Unit 2

AC Circuits
AC Circuits Basic Terms

Cycle :- The one full pattern from its positive half to its negative half and back to its zero baseline again is
called a Cycle and one complete cycle contains both a positive half-cycle and a negative half-cycle.

Periodic Time :- The time taken by the waveform to complete one full cycle is called the Periodic Time of the
waveform, and is given the symbol “T”.

Frequency :- The number of complete cycles that are produced within one second (cycles/second) is called
the Frequency, symbol ƒ of the alternating waveform. Frequency is measured in Hertz, ( Hz ).

Amplitude :- The amplitude of a sine wave is the maximum vertical distance reached, in either direction from
the centre line of the wave.

Average Value :- The AVERAGE value. This is normally taken to mean the average value of only half a cycle
of the wave. If the average of the full cycle was taken it would of course be zero, as in a sine wave symmetrical
about zero, there are equal excursions above and below the zero line.
VAVG = 0.637 x VMax

The RMS Value :- The RMS or ROOT MEAN SQUARED value is the value of the equivalent direct (non
varying) voltage or current which would provide the same energy to a circuit as the sine wave measured. That
is, if an AC sine wave has a RMS value of 240 volts, it will provide the same energy to a circuit as a DC supply
of 240 volts.
VRMS = 0.707 x VMax

Form Factor :- The ratio of the root mean square value to the average value of an alternating quantity (current
or voltage) is called Form Factor.

Peak Factor :- It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the R.M.S value of an alternating quantity.

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Impedance :- In electrical engineering, impedance is the opposition to alternating current presented by the
combined effect of resistance and reactance in a circuit.

Phase Angle :- The phase shift that exists between total voltage and total electric current is described by a
phase angle.

Power Factor :- The power factor is the ratio between the active power supplied and the apparent power in
any electrical network.

Mathematical and Phasor Representation

Nature of the Alternating Quantity :-

Nature of the Wave Form

In Phase Phase Shift Out of Phase

Mathematical and Phasor Representation :-

A phasor is a vector rotating at a constant angular velocity. The sinusoidal output voltage produced by the
simple generator can be represented by the phasor diagram. Figure shows a rotating vector (or phasor) with a
constant angular velocity and a length that represents the peak output voltage Em. The arrowhead identifies

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the end of the phasor that moves, and the other end is the axis of rotation. By convention, the direction of
phasor rotation is taken counterclockwise.

A phasor is a scaled line whose length represents an AC quantity that has both magnitude (peak amplitude)
and direction (phase) which is frozen at some point in time. A phasor diagram is used to show the phase
relationships between two or more sine waves having the same frequency. A phasor diagram is one in which
the phasors, represented by open arrows, rotate counterclockwise, with an angular frequency of ω about the
origin.

The phasors have the following properties :

● The length of a phasor is proportional to the maximum value of the alternating quantity involved.
● The projection of a phasor on the vertical axis gives the instantaneous value of the alternating quantity
involved.

Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor

A lagging power factor means the impedance in the A leading power factor means the impedance of the
circuit is inductive and causes the phase current to circuit is capacitive and causes the phase current to
lag the phase voltage. lead the phase voltage.

This means our phase current has a negative angle This means our phase current has a positive angle
when the phase voltage is at 0º when the phase voltage is at 0º.

AC Circuits Terms

Reactance :-

The motion of electrons constitutes the current generation in an electrical circuit and any inertia against this
motion of electrons constitutes reactance. It is primarily generated due to the element's inductance or
capacitance. In a magnetic field, it resists the change in the current of the element, whereas in an electric field
it resists the change in voltage of the element. It is mathematically represented by the letter X and has its unit

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of measurement in the form of the Greek symbol ohm. It is also known as the imaginary resistance of an
electrical circuit.

Total Reactance X is a combination of Inductive XL and capacitive XC.

X = XL + XC

Types of Reactance -
● Capacitive reactance (Ohms is the unit)
Where,
XC is the capacitive reactance
f is the frequency of AC power supply
C is the capacitance

● Inductive reactance (Ohms is the unit)

Where,
XL is the inductive reactance
L is the inductance of the inductor
f is the frequency of the alternating current

Impedance :-

Impedance is a combination of resistance and reactance. It is essentially anything and everything that
obstructs the flow of electrons within an electrical circuit. Hence, it affects the generation of current through the
electrical circuit. It is present in all the possible components of the circuit and across all possible electrical
circuits. Impedance is mathematically symbolised by the letter Z and has its unit as ohm. It is a superset of
both resistance and reactance combined.
Impedance Z is represented as a combination of resistance R and reactance X as:
Z=R+jX

Also

Star Delta Connections

Delta Star

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 Star to Delta Conversion :- Delta to Star Conversion :-

Power In AC Circuit

Active Power or Real Power (P) :-

Active power is often called real, actual, true, or useful power. In AC circuits, there is a phase angle between
voltage and current expressed with the added component of cosΦ. The active power is always positive and
does not change its direction, always flowing from source to load. Denoted by P and measured in watts (kW,
MW, GW). Measure using a wattmeter. Active power produces heat, mechanical power, and light..

Reactive Power (Q):-

Reactive power occurs in AC circuits when voltage and current are not in phase. Its unit is VAR (voltage
ampere reactive). In the real world, loads are a combination of resistive, inductive, and capacitive elements
and it is impossible to determine the nature of the load (small/large, domestic/industrial inductive/capacitive).

The power can be positive and negative. When the power is flowing from source to load then it's positive, and
when the power is flowing from load to source then it’s called negative power. In general, reactive power is
only defined for AC circuits and continuously bounces back and forth between source and load.

Changes its direction periodically and it is positive as well as negative. Donated by the letter “Q” and measured
in VAR, KVAR, MVAR. Measured using a VAR metre. Transformers and induction motors use reactive power
to produce a magnetic field.
.
Apparent Power (S):-

This power is the combination of active and reactive power and is expressed in volt-ampere or
kilovolt-amperes (kVA). In fact, most of the loads in our routine daily life (electric fan, electric iron, induction
motor) are a combination of resistive & inductive loads. The resistive load consumes active power and the

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inductive load consumes reactive power and the total power delivered by the source is the combination of
active & reactive power is called apparent power. Apparent is the sum of active and reactive power. Donated
by letter “S”. Measured in VA, kVA, and MVA.

Where S = Apparent Power measured in kVA, Q = Reactive Power in kVAR and P = Active Power in kW

Power Triangle :-

The relationship between powers can be represented in the form of vectors called the “Power Triangle”. The
active power is represented as horizontal whereas reactive power is shown as a vertical vector and the
apparent power connects the active and reactive vectors. If the angle “θ” between active and apparent power
increases, the reactive power increases.

Power Factor :-
The power factor is the ratio between the active power supplied and the apparent power in any electrical
network.

Quality Factor :-
IIt is defined as the ratio of energy stored per cycle to the energy dissipated per cycle.

Q = Pstored / Pdissipated

Q = X/R

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