viability in different Patients with Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19), 2020) Pa-
mediums and surfaces such as aerosol, stainless steel, copper, and card- tients with ARDS are prescribed to be put on mechanical ventilators to
board providing essential information that these surfaces can be easily aid in their breathing, therefore, the exponential rise in cases has led to
disinfected within a minute using certain chemicals like sodium hypo- an increase in the demand of such ventilators.
chlorite, 70–90% ethanol and or hydrogen peroxide (Fig. 2.3D) [16].). From (Fig. 2.4A) it is evident that most patients exhibit mild severity
of illness (81%) and only (5%) exhibit critical severity of illness, from this
study it was also found that the case fatality rate stood at 2–3% and most
2.4. Symptoms and effects of COVID-19 deaths (49%) occurred in patients with critical illness severity.
Amongst the most affected by SARS-CoV-2 are the people with un-
An infected COVID-19 patient can have two major states of infection, derlying medical conditions like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, res-
the asymptomatic state, and the symptomatic state. The symptomatic piratory diseases, hypertension, and cancer. Age is another strong risk
stage can develop into Acute Respiratory Disease Syndrome (ARDS) then factor for severe illness, complications, and death. The graph below de-
raising infection can lead to multi-organ failure which can be fatal to the picts that the older an individual is, the higher is the case fatality rate
patient. An asymptomatic patient does not exhibit any symptoms of the (CFR), The (Table 1) illustrates that certain health conditions lead to an
disease due to high immunity but is still capable of infecting others, this increased CFR.
state is extremely dangerous for the community and transmission of the
virus. It is impossible to identify an asymptomatic patient without con- 2.5. Prevention
ducting an RT-PCR (Real-time polymerase chain reaction) test which can
be difficult for a government institution to conduct on a large scale and At the time of writing this paper, neither vaccine nor approved drug
limits its ability to identify the amount of spread of the virus in the treatment for COVID-19 is discovered, prevention of the disease is
community [4]. Symptomatic patients exhibit varying levels of severity therefore crucial to avoid the transmission. Although certain aspects of
of the disease, most patients display mild symptoms only like fever, the virus pose serious hindrances in prevention aspects, such as no onset
cough, sore throat, headache, myalgia or severe symptoms like ARDS or of symptoms until an average of 5 days during the 14 days incubation
organ failure (Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with period or in some cases no symptoms, while at the same time the patient
Confirmed Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19), 2020). is shedding viral load similar to the symptomatic patient and prolonged

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

duration of the illness and transmission even after clinical recovery. The test proceeds by converting the RNA of the virus to cDNA by a
Keeping these aspects in mind there some guidelines suggested by major process called “Reverse Transcription” [14].
institutes in a bid to prevent the spread of the virus. The RT-PCR targets the Orf1b (Open Reading Frame gene) and N
At the community, level to slow the spread initially avoid large (Viral Nucleocapsid) regions of the virus after its genome was decoded.
gatherings, defer non-essential travel for work or recreation, it is rec- (WHO) The N-gene assay gives the initial results and the Orf1b assay
ommended to wear masks whenever heading out of the house for confirms the diagnosis (frontier). RNA separated and isolated from the
essential work the mask need not be surgical like N95 a simple mask samples collected undergoes reverse transcription to form cDNA, which
made of cloth would suffice. Further covering of hands with disposable or is then amplified in Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction thermal
washable gloves would also stop the spread of the virus. Practice hand cycler. Probes consist of a reporter dye at 50 end of cDNA and quenching
hygiene frequently; washing hands with soap for a minimum of 20 s or dye at 30 end of the cDNA. The fluorescent signals produced by the re-
using an alcohol-based sanitizer with a minimum of 60% alcohol. Prac- porter dye are absorbed by the quencher dye, thus not emitting any
ticing social distancing by standing at least 6 feet apart from others and signals. It is during the process of amplification, the probes bonded to the
avoiding encountering people having fever, cough, or sneezing. Avoid templates are cut by the Taq enzyme which has a 5‘-3’ exonuclease ac-
touching your face or mouth with dirty hands. (Coronavirus disease tivity, this separates the reporter dye from the quencher generating
(COVID-19) advice for the public, 2020). fluorescent signals. The PCR instrument automatically draws a real-time
amplification curve based on the fluorescent signal change thus giving
2.6. The various diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2 the final quantitative detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus at the nucleic
acid level. (COVID-19 Coronavirus Real-Time PCR Kit, 2020). RT-PCR
The increase in diagnostic tests for the detection of the SARS CoV-2 can detect the virus in asymptomatic persons, the tests do give a false
virus is an important factor in controlling the spread of the virus. negative in about 30% of cases. Patients are, therefore, tested twice
Numerous patients who are impinged with viral infection are asymp- before being confirmed as non-infectious [14,32].
tomatic and the most recurrent carries of the virus, hence the major
contributors in spreading the disease. This makes the identification of (3) Point of Care Testing (POCT)
infected patients the foremost phase in battling the SARS- CoV-2.
Since this virus began spreading various studies have been conducted The Rapid Antigen Detecting Test is conducted on swabbed nasal
for the development of in vitro diagnostic tests (IVD). This paper focuses samples that detect antigens found on or within the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It
on the recent advancements in the field of development of diagnostic is used to quickly obtain a diagnostic result. In India, this test is con-
tests for COVID 19 [46]. ducted on people that fall under the three categories; First, in people
This viral infection can be identified using two different procedures portraying influenza-like symptoms in a healthcare setting and presumed
genetic and serological tests, the genetic tests easily detect viral cases that of having Covid-19 infection. Second, in asymptomatic patients who are
are active but cannot identify any former infections [15]. hospitalized or seeking hospitalization, and fall under the high-risk
groups; those undergoing chemotherapy, immunosuppressed patients
(1) Serological Tests including who are HIV positive, patients diagnosed with malignant dis-
ease, transplant patients, elderly patients (over age 65) with comorbid-
These tests are blood centered and help in ascertaining whether the ities. Third, in asymptomatic patients undergoing surgical/non-surgical
tested person has been exposed to an infection in the past. The antigens interferences such as elective/emergency surgical procedures like
present on the virus are recognized by the immune system of the infected neurosurgery, ENT surgery, dental procedures, and non-surgical in-
person as a foreign body which initiates the formation of specific anti- trusions like bronchoscopy and dialysis.
bodies against the antigen to aid in fighting the infection. Since SARS- According to USFDA positive results from antigen tests are highly
CoV-2 is a novel coronavirus the antibodies formed against this are accurate, but there is a higher chance of false negatives, so negative re-
specific and act as biological markers for the disease. These include tests sults do not rule out infection. Thus, the negative results from an antigen
like ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay), IFA (Immunofluo- test need to be confirmed with a PCR test before making treatment de-
rescence Assay), and Western Blotting [46]. cisions or to prevent the possible spread of the virus due to a false
Serological tests identify the existence of IgM and IgG antibodies negative. (M, 2020).
which act as specific biomarkers of the disease and can be detected using
various Immunoassay Techniques. The IgM antibodies can be detected (3) COVID-19: India's Response and its Effects:
10–30 days following the infection and the IgG antibodies can be
detected 20 days after the infection. The IgM antibodies are produced India had been lucky in the initial phase of the spread of the virus with
earlier than the IgG antibodies, but they perish after quite a few days, IgG only 3 cases being reported between 30th January and March 1, 2020 in
antibodies live for an extended period and protect against the virus. Kerala. The affected being students who had returned from Wuhan. They
These tests are explicitly advantageous in identifying people who pre- were successfully treated and discharged by 20th February [38]. India at
viously had the infection and have recovered from it [46]. the same time in a bid to prevent the virus infecting the local population
The serological tests provide quick results and are much cheaper in had from February 4, 2020 banned all inbound flights from China and
comparison to a genetic test. These serological tests are often paired with carried out the screening of passengers arriving from South East Asian
genetic tests such as RT-PCR to enhance the sensitivity of detection and countries (Govt bans airlines from boarding passengers from China to
to yield confirmatory results [46]. India, 2020). However, European countries were being allowed unre-
stricted travel until 2nd March. When two new cases were reported in
(2) Genetic Test (RT-PCR) Delhi [38] these were Indians who had recently been to Italy where
COVID-19 cases were on an exponential trajectory and what would later
The Reverse Transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the turn out to be one of the most severely affected European countries.
most extensively employed detection analysis for SARS-CoV-2. This test Subsequently, more cases started to appear most of which could be traced
requires nasal and throat swab which is used to directly detect the back to Italy as the origin, by the end of the week there were 48
presence of the virus rather than the antibodies [14]. COVID-19 confirmed cases in India. Following this many states in India
This test detects the virus's genetic material (RNA) which is present in started implementing preventive measures and ordered the closing of
the patient before the formation of antibodies or visibility of symptoms. schools and colleges, issued public advisories to prevent the spread. Till
With this test, one can detect the presence of the virus at an early stage. March 24, 2020, most metropolitan states in India were under

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

opening up of restaurants, malls, and salons, etc.) we saw a total of more

than 6.9 lac confirmed cases in India till July 5, 2020. Total deaths due to
COVID-19 stands at 19,707 [38].
We now assess the impact of the lockdown in India on the spread of
the virus during the period of 102 days of lockdown. This is reviewed
through the perspective of the fundamental ideas on imposing a
nationwide lockdown by the health officials who demanded a lockdown
as a necessary action against coronavirus.

1. To Flatten the curve so as not to overwhelm the Healthcare

infrastructure:

Flatten the curve is a statement used during healthcare emergencies,

its basic concept is to limit the spread of the virus such that at any given
time during a pandemic the total number of patients required to be
hospitalized is less than the maximum capacity of the state's health
infrastructure.
When compared to other countries India's doubling rate is a lot less
due to early implementation of the lockdown which has helped in
bringing down the doubling rate from an initial of five days to nearly
thirteen days. Currently, the rate of growth of confirmed cases is at 3.54%
[44] and the doubling rate is at 20.11 days [38]. The low doubling rate
Fig. 2.4B. A comparison of age group and CFR average CFR for all cases is has also kept the health infrastructure from reaching its maximum ca-
2.5%. Higher age translates to more risk of death due to COVID-19. Source: pacity thereby reducing potential deaths. This is evident from the fact
(Interim Clinical Guidance for Management of Patients with Confirmed Coro-
that on July 5, 2020 India has 3rd highest number of confirmed cases, yet
navirus Disease (COVID-19), 2020).
the total deaths stand at 19,700. Countries like Spain and Italy have much
less confirmed cases, yet their death figures are at 28,385 and 34,861,
lockdown-barring public gatherings, malls, movie halls, restaurants, and respectively [38]. Thus in India, early implementation and stringency of
limited public transport. On 25th March, the Government of India lockdown have played a significant role in reducing total deaths due to
implemented a nationwide lockdown to contain the spread. (Annexure to COVID-19.
Ministry of Home Affairs Order No: 40–3/2020-D, 2020) (See Figs. 2.4B
and 3A) 2. To reduce the number of new cases emerging daily and the number of
Following the guidelines from major health institutions and after a active cases.
week of exponential growth in the number of cases, the Government of
India on 25th March imposed a lockdown barring all non-essential work This measure is an indicator of the effectiveness of lockdown in
and started what is now known as one of the most stringent lockdowns containing the virus. It helps assessors realize if the peak number of cases
[34](See Fig. 3B). At the beginning of the lockdown, there were a total of has been achieved by looking at the growth rate of daily new cases; a
519 confirmed cases in India and after 67 days of a stringent lockdown, negative growth rate means peak has been achieved [22,23].
we saw 1.9 lac confirmed cases. Subsequently, after 35 days of Unlock Even after the 102 days of the lockdown, at present, this negative
(the name given to a much more relaxed lockdown which allowed

Fig. 3A. Timeline depicting the major events regarding the COVID-19 pandemic in India that lead to the declaration of Nationwide Lockdown.

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 3B. A graph of government response to the pandemic depicting the level of stringency, 100 being the maximum amount, from March 25th to April 19th India had
the most stringent lockdown in the world. Source [38]. [34]

growth rate in daily confirmed cases has not been achieved except in Till 12th June, there were 958 dedicated COVID Hospitals with
smaller states like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh and big states like 1,67,883 isolation beds, 21,614 ICU beds, and 73,469 oxygen supported
Punjab and Kerala. But most big states; Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi, West beds. 2313 dedicated COVID Health Centers with 1,33,037 Isolation
Bengal, and Tamil Nadu are still reporting a growing number of daily beds, 10,748 ICU beds, and 46,635 oxygen supported beds. 7525 COVID
cases indicating that the worst is far from over. Care Centers with 7,10,642 beds Ventilators available for COVID beds -
However, the recovery rate of infected patients in India has been on 21,494. (India may run out of ICU beds for COVID-19 patients by July
the rise continuously and currently stands at 60.85% [45], and some end: Study, 2020). Since Unlock 1 was initiated on June 1, 2020 a sig-
states like Delhi have a recovery rate of nearly 72% [45]. A higher re- nificant rise in daily confirmed cases was seen, as expected. Early prep-
covery rate is an indicator of better healthcare facilities available. aration to increase the capacity of health infrastructure had ensured that
India could handle this surge [22,23,].
3. Containing the virus's spread and preventing its spread to newer
districts (4) COVID-19 Response Strategies by other Countries
1. New Zealand:
When the total number of districts with COVID-19 cases is limited,
resources like testing, sanitization, police and healthcare officials can be On February 3, 2020, after an individual in the Philippines became
concentrated at those districts to try and contain the virus and assist those the first person to die of COVID-19 outside China, New Zealand started
with serious illness however if the number of districts with cases surges, banning the entry of foreigners coming from or via China. Any New
it translates to the distribution of these resources which in turn results in Zealander returning from China had to isolate for 14 days [25]. At this
the rise of cases and the extent of virus spread becomes difficult to assess point, there were no reported cases in New Zealand. Gradually as the
as well as contain without increasing the testing capacity (See Fig. 3 D). It virus spread flight bans were extended to Iran which became the place of
shows that the number of districts without COVID-19 cases dropped origin for New Zealand's first case. Restrictions were also placed on
significantly even after more than 3 weeks of lockdown, the main reason people arriving from Italy, The Republic of Korea. From March 16, 2020,
for such trends could have been the lack of testing in rural districts as well everyone coming to New Zealand - had to go into self-isolation upon
as the exodus of migrants from urban to rural neighborhoods who could arrival, this rule was exempted for people coming from largely unaffected
have been carriers of the virus, indicating a much wider spread of the Pacific island nations [25]. Then on 19th March New Zealand completely
disease in urban neighborhoods [29,31]. banned the entry of non-residents or non-citizens. Late March, in a bid to
prepare the citizens for a continuously changing situation, New Zealand
4. Use this lockdown to boost the healthcare system's capacity. introduced a new four-stage alert system. Which was based on existing
wildfire alerts, it would indicate the current risk and the necessary social
The lockdown period acts as a pause button on cases requiring urgent distancing measures. At the start, the system was at level two, but on 25th
medical attention this period can be used to ramp up the infrastructure of March it had risen to level four which triggered a complete nationwide
hospitals so that when the lockdown is lifted and cases rise medical lockdown, with only essential services running and everyone is advised
attention could be given to every serious case thus aiding in preventing to remain at home [25,36]. At that time New Zealand had recorded only
potential deaths. Till 15th May, India had made available 970 COVID 102 cases and no deaths. During the lockdown, strategies were made to
only hospitals for critical patients along with 2300 COVID-19 health finesse an in-depth testing and contact tracing operation of all new
centers for patients with moderate illness, and 645,000 or (0.65 million) COVID-19 cases. As a result, New Zealand was able to do nearly 10,000
isolation beds for suspected cases and patients [26]. tests daily which was quite enough for their population. On 8th June, The

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 3C. Graph illustrating a comparison between the total confirmed cases and the daily new confirmed cases in India. Source [38]

Prime Minister of New Zealand announced that no new community lockdown, 2020). As of 5th July, the UK has 2,86,141 cases and 40,613
transmissions had been recorded for the past 17 days and all affected deaths [38].
patients had fully recovered. The lockdown was lifted, and way of life is
now almost entirely back to normal in New Zealand, with some social 3. Sweden:
distancing [25].
As most countries chose to impose lockdowns to revert the spread of
2. United Kingdom: the COVID-19 disease, Sweden took the high road by deliberately
choosing an alternative path of self-imposed social precautions without
On 31st January 2020 the UK received its first case of COVID-19 [2], the state decree. At a time when countries were limiting the movements
unlike most countries the spread in the UK was fast with the first wave of of their citizens with mandatory lockdowns. Sweden kept flights opera-
infections. It wasn't until 6th February when the 3rd COVID case was tional, did not seal national borders, no nationwide emergency was
detected in the UK [3] that the government decide to place people announced, no stay-at-home directives were issued, and offices func-
coming from South-East Asian Nations under a 14-day mandatory tioned normally while work from home was endorsed. Almost everything
quarantine (COVID-19: guidance for staff in the transport sector, 2020). from grade schools, hair salons, shopping malls to public transport,
In-fact the UK never completely sealed their borders during this Movie Halls, libraries, restaurants, and cafes continued to remain open.
pandemic although it had made it mandatory for all incoming populace The government of Sweden advocated social distancing norms along with
to self-quarantine for 14 days. By March 12, 2020, there were 590 citizens above 70 years of age is advised to stay at home. It also
confirmed COVID cases in the UK [38,39], it was on this day that the UK encouraged people to work from home as much as possible and abstain
published its first advisory for their citizens asking people with cough from any avoidable international travel or long-distance road travel in
and fever to self-isolate for 7 days. Schools were asked to cancel trips the country. The police had no orders to stop and inquire or penalize
abroad and people above the age of 70 were advised to avoid cruises citizens even if some of them were found in violation of the advisories
(Coronavirus: People with fever or 'continuous' cough told to self-isolate, and restrictions. Result Sweden reported its first case on 15th February.
2020). With no respite in-site, the UK again updated its advisory on 16th Approximately after a month, Sweden had 1040 cases and three deaths
March which recommended citizens to avoid non-essential travel and due to the virus. From recorded data, it is revealed that the confirmed
contact with others. Citizens were also recommended to avoid Pubs, cases took 7–9 days to double initially. As the days progressed the
Clubs, and theatres and try to work from home as much as possible. doubling rate increased to 15 days and then a month, this indicated that
(Coronavirus: PM says everyone should avoid office, pubs and travel, Sweden was in-fact successful in slowing down the spread of the virus. A
2020) On 23rd March Restrictions were placed on citizens with 3 weeks similar case was seen with the doubling rate of deaths, after reaching
of lockdown. All non-essential activities were suspended, only essential 1203 deaths on 8th April, deaths doubled in 15 days and subsequently
work-related travel was allowed everyone was advised to stay at home more than a month [24]. The death count as of 5th July reveals that the
unless there was an emergency. (Police can issue ‘unlimited fines' to those doubling rate of death has slowed even further [38]. A reason for such a
flouting coronavirus social distancing rules, says Health Secretary, 2020) bold policy by Sweden might have been its trust in Sweden's health ar-
At that point, the UK had approximately 8000þ cases [38]. The Lock- chitecture which despite having an extremely high number of cases, was
down was further extended until 8th April and continued until the 1st of never overwhelmed by the disease, unlike what Italy faced. It was noted
June. After 1st June, some relaxations in the lockdown were introduced, that despite the high case count, nearly 20% of all ICU beds remained
allowing some non-essential retail shops to open and primary schools to vacant [24]. Sweden's massive investment in its health architecture over
re-open as well although with mandatory social distancing norms the past years has made the system one of the finest, and it has returned
(COVID-19: Non-essential shops to open from June 15 as the UK eases the reward in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. However, a high number

9
K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 3D. Two graphs comparing data of three countries; India, Spain, and Italy. The first graph compares the total confirmed cases of the three countries, India having
a significantly higher number. The second graph compares total deaths due to COVID-19, here we see India has a reduced amount of deaths. From Our World in
Data [38].

of old-age deaths have become a big concern. On 24th June, the most 4. United States of America:
recorded deaths in Sweden lied in the 80–90 years age group at 2157,
which was followed by 1331 deaths in the 90 years and above age group On 20th January 2020 the very first case of COVID-19 was recorded
and 1141 deaths in the 70–79 years age group [24,41]. This illustrates in the USA [7]. Following this, the government placed travel restrictions
the fact that the elderly had to bear the brunt of the disease. Although on people coming from China with 14-day mandatory quarantine for US
Sweden was able to slow the spread of the virus, it still had a very high citizens traveling back and a complete ban on any foreign national
case fatality ratio, particularly among the elderly. A high number of coming through China. In Mid-March after weeks of continuous rise in
people who got infected died due to the disease as compared to other COVID cases in the US, many states gave orders for social distancing and
countries. mandatory lockdowns which included the closing of schools and
non-essential services. But the US version of the Lockdown was one of the

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 3E. This graph depicts the No. of districts without confirmed cases vs date [26].

Fig. 4A. Comparison of confirmed COVID-19 cases of countries including India, New Zealand, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The graph
highlights the high number of Cases in the USA and India in comparison to the lower number of cases in New Zealand. Source [38]

most lenient ones in terms of stringency index [34] USA government's 3. Conclusion
response to COVID-19 was also one of the slowest responses, which is
visible from the fact that the stringency index did not increase until 40 SARS-CoV-2 upon whole-genome sequencing analysis is 95% ho-
days since the first COVID case in the States. However, one should note mogenous to the bat coronavirus and almost 70% similar to the SARS-
that the Stringency Index does not signify the effectiveness of various CoV-1. It belongs to the genus β-coronavirus of the subfamily coronavir-
government responses. In June, like other countries, the USA also started inae. SARS CoV 2 is a respiratory pathogen which in its worst form of
relaxations in the Lockdown which saw an alarming rise in the daily illness causes ARDS and hampers the patient's ability to breathe on his
number of cases with a new record being set with a daily rise of 36,000 own and has to be put on Mechanical Ventilator Setup. In the past
cases in a day. The United States of America is the worst-hit country by months, ventilators have become a scarce resource with increased hos-
the pandemic with nearly 2.96 million Confirmed cases as of July 5, 2020 pitalization of patients with ARDS. Many countries and companies have
and 129,676 deaths [7,38] (see Figs. 3C, 3E, 4A, 4B and 4C). taken this increase in demand as a challenge to manufacture ventilators

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K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

Fig. 4B. Comparison of confirmed COVID-19 deaths of countries including India, New Zealand, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The
graph highlights the high number of deaths in the USA and the UK and comparatively low number of deaths in New Zealand and Sweden with the highlight being India
which has a much higher case count but a much fewer number of deaths than others. Source [38]

Fig. 4C. A graph showing a comparison between daily tests per million and daily confirmed cases per million and the corresponding Positivity Rate of countries
including India, New Zealand, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The graph shows India has the highest amount of positivity rate and New
Zealand has the lowest positivity rate. This highlights that the testing figures are quite low in India as compared to the size of the population whereas New Zealand has
the highest. Source [38]

in the fastest time possible with minimum resources, to aid in the war WHO declared COVID-19 a public health emergency on January 30th,
against COVID-19. When news broke out COVID-19 disease was infecting 2020. Some states did not act accordingly until the middle of March
people in China most states anticipated it to be an epidemic, even when when Italy had become the new hotspot of COVID-19. This lack of

12
K.M. Agarwal et al. Sensors International 1 (2020) 100037

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[26] S. Krishnan, S. Deo, S. Manurkar, 50 Days of Lockdown: Measuring India's Success
in Arresting COVID-19, Observer Research Foundation, New Delhi, 2020.
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The incubation period of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) from publicly
The authors have no interests to declare. reported confirmed cases: estimation and application, Ann. Intern. Med. (2020)
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dianexpress.com/article/explained/india-coronavirus-numbers-explained-four Shreya Sharma: pursued B. Tech in Biotechnology from Amity

-states-growing-faster-than-national-average-6489643/. University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India (2019). She completed
[45] J.S. Stalin, M. Banerjie, P. Kumar, R. Choudhury, Nearly 7 Lakh Coronavirus Cases her Major Project on the topic Heavy Metals Status of Water and
in India, 3rd Worst-Hit In World. From NDTV, 2020, July 06. https://www.ndtv.c Soil of Okhla Bird Sanctuary and Najafgarh Jheel under the
om/india-news/coronavirus-6-97-lakh-cases-in-india-so-far-19-693-death guidance of Assistant Professor Dr.Pamposh Bhat at the
s-60-85-recovery-rate-2257694. Department of Environment Management, Guru Gobind Singh
[46] A. Waquar, A.H. A, P.K. Singh, M. Bharti, A.B. Mohammed, J. Shamama, Indraprastha University, Dwarka, New Delhi, India (2019). She
S. Shahnaz, Recent advancements in the diagnosis, prevention, and prospective also worked upon Alanine Aminotransferase Enzyme Assay in
drug therapy of COVID-19, Front. Public Health (2020) 384. Contrasting Nitrogen Responsive Rice Genotypes under the
[47] A. Wu, Y. Peng, B. Huang, X. Ding, X. Wang, P. Niu, T. Jiang, Commentary genome guidance of Dean of School of Biotechnology Prof.N. Raghuram
composition and divergence of the novel (2019-nCoV) originating in China, Cell at Guru Gobind Indraprastha University, Dwarka, New Delhi,
Host Microbe (2020) 325–328. India (2018). A nature enthusiast with a green thumb her
[48] L. Zou, F. Ruan, M. Huang, L. Liang, H. Huang, Z. Hong, J. Wu, SARS-CoV-2 viral research interests lie in the field of Microbial Molecular
load in upper respiratory specimens of infected patients, N. Engl. J. Med. (2020) Biotechnology and its application in the field of Environmental
1177–1179. Biotechnology, Medical Biotechnology, she is also very enthu-
siastic about the growing importance of Bioinformatics and its
application in biological data analysis, Shreyasharma7942@
gmail.com
Krishna Mohan: Agarwal has done his B. Tech. in Mechanical
Engineering from KNIT, Sultanpur in 2000; M. Tech. in Energy
from IIT, Delhi in 2007; pursuing a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engi-
neering from Amity University, Noida, and MBA from Kuruk- Prairit Sharma: is currently a 4th year B. Tech (Mechanical
shetra University. He is working as the capacity of Assistant Engineering) student from Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pra-
Professor Grade III in Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, desh, India. His recent internship on the topic “Design of
India since August 2014. He has more than 18 years of teaching, Physical Structure of ICU Ventilators for COVID-19” with INXEE
research, and administrative experience. His broad research Systems Pvt. Ltd. led him to research more about COVID-19
area lies in the field of Materials & Design (Microstructure and when he felt the lack of a compiled holistic guide to the Novel
Mechanical Behavior of materials), Energy & Environment Coronavirus disease. Prairit during his engineering has
(Alternative Fuels for IC engines, Solar Energy), and Business & researched topics like “Aerodynamics of Formula One cars”
Management (Management Concepts and Human Resource (2018) and completed projects like “Prototype Construction of
Management), profkmagarwal@gmail.com an Arduino Controlled CNC Machine” (2019). His interests lie
mainly in Design, Manufacturing, Material Science, Fluid Me-
chanics, and Robotics. prairits@gmail.com

Dinesh Bhatia: pursued his Ph.D. in Biomechanics and Reha-

bilitation Engineering from MNNIT, Allahabad, India in 2010
with Bachelor's (2002) and Master's degree (2004) in Biomed-
ical Engineering from Mumbai University. He completed his Swati Mohapatra: obtained her master's degree in Applied
MBA (Dual Specialization) from IMT Ghaziabad in 2007. He is Microbiology from Kalinga Institute Industrial Technology,
currently working as an Associate Professor in the Department Bhubaneswar, and Ph.D. on the topic “Bio-prospecting and
of Biomedical Engineering, North Eastern Hill University characterization of polyhydroxyalkanoates from Bacillus sp.
(NEHU), Shillong, Meghalaya, India since August 2013. He was isolated from rhizospheric soil” from Odisha University of
selected for the “Young Scientist Award (BOYSCAST)" in Agriculture & Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India in 2012
(2011–12) by the Government of India to pursue research in and 2016 respectively. She is currently working as an Assistant
osteoarthritis (OA) for one year at Adaptive Neural Systems Professor in the Department of Microbial Technology, Amity
Laboratory, Biomedical Engineering Department, Florida In- University, Uttar-Pradesh, Noida. She has covered a wide area
ternational University, Miami, Florida, USA where he was of expatriation in the field of Microbiology and having more
leading a multidisciplinary team of researchers. He is also the than 6 years of teaching and research experience in the field of
recipient of the “INAE fellowship award” in 2011 by the Indian Microbiology and Biotechnology,
National Academy of Engineering. He was selected as one of the
twelve young Biomedical scientists by the Indian Council of
Medical Research (ICMR), Govt. of India to pursue a research
fellowship (2014–15) in the field of sensory prosthetics at the Her research work pertains to biopolymer & composite materials with its biomedical &
University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK. He has attended Biome- agricultural applications. Dr. Mohapatra Awarded with “Young Scientist”. She supervised
chanics and Human Gait training at Munich, Germany in March 06 P.G and 01 ongoing Ph.D. students. She has published 32 scientific publications
2017 and training of use of rTMS, EEG, and EMG equipment(s) including research, review & popular science articles in different journals of national &
in disabled children in Ivanovo, Russia in September 2017. He international repute and book chapters in different books.
delivered an Invited Talk on Gait and Osteoarthritis in Kuala
She is also the editor of the book ‘Environmental and Agricultural Microbiology: Ad-
Lumpur, Malaysia in August 2018. He has several research pa-
vances and Applications’ to be published by John Wiley & Sons and editorial board
pers in reputed journals, conferences, seminars, and symposia
member of ‘Journal of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry’.swatimohapatraiitr@
with teaching and research experience of more than seventeen
gmail.com
(17) years. He is an invited panel member of many professional
bodies, editorial boards, committees, societies, and forums. He
has worked on several funded projects from the Government of
India on physically challenged, disabled, paralyzed persons, Animesh Mishra: received his Post-Doctoral Degree DM Car-
environment and waste management and few projects are still diology from G.B.Pant Hospital and associated MAMC, New
ongoing. He authored a book titled “Medical Informatics” Delhi, Delhi University in 2004. His specific interests lie in the
published (2015) by PHI, “Current aspects in Stroke Rehabili- Interventional Cardiology, particularly Heart Failure Manage-
tation” (2016) by ABS Publishers, “Smart healthcare monitoring ment. He is currently a Professor in the Department of Cardi-
for disease diagnosis” (2020) by Elsevier, and two books on ECG ology, NEIGRIHMS, Shillong, Meghalaya, India with teaching
and EEG signal processing with Lambert Publishers, Germany and research experience of more than 23 years. He was the
(2019). He has published 06 books and 20 book chapters to date recipient of the Indian Society of Cardiology Fellowship (2011),
and supervised several UG, PG, and doctoral students. His and many other fellowships. He has several publications in
research focuses on understanding muscle mechanics, joint ki- reputed journals, books, and members of different Medical and
nematics, and dynamics involved in performing locomotion and professional bodies.
routine tasks and undermining its effects during an injury or
disease. His areas of interest are medical instrumentation,
biomechanics and rehabilitation engineering, medical infor-
matics, signal and image processing, marketing, international
business, and environmental sustainability., bhatiadi
nesh@rediffmail.com

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